Operating System Definition and Function

In the Computer System (comprises of Hardware and software), Hardware can only
understand machine code (in the form of 0 and 1) which doesn't make any sense to a
naive user.

An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and hardware. It is

responsible for the execution of all the processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management,
File Management, and many other tasks.

Structure of a Computer System

A Computer System consists of:

o Users (people who are using the computer)

o Application Programs (Compilers, Databases, Games, Video player, Browsers, etc.)
o System Programs (Shells, Editors, Compilers, etc.)
o Operating System ( A special program which acts as an interface between user and
hardware )
o Hardware ( CPU, Disks, Memory, etc)

What does an Operating system do?

1. Process Management
2. Process Synchronization
3. Memory Management
4. CPU Scheduling
5. File Management
6. Security
Types of Operating System

1. Batch Operating System

2. Time-Sharing Operating System

3. Embedded Operating System

4. Multiprogramming Operating System

5. Network Operating System

6. Distributed Operating System

7. Multiprocessing Operating System

8. Real-Time Operating System

Batch Operating System

In the 1970s, Batch processing was very popular. In this technique, similar types of jobs
were batched together and executed in time. People were used to having a single
computer which was called a mainframe.

In Batch operating system, access is given to more than one person; they submit their
respective jobs to the system for the execution.

The system put all of the jobs in a queue on the basis of first come first serve and then
executes the jobs one by one. The users collect their respective output when all the
jobs get executed.

The purpose of this operating system was mainly to transfer control from one job to
another as soon as the job was completed. It contained a small set of programs called
the resident monitor that always resided in one part of the main memory. The
remaining part is used for servicing jobs.
Multiprogramming Operating System
Multiprogramming is an extension to batch processing where the CPU is always kept
busy. Each process needs two types of system time: CPU time and IO time.

In a multiprogramming environment, when a process does its I/O, The CPU can start
the execution of other processes. Therefore, multiprogramming improves the
efficiency of the system.

Advantages of Multiprogramming OS
o Throughout the system, it increased as the CPU always had one program to execute.
o Response time can also be reduced.

Disadvantages of Multiprogramming OS
o Multiprogramming systems provide an environment in which various systems
resources are used efficiently, but they do not provide any user interaction with the
computer system.

Multiprocessing Operating System

In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. There are more than one
processors present in the system which can execute more than one process at the
same time. This will increase the throughput of the system.

In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. More than one processor present in the
system can execute more than one process simultaneously, which will increase the
throughput of the system.
In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. More than one processor present
in the system can execute more than one process simultaneously, which will increase
the throughput of the system.

Disadvantages of Multiprocessing operating System

o Multiprocessing operating system is more complex and sophisticated as it takes

care of multiple CPUs simultaneously.

Multitasking Operating System

The multitasking operating system is a logical extension of a multiprogramming

system that enables multiple programs simultaneously. It allows a user to perform
more than one computer task at the same time.

Advantages of Multitasking operating system

o This operating system is more suited to supporting multiple users simultaneously.
o The multitasking operating systems have well-defined memory management.
Disadvantages of Multitasking operating system
o The multiple processors are busier at the same time to complete any task in a
multitasking environment, so the CPU generates more heat.

Network Operating System

An Operating system, which includes software and associated protocols to

communicate with other computers via a network conveniently and cost-effectively, is
called Network Operating System.

Advantages of Network Operating System

o In this type of operating system, network traffic reduces due to the division between
clients and the server.
o This type of system is less expensive to set up and maintain.

Disadvantages of Network Operating System

o In this type of operating system, the failure of any node in a system affects the whole
system.
o Security and performance are important issues. So trained network administrators are
required for network administration.

Real Time Operating System

In Real-Time Systems, each job carries a certain deadline within which the job is
supposed to be completed, otherwise, the huge loss will be there, or even if the result
is produced, it will be completely useless.
The Application of a Real-Time system exists in the case of military applications, if you
want to drop a missile, then the missile is supposed to be dropped with a certain
precision.

Advantages of Real-time operating system:

o Easy to layout, develop and execute real-time applications under the real-time
operating system.
o In a Real-time operating system, the maximum utilization of devices and systems.

Disadvantages of Real-time operating system:

o Real-time operating systems are very costly to develop.
o Real-time operating systems are very complex and can consume critical CPU cycles.

Time-Sharing Operating System

In the Time Sharing operating system, computer resources are allocated in a time-
dependent fashion to several programs simultaneously. Thus it helps to provide a large
number of user's direct access to the main computer. It is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. In time-sharing, the CPU is switched among multiple programs
given by different users on a scheduled basis.
A time-sharing operating system allows many users to be served simultaneously, so
sophisticated CPU scheduling schemes and Input/output management are required.

Time-sharing operating systems are very difficult and expensive to build.

Advantages of Time Sharing Operating System

o The time-sharing operating system provides effective utilization and sharing of
resources.
o This system reduces CPU idle and response time.

Disadvantages of Time Sharing Operating System

o Data transmission rates are very high in comparison to other methods.
o Security and integrity of user programs loaded in memory and data need to be
maintained as many users access the system at the same time.

Distributed Operating System

The Distributed Operating system is not installed on a single machine, it is divided into
parts, and these parts are loaded on different machines. A part of the distributed
Operating system is installed on each machine to make their communication possible.
Distributed Operating systems are much more complex, large, and sophisticated than
Network operating systems because they also have to take care of varying networking
protocols.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

o The distributed operating system provides sharing of resources.
o This type of system is fault-tolerant.
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System
o Protocol overhead can dominate computation cost.

The evolution of operating system, Major achievements

Generations of Operating System
The First Generation (1940 to early 1950s)

When the first electronic computer was developed in 1940, it was created without any
operating system. In early times, users have full access to the computer machine and write a
program for each task in absolute machine language. The programmer can perform and solve
only simple mathematical calculations during the computer generation, and this calculation
does not require an operating system.

The Second Generation (1955 - 1965)

The first operating system (OS) was created in the early 1950s and was known as GMOS.
General Motors has developed OS for the IBM computer. The second-generation operating
system was based on a single stream batch processing system because it collects all similar
jobs in groups or batches and then submits the jobs to the operating system using a punch
card to complete all jobs in a machine. At each completion of jobs (either normally or
abnormally), control transfer to the operating system that is cleaned after completing one job
and then continues to read and initiates the next job in a punch card. After that, new machines
were called mainframes, which were very big and used by professional operators.

The Third Generation (1965 - 1980)

During the late 1960s, operating system designers were very capable of developing a new
operating system that could simultaneously perform multiple tasks in a single computer
program called multiprogramming. The introduction of multiprogramming plays a very
important role in developing operating systems that allow a CPU to be busy every time by
performing different tasks on a computer at the same time. During the third generation, there
was a new development of minicomputer's phenomenal growth starting in 1961 with the DEC
PDP-1. These PDP's leads to the creation of personal computers in the fourth generation.

The Fourth Generation (1980 - Present Day)

The fourth generation of operating systems is related to the development of the

personal computer. However, the personal computer is very similar to the
minicomputers that were developed in the third generation. The cost of a personal
computer was very high at that time; there were small fractions of minicomputers
costs. A major factor related to creating personal computers was the birth of
Microsoft and the Windows operating system. Microsoft created the
first window operating system in 1975. After introducing the Microsoft Windows OS,
Bill Gates and Paul Allen had the vision to take personal computers to the next level.
Therefore, they introduced the MS-DOS in 1981; however, it was very difficult for the
person to understand its cryptic commands. Today, Windows has become the most
popular and most commonly used operating system technology. And then, Windows
released various operating systems such as Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows XP
and the latest operating system, Windows 7. Currently, most Windows users use the
Windows 10 operating system. Besides the Windows operating system, Apple is
another popular operating system built in the 1980s, and this operating system was
developed by Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple. They named the operating system
Macintosh OS or Mac OS.

Multiprocessor and Multicore System in

Operating System
Multicore and multiprocessor systems both serve to accelerate the computing process.
A multicore contains multiple cores or processing units in a single CPU. A
multiprocessor is made up of several CPUs. A multicore processor does not need
complex configurations like a multiprocessor. In contrast, A multiprocessor is much
reliable and capable of running many programs. In this article, you will learn about the
Multiprocessor and Multicore system in the operating system with their advantages
and disadvantages.

What is a Multiprocessor System?

A multiprocessor has multiple CPUs or processors in the system. Multiple instructions
are executed simultaneously by these systems. As a result, throughput is increased. If
one CPU fails, the other processors will continue to work normally. So, multiprocessors
are more reliable.

Shared memory or distributed memory can be used in multiprocessor systems. Each

processor in a shared memory multiprocessor shares main memory and peripherals to
execute instructions concurrently. In these systems, all CPUs access the main memory
over the same bus. Most CPUs will be idle as the bus traffic increases. This type of
multiprocessor is also known as the symmetric multiprocessor. It provides a single
memory space for all processors.

Each CPU in a distributed memory multiprocessor has its own private memory. Each
processor can use local data to accomplish the computational tasks. The processor
may use the bus to communicate with other processors or access the main memory if
remote data is required.
Advantages and disadvantages of Multiprocessor System
There are various advantages and disadvantages of the multiprocessor system. Some
advantages and disadvantages of the multiprocessor system are as follows:

Advantages

There are various advantages of the multiprocessor system. Some advantages of the
multiprocessor system are as follows:

1. It is a very reliable system because multiple processors may share their work between the
systems, and the work is completed with collaboration.
2. It requires complex configuration.
3. Parallel processing is achieved via multiprocessing.
4. If multiple processors work at the same time, the throughput may increase.
5. Multiple processors execute the multiple processes a few times.

Disadvantages

There are various disadvantages of the multiprocessor system. Some disadvantages of the
multiprocessor system are as follows:

1. Multiprocessors work with different systems, so processors require memory space.

2. If one of the processors fails, the work is shared among the remaining processors.
3. These types of systems are very expensive.
4. If any processor is already utilizing an I/O device, additional processors may not utilize the
same I/O device that creates deadlock.
5. The operating system implementation is complicated because multiple processors
communicate with each other.

What is a Multicore System?

A single computing component with multiple cores (independent processing units) is known
as a multicore processor. It denotes the presence of a single CPU with several cores in the
system. Individually, these cores may read and run computer instructions. They work in such
a way that the computer system appears to have several processors, although they are cores,
not processors. These cores may execute normal processors instructions, including add, move
data, and branch.

A single processor in a multicore system may run many instructions simultaneously,

increasing the overall speed of the system's program execution. It decreases the amount of
heat generated by the CPU while enhancing the speed with which instructions are executed.
Multicore processors are used in various applications, including general-purpose, embedded,
network, and graphics processing (GPU).

The software techniques used to implement the cores in a multicore system are
responsible for the system's performance. The extra focus has been put on
developing software that may execute in parallel because you want to achieve
parallel execution with the help of many cores'

Advantages and disadvantages of Multicore System

There are various advantages and disadvantages of the multicore system. Some advantages
and disadvantages of the multicore system are as follows:

Advantages

There are various advantages of the multicore system. Some advantages of the multicore
system are as follows:

1. Multicore processors may execute more data than single-core processors.

2. When you are using multicore processors, the PCB requires less space.
3. It will have less traffic.
4. Multicores are often integrated into a single integrated circuit die or onto numerous dies but
packaged as a single chip. As a result, Cache Coherency is increased.
5. These systems are energy efficient because they provide increased performance while using
less energy.

Disadvantages

There are various disadvantages of the multicore system. Some disadvantages of the
multicore system are as follows:

Advantages and disadvantages of Multicore System

There are various advantages and disadvantages of the multicore system. Some advantages
and disadvantages of the multicore system are as follows:

Advantages

There are various advantages of the multicore system. Some advantages of the multicore
system are as follows:

1. Multicore processors may execute more data than single-core processors.

 2. When you are using multicore processors, the PCB requires less space.
3. It will have less traffic.
4. Multicores are often integrated into a single integrated circuit die or onto numerous dies but
packaged as a single chip. As a result, Cache Coherency is increased.
5. These systems are energy efficient because they provide increased performance while using
less energy.

Disadvantages

There are various disadvantages of the multicore system. Some disadvantages of the
multicore system are as follows:

Features Multiprocessors Multicore

Definition It is a system with multiple CPUs A multicore processor is a single

that allows processing programs processor that contains multiple
simultaneously. independent processing units known
as cores that may read and execute
program instructions.

Execution Multiprocessors run multiple The multicore executes a single

programs faster than a multicore program faster.
system.

Reliability It is more reliable than the It is not much reliable than the
multicore system. If one of any multiprocessors.
processors fails in the system, the
other processors will not be
affected.

Traffic It has high traffic than the It has less traffic than the
multicore system. multiprocessors.

Cost It is more expensive as compared These are cheaper than the

to a multicore system. multiprocessors system.

Configuration It requires complex configuration. It doesn't need to be configured.

PROCESS CONCEPT– Processes, PCB

Process
A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must
progress in a sequential fashion.
A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented
in the system.

To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we
execute this program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned
in the program.
When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be
divided into four sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a
simplified layout of a process inside main memory −

S.N. Component & Description

1
Stack
The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function parameters,
return address and local variables.

2
Heap
This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.

3
Text
This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter and
the contents of the processor's registers.
4
Data
This section contains the global and static variables.

Program
A program is a piece of code which may be a single line or millions of lines. A
computer program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming
language. For example, here is a simple program written in C programming language
−
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
}

A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when

executed by a computer. When we compare a program with a process, we can
conclude that a process is a dynamic instance of a computer program.
A part of a computer program that performs a well-defined task is known as
an algorithm. A collection of computer programs, libraries and related data are
referred to as a software.

Process Life Cycle

When a process executes, it passes through different states. These stages may differ
in different operating systems, and the names of these states are also not
standardized.
In general, a process can have one of the following five states at a time.

S.N. State & Description

1
Start
This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.

2
Ready
The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting
to have the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can run.
Process may come into this state after Start state or while running it by but
interrupted by the scheduler to assign CPU to some other process.
3
Running
Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the process
state is set to running and the processor executes its instructions.

4
Waiting
Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as waiting
for user input, or waiting for a file to become available.

5
Terminated or Exit
Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating system,
it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main memory.

Process Control Block (PCB)

A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for
every process. The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps all
the information needed to keep track of a process as listed below in the table −

S.N. Information & Description

1
Process State
The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or whatever.

2
Process privileges
This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.

3
Process ID
 Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system.

4
Pointer
A pointer to parent process.

5
Program Counter
Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be executed for
this process.

6
CPU registers
Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for running
state.

7
CPU Scheduling Information
Process priority and other scheduling information which is required to schedule the
process.

8
Memory management information
This includes the information of page table, memory limits, Segment table depending
on memory used by the operating system.

9
Accounting information
This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits, execution
ID etc.

10
IO status information
This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.

The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System and may

contain different information in different operating systems. Here is a simplified
diagram of a PCB −
The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its lifetime, and is deleted once the
process terminates.

Threads in Operating System

A thread is a single sequential flow of execution of tasks of a process so it is also known
as thread of execution or thread of control. There is a way of thread execution inside
the process of any operating system. Apart from this, there can be more than one
thread inside a process. Each thread of the same process makes use of a separate
program counter and a stack of activation records and control blocks. Thread is often
referred to as a lightweight process.

The process can be split down into so many threads. For example, in a browser, many
tabs can be viewed as threads. MS Word uses many threads - formatting text from one
thread, processing input from another thread, etc.
Need of Thread:
o It takes far less time to create a new thread in an existing process than to create a new
process.
o Threads can share the common data, they do not need to use Inter- Process
communication.
o Context switching is faster when working with threads.
o It takes less time to terminate a thread than a process.

Types of Threads
In the operating system

, there are two types of threads.

1. Kernel level thread.
2. User-level thread.

User-level thread
The operating system

does not recognize the user-level thread. User threads can be easily implemented, and it is
implemented by the user. If a user performs a user-level thread blocking operation, the whole
process is blocked. The kernel level thread does not know nothing about the user level thread. The
kernel-level thread manages user-level threads as if they are single-threaded processes?
examples: Java

thread, POSIX threads, etc.

Advantages of User-level threads

1. The user threads can be easily implemented than the kernel thread.
2. User-level threads can be applied to such types of operating systems that do
not support threads at the kernel-level.
3. It is faster and efficient.
4. Context switch time is shorter than the kernel-level threads.
5. It does not require modifications of the operating system.
6. User-level threads representation is very simple. The register, PC, stack, and mini
thread control blocks are stored in the address space of the user-level process.
 7. It is simple to create, switch, and synchronize threads without the intervention
of the process.

Disadvantages of User-level threads

1. User-level threads lack coordination between the thread and the kernel.
2. If a thread causes a page fault, the entire process is blocked

Kernel level thread

The kernel thread recognizes the operating system. There is a thread control block and
process control block in the system for each thread and process in the kernel-level
thread. The kernel-level thread is implemented by the operating system. The kernel
knows about all the threads and manages them. The kernel-level thread offers a system
call to create and manage the threads from user-space. The implementation of kernel
threads is more difficult than the user thread. Context switch time is longer in the
kernel thread. If a kernel thread performs a blocking operation, the Banky thread
execution can continue. Example: Window Solaris.
Advantages of Kernel-level threads

1. The kernel-level thread is fully aware of all threads.

2. The scheduler may decide to spend more CPU time in the process of threads being
large numerical.
3. The kernel-level thread is good for those applications that block the frequency.

Disadvantages of Kernel-level threads

1. The kernel thread manages and schedules all threads.

2. The implementation of kernel threads is difficult than the user thread.
3. The kernel-level thread is slower than user-level threads.

Components of Threads
Any thread has the following components.

1. Program counter
2. Register set
3. Stack space

Benefits of Threads
o Enhanced throughput of the system: When the process is split into many threads,
and each thread is treated as a job, the number of jobs done in the unit time increases.
That is why the throughput of the system also increases.
o Effective Utilization of Multiprocessor system: When you have more than one
thread in one process, you can schedule more than one thread in more than one
processor.
o Faster context switch: The context switching period between threads is less than the
process context switching. The process context switch means more overhead for the
CPU.
o Responsiveness: When the process is split into several threads, and when a thread
completes its execution, that process can be responded to as soon as possible.
o Communication: Multiple-thread communication is simple because the threads share
the same address space, while in process, we adopt just a few exclusive communication
strategies for communication between two processes.
 o Resource sharing: Resources can be shared between all threads within a process, such
as code, data, and files. Note: The stack and register cannot be shared between threads.
There is a stack and register for each thread.

Process Scheduling in OS: Long, Medium,

Short Term Scheduler
What is Process Scheduling?
Process Scheduling is an OS task that schedules processes of different states
like ready, waiting, and running.

Process scheduling allows OS to allocate a time interval of CPU execution for

each process. Another important reason for using a process scheduling system
is that it keeps the CPU busy all the time. This allows you to get the minimum
response time for programs.

Process Scheduling Queues

Process Scheduling Queues help you to maintain a distinct queue for each and
every process states and PCBs. All the process of the same execution state are
placed in the same queue. Therefore, whenever the state of a process is
modified, its PCB needs to be unlinked from its existing queue, which moves
back to the new state queue.

Three types of operating system queues are:

1. Job queue – It helps you to store all the processes in the system.
2. Ready queue – This type of queue helps you to set every process residing
in the main memory, which is ready and waiting to execute.
3. Device queues – It is a process that is blocked because of the absence of
an I/O device.
Process Scheduling Queues

In the above-given Diagram,

• Rectangle represents a queue.

• Circle denotes the resource
• Arrow indicates the flow of the process.

1. Every new process first put in the Ready queue .It waits in the ready
queue until it is finally processed for execution. Here, the new process is
put in the ready queue and wait until it is selected for execution or it is
dispatched.
2. One of the processes is allocated the CPU and it is executing
3. The process should issue an I/O request
4. Then, it should be placed in the I/O queue.
5. The process should create a new subprocess
6. The process should be waiting for its termination.
7. It should remove forcefully from the CPU, as a result interrupt. Once
interrupt is completed, it should be sent back to ready queue.

Two State Process Model

Two-state process models are:

• Running State
• Not Running State

Running
In the Operating system, whenever a new process is built, it is entered into the
system, which should be running.
Not Running
The process that are not running are kept in a queue, which is waiting for their
turn to execute. Each entry in the queue is a point to a specific process.

Scheduling Objectives
Here, are important objectives of Process scheduling

• Maximize the number of interactive users within acceptable response

times.
• Achieve a balance between response and utilization.
• Avoid indefinite postponement and enforce priorities.
• It also should give reference to the processes holding the key resources.

Type of Process Schedulers

A scheduler is a type of system software that allows you to handle process
scheduling.

There are mainly three types of Process Schedulers:

1. Long Term Scheduler

2. Short Term Scheduler
3. Medium Term Scheduler

Long Term Scheduler

Long term scheduler is also known as a job scheduler. This scheduler regulates
the program and select process from the queue and loads them into memory for
execution. It also regulates the degree of multi-programing.

However, the main goal of this type of scheduler is to offer a balanced mix of
jobs, like Processor, I/O jobs., that allows managing multiprogramming.

Medium Term Scheduler

Medium-term scheduling is an important part of swapping. It enables you to
handle the swapped out-processes. In this scheduler, a running process can
become suspended, which makes an I/O request.
A running process can become suspended if it makes an I/O request. A
suspended processes can’t make any progress towards completion. In order to
remove the process from memory and make space for other processes, the
suspended process should be moved to secondary storage.

Short Term Scheduler

Short term scheduling is also known as CPU scheduler. The main goal of this
scheduler is to boost the system performance according to set criteria. This
helps you to select from a group of processes that are ready to execute and
allocates CPU to one of them. The dispatcher gives control of the CPU to the
process selected by the short term scheduler.

Difference between Schedulers

Long-Term Vs. Short Term Vs. Medium-Term

Long-Term Short-Term Medium-Term

Long term is also known Short term is also known as Medium-term is also called
as a job scheduler CPU scheduler swapping scheduler.
It is either absent or This scheduler is an
It is insignificant in the time-
minimal in a time-sharing element of Time-sharing
sharing order.
system. systems.
Speed is the fastest
Speed is less compared to compared to the short-term
It offers medium speed.
the short term scheduler. and medium-term
scheduler.
Allow you to select
It only selects processes
processes from the loads It helps you to send
that is in a ready state of the
and pool back into the process back to memory.
execution.
memory
Reduce the level of
Offers full control Offers less control
multiprogramming
Process creation, Process termination operating system
notes

Process Creation and Process termination are used to create and terminate processes
respectively. Details about these are given as follows −

Process Creation
A process may be created in the system for different operations. Some of the events
that lead to process creation are as follows −

• User request for process creation

• System Initialization
• Batch job initialization
• Execution of a process creation system call by a running process
A process may be created by another process using fork(). The creating process is
called the parent process and the created process is the child process. A child process
can have only one parent but a parent process may have many children. Both the
parent and child processes have the same memory image, open files and environment
strings. However, they have distinct address spaces.
A diagram that demonstrates process creation using fork() is as follows −

Process Termination
Process termination occurs when the process is terminated The exit() system call is
used by most operating systems for process termination.
Some of the causes of process termination are as follows −

• A process may be terminated after its execution is naturally completed. This process
leaves the processor and releases all its resources.
• A child process may be terminated if its parent process requests for its termination.
• A process can be terminated if it tries to use a resource that it is not allowed to. For
example - A process can be terminated for trying to write into a read only file.
 • If an I/O failure occurs for a process, it can be terminated. For example - If a process
requires the printer and it is not working, then the process will be terminated.
• In most cases, if a parent process is terminated then its child processes are also
terminated. This is done because the child process cannot exist without the parent
process.
• If a process requires more memory than is currently available in the system, then it is
terminated because of memory scarcity.

Inter Process Communication (IPC) in OS

What is Inter Process Communication?
Inter process communication (IPC) is used for exchanging data between
multiple threads in one or more processes or programs. The Processes may be
running on single or multiple computers connected by a network. The full form
of IPC is Inter-process communication.

It is a set of programming interface which allow a programmer to coordinate

activities among various program processes which can run concurrently in an
operating system. This allows a specific program to handle many user requests
at the same time.
Since every single user request may result in multiple processes running in the
operating system, the process may require to communicate with each other.
Each IPC protocol approach has its own advantage and limitation, so it is not
unusual for a single program to use all of the IPC methods.

Approaches for Inter-Process Communication

Here, are few important methods for interprocess communication:
Pipes
Pipe is widely used for communication between two related processes. This is a
half-duplex method, so the first process communicates with the second
process. However, in order to achieve a full-duplex, another pipe is needed.

Message Passing:
It is a mechanism for a process to communicate and synchronize. Using
message passing, the process communicates with each other without resorting
to shared variables.

IPC mechanism provides two operations:

• Send (message)- message size fixed or variable

• Received (message)

Message Queues:
A message queue is a linked list of messages stored within the kernel. It is
identified by a message queue identifier. This method offers communication
between single or multiple processes with full-duplex capacity.

Direct Communication:
In this type of inter-process communication process, should name each other
explicitly. In this method, a link is established between one pair of
communicating processes, and between each pair, only one link exists.

Indirect Communication:
Indirect communication establishes like only when processes share a common
mailbox each pair of processes sharing several communication links. A link can
communicate with many processes. The link may be bi-directional or
unidirectional.

Shared Memory:
Shared memory is a memory shared between two or more processes that are
established using shared memory between all the processes. This type of
memory requires to protected from each other by synchronizing access across
all the processes.
FIFO:
Communication between two unrelated processes. It is a full-duplex method,
which means that the first process can communicate with the second process,
and the opposite can also happen

PROCESS SYNCHRONIZATION: Background, Critical section Problem

What is Process Synchronization?

Process Synchronization is the task of coordinating the execution of processes
in a way that no two processes can have access to the same shared data and
resources.

It is specially needed in a multi-process system when multiple processes are

running together, and more than one processes try to gain access to the same
shared resource or data at the same time.
This can lead to the inconsistency of shared data. So the change made by one
process not necessarily reflected when other processes accessed the same
shared data. To avoid this type of inconsistency of data, the processes need to
be synchronized with each other.

How Process Synchronization Works?

For Example, process A changing the data in a memory location while another
process B is trying to read the data from the same memory location. There is a
high probability that data read by the second process will be erroneous.

• Entry Section: It is part of the process which decides the entry of a

particular process.
• Critical Section: This part allows one process to enter and modify the
shared variable.
 • Exit Section: Exit section allows the other process that are waiting in the
Entry Section, to enter into the Critical Sections. It also checks that a
process that finished its execution should be removed through this
Section.
• Remainder Section: All other parts of the Code, which is not in Critical,
Entry, and Exit Section, are known as the Remainder Section.

What is Critical Section Problem?

A critical section is a segment of code which can be accessed by a signal process
at a specific point of time. The section consists of shared data resources that
required to be accessed by other processes.

• The entry to the critical section is handled by the wait() function, and it is
represented as P().
• The exit from a critical section is controlled by the signal() function,
represented as V().

In the critical section, only a single process can be executed. Other processes,
waiting to execute their critical section, need to wait until the current process
completes its execution.

Rules for Critical Section

The critical section need to must enforce all three rules:

• Mutual Exclusion: Mutual Exclusion is a special type of binary semaphore

which is used for controlling access to the shared resource. It includes a
priority inheritance mechanism to avoid extended priority inversion
problems. Not more than one process can execute in its critical section at
one time.
• Progress: This solution is used when no one is in the critical section, and
someone wants in. Then those processes not in their reminder section
should decide who should go in, in a finite time.
• Bound Waiting: When a process makes a request for getting into critical
section, there is a specific limit about number of processes can get into
their critical section. So, when the limit is reached, the system must allow
request to the process to get into its critical section.