OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Table of Contents
Objective ............................................................................................................................................................ III
Preface................................................................................................................................................................ III
CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction to open channel flow ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Types of Open Channel ................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Classification of Open Channel Flow ............................................................................................................. 2
Steady and unready flow: Time as the criterion ............................................................................................. 2
Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion .................................................................................... 3
1.4 Continuity Equation....................................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel................................................................................... 6
Solved problem ................................................................................................................................................. 13
Chapter two ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Energy Principles in open channel flow ............................................................................................................ 21
Main Objective ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
2. 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 21
2.2 Specific Energy and Critical Depth............................................................................................................... 22
2.3 Channel Transitions ..................................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.1 Channel Transition with Hump..................................................................................................................... 29
Sub-critical flow ................................................................................................................................................. 29
2.4 Momentum Principle................................................................................................................................... 33
Solved Problems ................................................................................................................................................ 38
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................................... 48
FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS ........................................................................................................................ 48
3.1 Critical flow .................................................................................................................................................. 48
The section factor for critical flow computation ........................................................................................... 49
3.2 Computation of critical flow .................................................................................................................... 50
Control section (flow control) ....................................................................................................................... 51
3.3 Uniform flow ............................................................................................................................................... 52
Establishment of uniform flow ...................................................................................................................... 53

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3.4 Computation of Uniform flow ..................................................................................................................... 54

Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity .................................................................................................... 58
Solved Problem ................................................................................................................................................. 65
CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................................................................... 73
GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF) .......................................................................................................................... 73
4.1 General Equation for Gradually varied flow.......................................................................................... 73
4.2 Classification of Flow Profiles ...................................................................................................................... 77
Summary of Flow Profiles.............................................................................................................................. 80
4.3 GVF Computations....................................................................................................................................... 84
Solved Problem ................................................................................................................................................. 89
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................................ 98
RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF) ................................................................................................................................ 98
5.1 Characteristics of RVF .................................................................................................................................. 98
5.2 Approach to the problem ........................................................................................................................ 98
5.3 Flow over spillways...................................................................................................................................... 99
Round-Crested overflow spillway.................................................................................................................. 99
Aeration of the Nappe ................................................................................................................................. 103
5.4 Hydraulic Jump .......................................................................................................................................... 106
Practical Applications .................................................................................................................................. 106
Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel ..................................................................................................... 106
Types of Jump .............................................................................................................................................. 106
Basic characteristics of the Jump ................................................................................................................ 107
Length of Jump: ........................................................................................................................................... 108
Flow under Gates ............................................................................................................................................ 108
Solved Problem ............................................................................................................................................... 110

II

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Objective
The objective of the module is to assist female students to realize the different types of
flows in open channels, to classify open channel flows, to adapt the basic principles of
energy and momentum in open channel flows and to compute various types of flows. At
the end of the module students can also differentiate between gradually varied flow and
spatially varied flow types and their characteristics; analyze uniform, critical, gradually-
varied, rapidly-varied, spatially varied and unsteady flows in open channels.

Preface
This module consist of a study guide which contains a discussion steady flow in open
channels: classification of open channel flows, Energy and momentum principles in
open channel flows, Flow computations: critical flow, uniform flow, transitions,
gradually varied flow: differential equation of gradually varied flow, gradually varied
flow profiles, computations of flow profiles, Rapidly varied flow: flow characteristics,
flow over spillway, flow under gates, hydraulic jump and its use as energy dissipater,
Spatially varied flow, Unsteady flow in open channels.

Proceed through this module at your own pace. Be sure you completely understand each
section before moving on. If you have questions or need help, please request assistance
from your Instructor.

Be sure to write your answers to the included problems. This will help to reinforce your
learning. After completing each activity, compare your answers with the included
solution.

III

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to open channel flow

Objective of this Chapter

i. Give basic difference of pipe flow and open channel flow

ii. Basic Understanding of Open Channel properties and its classification
iii. Differentiating types of Open channel flow with time and space
iv. Giving idea of Velocity and pressure distribution in different types of open channel geometer and
longitudinal slopes

1.1 Introduction
Open channel flow is the passage in which the liquid is not completely enclosed by a solid boundary,
but has free surface exposed to atmosphere.

Example:-
Flow in natural rivers, streams
Flow in irrigation channels
Flow in sewers
Flow in culverts with a free surface
Flow in pipes not running fully

Figure 1.1 Open Channel Flow and Pipe flow to show the basic differences

Differences between open channel flow and pipe flow

open channel flow pipe flow

Height of Total energy level
Height of Total energy level from
from datum is (Z+Y+V2/2g) datum is (Z + ƿ/ɣ+V2/2g)

Has free surface
Run fully, has no free surface

Flow takes place due to
Flow takes place under pressure
component of gravity force in
the flow direction

Analysis is complicated due to
Analysis is simple due to uniform
non-uniform cross section, cross section
bed slope and roughness’s

Hydraulic grade line (HGL)
HGL is at a height of (Z + ƿ/ɣ)
coincides with free surface above the datum
and is at a height of (Z+Y)

Surface tension is negligible,
Surface tension is dominant if
only considered at a very low diameter is small
depth

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1.2 Types of Open Channel

Depending on the channel is manmade:-

Natural channel
Artificial channel

Based on boundary characteristics

Rigid boundary:- lined channel no problem of sediment

Mobile boundary:-unlined channels where sediment problem exists

Based on cross section and slope

Prismatic: - Cross section and slope remain constant in the reach.

Non-Prismatic: - cross section and slope vary with space and time.

1.3 Classification of Open Channel Flow

Open channels flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The following
 dy dy 
classification is made according to the change in flow depth with respect to time and space  ,  .
 dt dx 

Steady and unsteady flow: Time as the criterion

Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if it can be
assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a fixed point. In steady flow
the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) do not vary with time at the spatial point
in the flow. In steady flow streamline is also the path followed by an individual water particle.

The flow is unsteady if the depth changes with time. In most open channel problems it is necessary
to study flow behaviour only under steady conditions. If, however, the change in flow condition with
respect to time is of major concern, the flow should be treated as unsteady. In floods and surges, for
instance, which are typical examples of unsteady flow, the stage of flow changes instantaneously as
the wave pass by, and the time element becomes vitally important in design of control structures. In
unsteady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) vary with time at the
spatial points in the flow.

Examples of unsteady flow:

Oscillatory sea waves,

Dam breaks flood waves,

Surges due to gate operation,

Floods

For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by

Q = VA Equation 0-1
2

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Where v is the mean velocity and A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the direction of the
flow, since the mean velocity is defined as the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area.

In most problems of steady flow the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel under
consideration; in other words the flow is continuous. Thus, using equation1-1

Q = V1 A1 = v2 A2 = - - - - Equation 0-2
Where the subscripts designate different channel sections

This is the continuity equation for a continuous steady flow.

Equation 1.2 obviously invalid, however, where the discharge of a steady flow is non-uniform along
the channel, that is, where water runs in or out along the course of the flow. This type of flow is
called spatially varied or discontinuous flow. Spatially constant flow occurs when the density
and average velocity are the same in all points in a flow field. If these quantities change along or
across the flow lines the flow is spatially variable. Examples are side channel spillways, roadside
gutters, and the flow in uniform canal of constant slope receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main
drainage channels and feeding channels in irrigation systems).

The law of continuity of unsteady flow requires considerations of the time effect. Hence, the continuity
equation for continuous unsteady flow should include time element as a variable.

Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion

Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the
channel. A uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes
with time.

Steady uniform flow is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics. The depth
of flow does not change during the time interval under consideration. The establishment of unsteady
uniform flow would require that the water surface fluctuate from time to time while remaining
parallel to the channel bottom. Obviously, this is a practically impossible condition. The term
“uniform flow” is therefore, used here after only to steady uniform flow.

Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be
either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term “unsteady flow” is used
hereafter to designate unsteady varied flow exclusively.

Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied. The flow is rapidly
varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually
varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as a local phenomenon; examples are the hydraulic jump
and the hydraulic drop. For clarity, the classification of open-channel flow is summarized as:

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Uniform flow

Steady Flow
Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Varied Flow
Rapidly Varied (non-
Flow
uniform) Flow
Unsteady uniform flow
(Quasi uniform flow)
Gradually varied unsteady
Unsteady Flow Flow

Unsteady Flow (i.e.

unsteady varied flow)
Rapidly varied unsteady
flow

Figure 1.2 Classification of open channel flows

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1.4 Continuity Equation

It is the law of conservation of matter (matter neither gained nor loosed but transformed from one
matter to other). In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:
− −
Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2

A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,

−
V = the mean velocity in sections 1 and 2

If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A = Q/V) remains
constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section. This means for uniform flow a constant
water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from an exact balance between the force of gravity
and the frictional resistance.

Figure 1.3 Continuous flows in different channel section and shape

Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more difficult. In unsteady
open channel flow the water surface will change over a certain distance ∆X = X 2 − X1. and during a
certain time ∆t .

During ∆t : Inflow-Outflow = Storage

∆Q ∆t = ∆y ∆x T

As the velocity and the discharge will change over a distance

∆x : ∆Q = Q2 − Q1 = (δQ / δx) ∆x.

The discharge Q will vary with time t and with the distance along the canal.

If y is the water depth and T the width at the water surface, then the increase of volume between the
sections 1 and 2 during time ∆ t : ∆ Q ∆ t = ∆ Vo1 = ∆ y T ∆ x.

The two terms derived are equal in magnitude, but different in sign:

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δQ δy
+T = 0
δx ∆t

This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.

1.5 Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

Velocity Distributions: - Owing to the presence of free surface and to the friction along the channel
wall, the velocities in open channel are not uniformly distributed. The measured maximum velocity in
ordinary channels usually appear to occur below the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the
depth, the closer the banks the deeper the maximum.

As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocities over the channel section, the velocity head of an
open channel flow is generally greater than the value computed according to the expression V2/2g,
where V is the mean velocity. In practice usually average velocity across the flow is taken and
correction coefficients are applied. A correction coefficient called Coriolis coefficient (energy
coefficient) α is used in computations when energy principle is used, i.e. the velocity head will be
expressed as αV2/2g. Non-uniform distribution of velocity also affects computation of momentum
(mv = βQgV), where β is momentum coefficient or Boussinesq coefficient. For channels of regular
cross section and fairly straight alignment the effect of non-uniform velocity on velocity head and
momentum is small especially in comparison with the uncertainty involved in the computation.
Therefore, α and β are assumed to be unity and greater in all other cases.

Figure 1.4 Velocity distributions in open channel flows

Determination of coefficients (α and β):-Mean velocity (V) for the entire cross section of the channel
is defined depending on the longitudinal component velocity (u) as

V =   udA--------------------------------------------------1

Discharge passing through a section can be expressed

Q =  udA = V ∗ A-----------------------------------2

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To compute kinetic energy flux average velocity is used. Average velocity (V) is less than real
velocity (u), so that correction factor α is used. For an elemental area (dA), the kinetic energy
flux (KE  ) can be expressed as:-

KE  = ----------------------------------------------3
Multiplying the right side of equation (3) by mass/mass

 
KE  =  ∗ ------------------------------------4



In other way mass (m) for an elemental area (dA) =ƍ*L*dA and  =  ∗  !! ∗ " , therefore
substituting these into equation (4)
  !! ƍ∗'∗(
KE  = [$ ∗  ∗ " ] ∗  ()-------------------------------------5
!!

It is obvious that u=L/t in real flow and substituting this to equation (5)
  !! 
KE  = * ∗
$ 
∗ " + ∗ (ƍ ∗ u ∗ dA) = $ ∗ ƍ ∗ ", dA----------6
!!

For the total area KE  can found by integrating equation (6)
 
KE  =  ∗ ƍ ∗ ", dA = $ ∗ α ∗ V . ∗ ƍ ∗ A-----------------7
$

 8, 9:
α= ; <= ∗: ≥ 1.00
Therefore, ----------------------------8

Where α=kinetic energy correction factor

ƍ=fluid density

V= mean velocity normal to flow direction

u= real velocity normal to flow direction

A= Total Channel cross sectional area normal to flow direction

dA= elemental cross sectional area of the channel normal to flow direction

Similarly momentum correction factor β at a section for an elemental area of dA can be determined
from momentum flux as follow:-

Momentum flux in the longitudinal direction = ∗ velocity----------------9


=ƍ" dA---------------------------------------10

For the total area Momentum flux can found by integrating equation (10) = ƍ" dA=βV $ ƍA

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: ƍ8 U;
Hence, =X --------------------------------------------------11
V W


Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

Pressure:- In some curve linear flows, the piezometric head (hC ) may have non- leaner variation with
depth.

hC =ZE +h +∆h

Where, Zo= elevation of bed from datum

h =pressure head at the bed if linear pressure head variation with depth y exists

∆h= deviation from linear pressure head variation at any depth y

For one- dimension analysis, Effective piezometric headFhC G cab given as

 I
FhC G=ZE + h + I L J (∆h) dy
J

Pressure Distributions:

Pressure intensity at surface in open channel is equal to that of atmospheric pressure, which
is taken as reference hence its value is zero.
Pressure Distributions in Open Channel is governed by gravity (g) and other accelerations and
is given by the Euler’s equation as below
Mǝ
(p + ɣZ)=ƍaO
ǝO
Where, p= pressure head
aO = acceleration in n direction normal to streamline flow
Z=elevation above datum
The direction of normal acceleration to ward centre of curvature is taken as positive
The normal acceleration of any streamline at a section is given by,
<S
aO = T

Where, V= velocity of flow

r= radius of stream line curvature

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Hydrostatic pressure Distribution

Figure 1.5 Pressure distributions in horizontal channel

The normal accelerationaO will be zero

If V=0, i.e when there is no motion

If r→ ∞, i.e when streamlines are straight line

Consider static water (aO = 0)

M[
(p + ɣZ)=ƍaO
[O

M[ C
( ɣ + Z) = 0
[O

Integrating this equation

p
\ + Z] = C
ɣ

Using boundary condition at surface [p/ɣ = 0 and Z = Z ]

Therefore,
C
a ɣ + Z b = C ↔ C=Z

At any point A below water surface

p
\ + Z] = Z
ɣ
Cd
= Z − Z, but Z − Z = y
ɣ

Cd
Thus, =y p = yɣ
ɣ

Channels with small bed slope


Let Ө~ sin Ө~ LLL, for such channels vertical section is same as normal section of the channel

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Figure 1.6 Pressure Distributions in small inclination open channel flow

Assuming water surface is parallel to channel bed level and straight (aO = 0), the resulting pressure is
hydrostatic pressure.

The pressure at any point of depth y blow surface can be given by

C C
ɣ
=y ↔ p = yɣ and a ɣ + Zb = Z

The piezometric head is equal at any point in the channel will be equal to the water surface
elevation.
Channels with large slope
Consider the channel with large slope as shown below

Figure 1.7 Pressure Distributions in large inclination open channel flow

From fig 1.7 above it was seen that the flow is uniform with large value of inclination (Ө), at any
depth y measured normal to water surface from to water the weight of column A1A’1’=ɣ∆Ly and
acts vertically down ward.

The pressure at AA’ supports the normal component of the column A1A’1’. Thus,

P ∆L=ɣy∆Lcos Ө

P =ɣycos Ө
jk
=ycos Ө
ɣ

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If d= vertical distance to water surface measured at point 1

jJ
=hcos Ө=dcos$ Ө
ɣ

The piezometric height at any point A=Z+ ycos Ө and at channel bed =ZE + hcos Ө. Thus, for channels
with large slope the conventionally defined hydrostatic gradient line does not lie on water surface.
Such channels occurred in spillways and chutes.

Pressure distribution in curvilinear flow

Convex curvilinear flow: - Consider a curvilinear flow in a vertical plane on upward convex surface as
shown below:-

Figure 1.8 Pressure Distributions in convex curvilinear open channel flow

For simplicity consider 01A2 where Z and r consides.

M[
(p + ɣZ)=ƍaO
[T
Dividing both side by (ɣ)
M[ C 
( ɣ + Z)= ml ---------------------------------------------1
[T
Assuming aO is constant and integrating equation (1)
C 
( ɣ + Z)= ml r+C------------------------------------------------2
C
From boundary condition, at surface (point 2) =0, at surface (2) (Z = Z$ ) and r = r$
ɣ
l
Hence, C=Z$M r$ ---------------------------------------------3
m
Substituting equation 3 into equation 2 for value of C
C l l
a ɣ + Zb= r+ aZ$M r$ b------------------------------------4
m m
C l
= (Z$M Z) - (r$ − r), but it was seen that (Z$M Z) = (r$ − r)=y
ɣ m
C l
= y *1 − +----------------------------------------------------5
ɣ m

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C
For any normal direction OBC in fig above, at point C, a ɣ b = 0 and ro − r$ and for any point
o
at a radial distance r with radial angle (Ө) from the origin O, is
C 
= (ZoM Z) - l (ro − r), but (ZoM Z) = (ro − r) cos Ө and (ro − r) = y
ɣ m

C l
Therefore, ɣ = (ro − r) cos Ө - (ro − r)----------------------6
m

r st
This is for convex curvilinear channel ɣ
= q *cos Ө − u
+ -----------------7
l
Equation (7) shows the hydraulic grade line is less than water surface depth (y *cos Ө − + < q) and
m
l
pressure is less than hydrostatic pressure (y *cos Ө − + ɣ < qɣ)
m

Concave curvilinear flow: - Consider a curvilinear flow in a vertical plane on downward concave
surface as shown below:-

Figure 1.9 Pressure Distributions in concave curvilinear open channel flow

For simplicity consider 01A2 where Z and r consides.

M[
(p + ɣZ)=ƍaO
[T
Dividing both side by (ɣ)
M[ C 
( ɣ + Z)= ml ---------------------------------------------a
[T
Assuming aO is constant and integrating equation (a)
C 
( ɣ + Z)= ml r+C------------------------------------------------b
C
From boundary condition, at surface (point 2) =0, at surface (2) (Z = Z$ ) and r = r$
ɣ
l
Hence, C=Z$M r$ ---------------------------------------------c
m
Substituting equation c into equation b for value of C
C l l
a ɣ + Zb= r+ aZ$M r$ b------------------------------------d
m m
C l
= (Z$M Z) + (r − r$ ), but it was seen that (Z$M Z) = (r − r$ )=y
ɣ m
C l
= y *1 + +----------------------------------------------------e
ɣ m

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C
For any normal direction OBC in fig above, at point C, a ɣ b = 0 and r$ − ro and for any point
o
at a radial distance r with radial angle (Ө) from the origin O, is
C 
= (ZoM Z) + l (r − ro ), but (ZoM Z) = (r − ro ) cos Ө and (r − ro ) = y
ɣ m

C l
Therefore, = (r − ro ) cos Ө + (r − ro )----------------------f
ɣ m

r s
This is for concave curvilinear channel ɣ
= q *cos Ө + u-------------g
t
+

Equation (g) shows the hydraulic grade line is greater than water surface depth
l
(y *cos Ө + + > q) and pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure
m

l
(y *cos Ө + + ɣ > qɣ)
m

Solved problem
1) In the measurement of discharge in a river, it was obtained that the depth increases at the
rate of 0.4km/hr. If the discharge at the section is 14m3 /sec. and surface width is 14m,
estimate the discharge at 1.4km upstream of the measurement section.

Solution:
Since depth vary along the channel longitude is varying, the flow is unsteady flow.
Using continuity equation as follow
[w L.y
T [ = 14 ∗ = 0.0015556m2/sec
zL∗zL

From the relation,

∆Q ∂y
= −T
∆X ∂t
€S M€J [w
= −T [
∆
[w
Q = Q$ + T [ ∗ ∆X

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

=14+0.0015556 ∗ 1400
=16.178m3/sec

Exercise: - For problem 1

I. Estimate the discharge at 1.4km downstream of the measurement section.
II. Estimate the discharge at 1.4km upstream of the measurement section, if water
surface depth decrease with the same rate.

2) The velocity distributions along the vertical in wide rectangular channel are as shown in fig.
1.10. Determine the kinetic energy correction factor α and momentum correction factor β for
both the velocity profiles.

Figure 1.10 Velocity Distributions of Problem 2

Solution
w „ w
From linear relation = „ , U = ƒ U or
ƒ …
Using coordinate system (0,0), (U, y) and (U , D)
„ML „… M„
Since the graph is linear, wML = ,
ƒMw
w
Simplifying the above equation U = ƒ U
‰ =   UdA
V Šƒ
 ƒ w
=Šƒ L aƒ U b Bdy
=Œ$ƒS y $ U  ƒL


‰= Ž
V 
Determination of kinetic correction factor α

α= ∗V‰ ,  U . dA
 ƒ w .
=  , L aƒ U b Bdy
Šƒ∗a Ž b


Œ  yy ƒ
L
=y∗ƒ

α =2
Determination of momentum correction factor α

β= ∗V‰   U $ dA
 ƒ w $
=   L aƒ U b Bdy
Šƒ∗a Ž b


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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

=Œ.∗ƒ= y .  ƒL
y

β=1.333
Exercise: - Repeat problem no. 2, if the channel section is triangular channel

3) The velocity distribution in an open channel approximated as in figure 1.11. Determine the
kinetic energy correction factor (α ) and momentum correction factor(β) for this velocity
profile.

Figure 1.11Velocity distribution of problem

3

4) The velocity distribution in a very wide rectangular channel of 3m deep is given by

w J
u=1+2*( w )S , calculate α and β.
‘

Solution
J
w S
yE = 3m, the river is wide rectangular channel and u=1+2**w +
‘


Average velocity (V) =  ∗  udA

Total area A=B*yE and elemental area dA=B*dy

J
 w‘ w S
Thus, V= Š∗w ∗ L ”1 +2∗ *w + – B ∗ dy
‘ ‘

 y
=w *yE + . ∗ yE +
‘

—
= .
m/sec

Kinetic energy correction factor α


α=∗<= ∗  u. dA

J .
 w‘ w S
α= ˜ =
∗ L ”1 +2∗ *w + – B ∗ dy --------------------------------------------- (a)
Š∗w‘ ∗* + ‘
=

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

J
w S M
Let x = 1 + 2 ∗ *w + , then šy = a $
b ∗ šyE
‘

(w
By deriveting dx= dy=šy ∗ šyE ∗ dx
šw∗šw‘

M
=a b yE dx
$

J J
L S w S
Boundaries as y=0, x=1+2**w + =1 and as y=yE , x=1+2**w‘ + =3
‘ ‘

Substituting these value into equation (a)

 . M
α= ˜ =
∗  x . ∗ a b yE dx
w‘ ∗* + $
=

œ œ
ž ŒF.GŸ
$— M
α= ∗›  
.y. $

α= 1.117784

Similarly momentum correction factor β


β =∗<S ∗  u$ dA

J $
 w‘ w S
β= ˜ S
∗ L ”1 +2∗ *w + – B ∗ dy
Š∗w‘ ∗* + ‘
=

 . M
β= ˜ S
∗  x $ ∗ a b yE dx
w‘ ∗* + $
=

œ œ=

ž ŒF.GŸ
  M
β= ∗›  =
y  $

β = 1.040816

Exercise: - The velocity distribution in a triangular channel of 3m deep is given by

w J
u=1+2*( w )S , calculate α and β.
‘

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

5) For pressure distribution shown as figure 1.12 below in an open channel flow, calculate the
effective piezometric head. Take the hydrostatic pressure distribution as the reference.

Figure 1.12 pressure Distributions in open channel of problem 5

Solution
Zo= elevation of channel bed level above datum.
ℎ = depth of flow
Let hp= piezometric head at depth y below water surface
¢
Then, hC = ZL + ɣ + (h − y), where P=kɣy
kɣy
hC = Z L + + (h − y)
ɣ
hC = ZL + h + (k − 1)y
Let ∆h = (k − 1)y
Effective piezometric head (hep)
1 IJ
hC = ZL + h + ¤ ∆hdy
h L

1 IJ
hC = ZL + h + ¤ (k − 1)ydy
h L
1 y $ h
hC = ZL + h + (k − 1) Œ ¥
h 2 0

Simplifying this equation

¦
¦§¨ = ©ª +(« + )

6) A Spillway crests having a circular area of radius 6m as shown in fig. below. Calculate the
pressure at point (1) (on channel bottom inclined with 30L from vertical, when a discharge
intensity is 5.00m ¬sec, by assuming
$

a) The velocity is constant along 1-2

b) Velocity varies linearly with radius (u=kr)
c) Velocity varies inversely with radius (u=k/r)
d) Normal acceleration is constant at a value corresponding to average velocity and
<S
radius at the center line a ­ b

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Figure 1.13 Pressure Distributions in convex curvilinear open channel flow of problem 6

Solution

‰ =€ =® = ¯ =3.33
V  w .¯

a) The velocity is constant along 1-2

¢ l ‰S
< ‰S
<
a ɣ + Zb =  m
dr= mT dr = m ln r + C----------------------------------------------------- (i)

¢S
From boundary condition at point 2 ɣ
= 0, Z = Z$ , r = r$ , thus

‰S
<
aC = Z$ − ln r$ b
m

Substituting this value into equation (i)

¢ ‰S
< ‰S
<
a ɣ b = (Z$ − Z ) + ln r − ln r$
 m m

But (Z$ − Z ) = (r$ − r ) cos Ө = d sec Ө and r$ = 7.5m − r = 6m

¢ ....S ....S
a ɣ b = 1.5 ∗ cos 30L +  .
ln 6 −  .
ln 7.5= 1.0464m


b) Velocity varies linearly with radius (u=kr)

‰=   udA= ± ­ krBdr
Average velocity V  Š ² (T z

‰=
V
 ŒT$ R
Œ ­k∗ $ ´6
T³
z
T $ 7.5
3.33=Œ —.¯ k ∗ Œ$ ´
 $∗....∗(—.¯Mz)
↔K= 0.4933
6 (—.¯S MzS )
=
T³
z
Pressure distribution
¢ l
a ɣ + Zb =  dr
m

¢ [·T]S ·S TS
a ɣ + Zb =  dr= +C
mT $m

¢ ·S (­)S
From boundary conditiona ɣ b = 0 at Z = Z$ and r = R, hence C=Z$ − $m

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

¢ ·S TS ·S (­)S
a ɣ + Zb = $m
+ aZ$ − $m
b

¢ ·S TS ·S (­)S
At channel bottom a ɣ + Z b = $m
+ aZ$ − $m
b, and r = 6m

a ɣ b = (ZS − Z ) + *Œ
¢ ·S TS ·S (­)S
´−a b+
 $m $m

¢ S
a ɣ b = (ZS − Z ) + a $m b (r $ − R$ , but (ZS − Z ) = d cos 30L


¢ L.y ..S
a ɣ b = 1.5 cos 30L + a $∗ . b [(6)$ − 7.5$ ]


¢
a ɣ b =1.0479m


c) Velocity varies inversely with radius (u=k/r

‰=   udA= ± 
Average velocity V 
­
k/rBdr
 Š ±¸J. (T ­M.¯

‰ =Œ  R
V ­ k ln r¹ R
Œ
T³
­M.¯
− 1.5
Œ
3.33=.¯ k ln a
­
b´ ↔ K =
.¯∗....
˜. =22.385
­M.¯ Oa b
²

Pressure distribution
P aO
\ + Z] = ¤ dr
ɣ g
¢ [·/T]S M·S
a ɣ + Zb =  mT
dr= $mTS +C

¢ ·S
From boundary conditiona ɣ b = 0 at Z = Z$ and r = R, hence C=Z$ + $m(­)S

¢ M·S ·S
a ɣ + Zb = $mTS + aZ$ + $m(­)S b

¢ M·S ·S
At channel bottom a ɣ + Z b = $mTS + aZ$ + $m(­)S b and r=6m

¢ ·S  
a ɣ b = (ZS − Z ) + $m a(­)S − TS b, but (ZS − Z ) = d cos 30L


¢ $$..¯S  
a ɣ b = 1.5 cos 30L + a $∗ . b *—.¯S − zS +


¢
a ɣ b =1.04364m


d) Normal acceleration is constant at a value corresponding to average velocity and

<S
radius at the center line a ­ b

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Assuming average velocity will be attained at middle of channel, (i.e R=6+1.5/2=6.75m)

= 1.643 m ¬sec
‰S
< ....S $
aO = ­ =
z.—¯

¢ l
a ɣ + Zb =  dr
m

¢ l
a ɣ + Zb = r+C
m

¢ l
From boundary conditiona ɣ b = 0 at Z = Z$ and r = R, hence C=Z$ − m
R

¢ l l
a ɣ + Zb = r + Z$ − R
m m

¢ l l
At channel bottom a ɣ + Z b = r + Z$ − R and r=6m
m m

¢ l
a ɣ b = (ZS − Z ) + (r − R), But (ZS − Z ) = d cos 30L
 m

¢ .zy.
a ɣ b = 1.5 cos 30L + a  . b [6 − 7.5]


¢
a ɣ b =1.0478m


Exercise: - Repeat problem for concave curvilinear flow open channel. All conditions are the same as
stated in problem 6.

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Chapter two
Energy Principles in open channel flow
Main Objective
i. Giving the difference between Total Energy and specific energy
ii. Determination of Specific energy, critical energy and critical depth in different types of open channel
iii. Giving effect of channel transition on specific energy and it determination
iv. Application of momentum principle in open channel

2. 1 Introduction
The energy equation and the momentum equation are used in addition to the continuity equation in
analyzing fluid-flow situations. They are both derived from Newton’s second law of motion. Consider
a particular open channel flow shown in figure 2.1

Figure 2-1 Energy in gradually varied open channel flow

From figure 2.1 above free liquid surface, i.e. open channel flows the total energy can be given as
follows:-

p V2
H =Z + +
γ 2g

For open channel section with steady flow and straight and parallel streamlines, there is no
centripetal acceleration, i.e. where the hydrostatic pressure distribution holds true, the pressure
p
head lies in the water surface.
γ

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

p
⇒ = d cos θ - For channel with large slope and
γ

p
= y - For channel with small slope
γ

Substituting for channel of large slope the total energy may be written as

V2
H = Z + d cosθ +
2g

In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have a different velocity head,
owing to the non-uniform velocity distribution in actual flow. Only in an ideal parallel flow of uniform
velocity distribution can the velocity head be truly identical for all points on the cross-section. In the
case of gradually varied flow, however, it may be assumed, for practical purposes, that the velocity
heads for all points on the channel section are equal, and energy coefficient (Coriolis Coefficient )
may be used to correct for the overall effect of the non-uniform velocity distribution. Thus, the total
energy, equation at a channel section takes the form

v2
H = Z+ y + α
2g

According to principle of conservation of energy, the total energy head at upstream section 1 should
be equal to the total energy head at downstream section 2 plus the loss of energy hf between the
two section ; or
2 2
v1 v
Z1 + y1 + α = Z 2 + y2 + α 2 + h f
2g 2g

This equation applies to parallel or gradually varied flow. Consider now a prismatic channel. The line
representing the elevation of the total head of flow is the energy line. The slope of the line is known
as the energy gradient, denoted by Sf. The slope of the water surface is denoted by Sw and the slope
of the channel bottom by So = tan θ. In uniform flow, Sf = Sw = So = tan θ.

2.2 Specific Energy and Critical Depth

The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit weight of water with respect to the channel
p
bottom. The piezometric head related to the bottom is + Z = y (with Z = 0) which is the water
γ
depth. Therefore, the specific energy is the sum of the water-depth (y) and the velocity head, if the
streamlines are straight and parallel.

V2
E = y +α
2g

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

For a given section and constant discharge (Q), the specific energy is a function of water-depth only,
Q
since V = .
A

Q2
⇒E = y+
2 g A2

When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy for a given channel section and
discharge, a specific-energy curve is obtained (figure2-3).

Figure 2-2 Specific Energy Curve

This curve has to limbs AC and BC. The limb AC approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically towards
the right. The limb BC approaches the line OD as it extends upward and to the right. Line OD is a line
that passes through the origin and has an angle of inclination equal to 45o. At any point P on this
curve, the ordinate represents the depth, and the abscissa represents the specific energy, which is
equal to the sum of the pressure head y and the velocity head V 2 2g.

The curve shows that for a certain discharge Q two flow regimes are possible, viz. slow and deep flow
or a fast and shallow flow, i.e. for a given specific energy, there are two possible depths, for instance,
the low stage y. and the high stage y2. The low stage is called the alternate depth of the high stage,
and vice versa. At point C, the specific energy is minimum. It can be proved that this condition of
minimum specific energy corresponds to the critical state of flow. Thus, at the critical state the two
alternate depths apparently become one, which is known as the critical depth (YC). When the depth
of flow is greater than the critical depth, the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity for the
given discharge, and, hence, the flow is sub critical. When the depth of flow is less than critical depth

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

the flow is supercritical. Hence, Y1, is the depth of a supercritical flow, and Y2 is the depth of a sub
critical flow.

If the discharge changes the specific energy will be changed accordingly. The two curves A’B’ and
A”B” (Figure 2-3) represent positions of the specific energy curve when the discharge is less and
greater, respectively than the discharge used for the construction of the curve AB.

Critical state of Flow

The critical state of flow is defined as the state of flow at which the specific energy is a minimum for a
given discharge or it is the condition for which the Froude number (Fr2) is equal to unity.

V2 V
E = y+ , For Q =
2g A

Q2
E = y +
2 g A2

Differentiating with respect to y and noting that Q is a constant.

d E Q 2 dA
= 1−
dy g A3 dy

dA
The differential water area dA near the free surface (figure 2-2) is equal to T dy Now = T and
dy

dE
At the critical state of flow the specific energy is a minimum, or = 0 . The above equation,
dy
therefore, gives.

d E Q2
= 1− T =0
dy g A3

3 2
Ac Qc
=
Tc g

This is the criterion for critical flow, which states that at critical state of flow, the velocity head is
V
equal to half the hydraulic depth. The above equation may also be written Fr = = 1, which
gA / T
means Fr = 1; this is the definition of critical flow.

Calculation of Critical depth

Rectangular channel

From critical flow condition,

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

3 2
Ac Qc
=
Tc g

Q2
3
Tc = 1
Hence g Ac

<S
=1
m∗w»

<S
Therefore , =yo
m

Applying specific energy equation,

V2
E c = yc +
2g

<S
Where, =yo
m

yc 3* yc
E c = yc + =
2 2
€
In other way yo can be expressed in terms of unit discharge intensity, aq = Šb

<S ®
=yo , but V$ = w
m »

½ S J
a b ®S =
¾»
=yo * m + =yo
m

V V
Fr = =
gAc / Tc gyc
Froude No.

Triangular channel

For triangular channel section, A=my2 and T=2my

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

3 2
A Qc
From critical flow condition, c =
Tc g

2
(myc2 ) 3 Qc
=
2myc g

2
m 2 y c5 Qc
=
2 g

 2 * Qc 2  1
yc =  2 
5

 gm 

Applying specific energy equation,

V2
E c = yc +
2g

Q2
E c = yc +
2 Ac2 g

2
Q2 m 2 y c5 Qc
Ec = y c + , but it was known that =
2(my c ) g
2 2 2 g

Q2
E = yc +
c
(
2 myc2 g )
2

m 2 yc5
Ec = yc +
2 * 2m 2 yc4

5yc
Ec =
4
Froude No.

V V 2V
Fr = = =
gAc / Tc g myc2 2myc gyc

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Circular Channel

Let the circular channel has diameter (D) as shown below

Flow area A= Area of the sector + area of the triangle

 
=$ r $ (2Ө) + $ r cos(π − Ө) 2 sin(π − Ө)


=$ [r $ (2Ө) + 2r $ (cos π cos Ө + sin π sin Ө) ∗ (sin π cos Ө − sin Ө cos π)]


=$ r $ [2Ө − 2 cos Ө sin Ө], but it is known that r=D/2


= D$ [2Ө − 2 sin(2Ө)]

Top width, T=2rsin(π − Ө)=Dsin Ө

3 2
A Qc
From critical flow condition, c =
Tc g
=
J
À ƒS [$ӨM$ O($Ө)] €S
Á
=m
ƒ O Ө

[$ӨM$ O($Ө)]= €S
D¯ =m
¯$ O Ө

=
[$ӨM$ O($Ө)]S €
= =F(yo /D)
š(¯$ O Ө) šƒ m

This function is evaluated and given in table 2A.1 (Open channel hydraulics by K. subrmanya)

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Trapezoidal channel

Flow area, A = (B + myo )yo

Top width, Ä2 = T = B + 2myo
€S = ((ŠÆw» )w» )=
At critical flow, = =
m Å ŠÆ$w»

…¾» =
€S (Æ )
m
= yo . B$ Ç
S…¾»
aÆ b
Ç

Dividing side above equation by B¯ ,

…¾» =
€S w» . (Æ Ç )
= aŠb S…¾» ---------------------------------- (a)
mŠ aÆ b
Ç

Since an explicit expression for the critical depth yo is not possible, the non dimensional solution
facilitates the solution of yo by the aid of tables, Graphs or trial and error method.
w»
Let ᵹo = Š
and substituting this value into equation (a)

€S = (Æᵹ» )=
= (ᵹo ). (Æ$ᵹ» )
mŠ

Qm.¯ (1 + ᵹo ).¯
= Ѱ = (ᵹo ).¯
šgB$.¯ š(1 + 2ᵹo )

This equation can easily evaluated for various value of ᵹo and plotted for Ѱ Vs ᵹo

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

2.3 Channel Transitions

A channel transition is a change in the channel cross-section (width, bottom slope etc.). Such changes
in channel geometry may be brought at long distance or may be sudden. It was usually carefully
designed so that the energy losses at the transition are small, thus energy losses in the transition may
be neglected.

2.3.1 Channel Transition with Hump

Sub-critical flow
Consider a transition in which the bottom of the channel is raised by some depth ∆Z- hump
and frictionless rectangular channel with base B carrying a discharge Q at depth “y”.

Fig. Channel transition with hump

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Fig. Specific energy Diagram

Since there is no energy loss between section 1 and 2, the hump height ∆Z causes the specific energy
at a section 2 decrease s by ∆Z. it is also clear that as the flow is in sub-critical state the water surface
will drop due to decrease in specific energy. Specific energy at section 1 and 2

<S
E = y +$mJ and

E$= E-∆Z

From the figure above, the water surface at p will come down to R

<S €S
E$ = y$ +$mS = y$ +$mS

As value of ∆Z increases, depth y$ will decrease and the minimum flow is reached when R overlap
with C, at this point the hump height ∆Z will be maximum.

∆Z=∆Z. ↔ y2 =yc and E$ = Eo , therefore

€S
E$= E-∆Z. = E$ = Eo =yo +$mS
»

When ∆Z>∆Z. and E$ < Eo → No flow

Thus, the u/s depth has to be increased to increase the specific energy.

Fig Variation of y and y$ in sub-critical flow over hump

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Super-Critical Flow

If the flow at upstream section is in a super critical regimes the depth of flow increases due to
reduction of specific energy at downstream. In above figure (specific energy diagram) point p’
corresponds to y’1 will decrease to have higher specific energy.

Fig. Channel Transition with hump.

Fig. variation of y1 and y2 in super critical flow over a hump

2.3.2 Channel Transition with Change in Width

Sub-Critical flow in a Width Constriction
Consider a frictionless horizontal channel of width B1 carrying a discharge Q at a depth y1 (at
section 1)
At section 2 the channel width has been constricted to B2 by a smooth transition. Since there
are no losses involved and the bed elevations at section 1 and 2 are the same E1=E2

Fig. transition with Width Constriction

<S €S
E = y + $mJ = y + $mwS ŠS and
J J
V$$ Q$
E$ = y$ + = y$ +
2g 2gy$$ B$$

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Fig. Specific Energy Diagram (Channel Transition

Suppose B2< B1, therefore q2 > q1

See the following specific energy diagram

in Width)
Point p on the curve q1 corresponds to depth y and specific energy E. Since at section 2,
E1=E2 and q= q2, point p will move down ward velocity to R on the curve q2 to the depth y$ .
Therefore in sub-critical flow, y$ < y
If B2 made smaller, then q2 will increase and yo decreases.
The limit of contracted width B2= Bmin is obviously reached when corresponding to Ec the
discharge intensity for a given specific energy (critical flow condition) will prevail.
€S
E = EO=Eo =yo + $mwS ŠS
» …Êl

If B2< Bmin, the discharge intensity q1 will be larger than qmax the maximum discharge intensity
consistent with E with such condition flow is impossible, therefore the upstream depth will
have to be increased to y’1.
€S
So that, EË = y, + S is formed to cause the critical flow at a section-2
$m∗Fw,J G ∗ŠSJ
$
yo$ = . EË- for rectangular channel
Since B2< Bmin, will be larger than ycm.
However, critical flow prevails for all B2< Bmin, the depth at section-2 is not constant as the
hump case, but increases as y, and EË rises.

Fig. Variation of y$ and y in subcritical flow in width constriction

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Super Critical Flow in Width Constriction

Reduction of flow width and hence an increase in the discharge intensity cause a rise in the depth y2.

In the figure (specific energy diagram) point P’ corresponds to YË and R′ corresponds to y2. As width
B2 is reduced R′ moves upward till it become critical at B2= Bmin. Any further reduction causes the
upstream depth y to increase to YË , so that the increased EË. At section 2 critical depth yo
corresponding new specific energy will prevail.

Fig. Variation of y$ and y in super-critical flow in width constriction

2.4 Momentum Principle

The momentum equation is developed from Newtons second low of motion by summing up the
resultant force on a free body of fluid on one side of the equation and by developing the other side of
the equation into an equivalent expression in terms of rates of in flow and outflow of momentum.

According to Newton's second law of motion the change of momentum (dmv) per unit time, is equal
to the resultant of all external forces acting on a body (body of water flow in a channel in our case).

d (mv)
ΣF =
dt

The momentum passing a section A per unit time (∆t = 1sec):

dt
mv = ρ* (A. V) V
v
A

Where, A*V represent the volume passing per unit time.

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

mv = ρQV

Or including the momentum coefficient (Boussinesq coefficient)

mv = β * ρ * Q * v

Q2
mv = β * ρ *
A

Within the control volume defined in the figure there is an unknown energy loss and/or force acting
on the flow between section 1 and 2; the result is a change in the linear momentum of the flow. In
many cases, this change in momentum is accompanied by a change in depth of flow. The application
of Newton's second law, in a one dimensional flow to the control volume, i.e. equating the sum of all
external forces (F) to the rate of change of momentum (ρ Q V) for any two cross-sections 1 and 2
gives:

ΣF = ρQ(V2 −V1 )

Or including the momentum coefficient

ΣF = ρQ (β2V2 − β1V1 )

Consider a channel section of mild slope and analyzes the forces acting.
F1 wsinθ

F2
Ff θ
W
Thus, ∑F = ρQ (β2v2 – β1v2) implies

∑F = F1 –F2 + w sin θ - Ff = ρQ (β2 v2 - β1v1)

F1 and F2 are the resultant pressure forces acting on the two sections and w is the weight of the
water between the two sections. Ff is the total friction force acting along the surface of the body. The
slope is mild assume sin θ ≈ so = 0

W sin θ = 0

and for a flow with parallel flow lines the pressure is assumed to be hydrostatic.

The force F1 is ρgAy+, where A is the cross- sectional area and of y+ the depth of the center of gravity
of the area A (the depth of centroid of the cross sectional area measured below the surface of flow) .
For rectangular section of small slope

F = ρg by (½y) (y+ = ½ y)

(Remark for canals with large slope F = ρg bdcos θ ½ dcos θ = ½ ρg bd 2 cos2θ)

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

Therefore, substituting

W sin θ = o

F1 = ρg A1y1+

F2 = ρgA2y2+

F1 – F2 + w sinθ - Ff = ρQ (β2v2 - β1v1)

ρg A1y1+ - ρg A2 y2+ - Ff = ρQ (β2v2 - β1 v1)

β β 
- Ff = ρg A2y2+ - ρg A1y1+ ρQ2  2 − 1 
 A2 A1 

 βQ 2   β Q2 
- Ff = ρg  A2 y2 + +  −  A1 y1+ 1 
 A2 g   gA1 

Ff  + β Q2   Q2 
=  A1 y1 + 1  −  A2 y 2 + + β 2 
pq  gA1   gA2 

The term between brackets is called the momentum function (M) or in general:

Q2
M = A y+ + β
qA

Ff
⇒ = M1 – M2
sq

For a given discharge Q, channel shape and coefficient β the function, M depends only on the water
depth y. Plotting M against ay gives a similar figure as for the specific energy Es against depth y. This
curve is called specific force curve. In the figure two regions can be determined, namely sub and
supercritical flow. For every M > Mmin two water –depths exist, which are called the initial and
sequent depth. Together they are the conjugate depths.
b
ρ1
h
ρ2

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS HWRE

h  2b + B 
ρ1 =  
3  b+B 

h  2B + b 
ρ2 =  
2  b+B 

A =
1
(b + B )h
2

In applying the momentum principle to a short horizontal reach of a prismatic canal, the external
forces of friction and the weight effect of water can be ignored. Thus, with θ = 0 and Ff = 0 the
equation becomes:

M1 = M 2

Q2 Q2
A1 y1+ + β = A2 y2+ + β
gA1 gA2

βQ 2  βQ 2 
The momentum function M = y+A + consists of two terms. The second term   is the
gA  gA 
momentum of the flow passing through the channel section per unit time per unit weight of water,
and the first term (Ay+) is the force per unit weight of water. Since both terms are essentially force
per unit weight of water, their sum may be called the specific force. Accordingly, it may be expressed
as F1 = F2.

Thus, in analogy with the concept of specific energy) for a given value M, the M- y curve predicts two
possible depths of flow – conjugate depths of a hydraulic jump.

θ2
For a rectangular cross section y1 = ½ y. Assuming, β = 1 results in m = ½ Ay +
qA

The function per unit width (b = 1) reads

q2
M = ½ y2 +
gy

The function has on extreme for:

dM q2
= y − 2 =0 q − is disch arg e per unit width
dy gy

⇒ q2
Y3 =
g

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1
 q2 3 q2
Y = yc =   = 3
 g  g

d 2m q2
= 1 + 2
dy 2 gy 3

d 2m 2q 2 2g
for y = yc ⇒ = 1+ =1+ =3
dy 2  q2  g
g  
 g 

The minimum value of the specific momentum function can be found under the assumptions of
parallel flow and uniform velocity distribution by taking the first derivative of M with respect to y and
setting the resulting expression equal to zero or

dm
= −
Q2 dA
+
(
d y+ A
=0
)
dy gA 2 dy dy

Q 2 dA
− +A =0
gA 2 dy

Bs(dy) 2
Where d (y+A) = [A (y++dy) + ] − y + A ≈ Ady and where it is assumed that (dy)2 = 0 – Then
2
Q A
substituting dA/dy = T, v = , and D =
A T

V2 D
We get = which is the same criterion developed for the minimum value of specific force
2g 2
(momentum) occurs at minimum specific energy or critical depth.

The given number 3 is positive, so for momentum value for y =yc . It has to be noted that the given
relation for yc is only applicable for open rectangular (prismatic) channels.

For other cross sections the impulse momentum equation should be used

P  + β θ2   β θ2 
=  A1 y1 + 1 2  −  A2 y2 + 2 2 
sg  Ag   A g 
P
= M1 − M 2
qg

With these equation it is possible to compute one unknown among the four variables (F, Q, A1 ,A2) for
a given channel shape and β1 =β2 = 1; (y+ is also a function of channel shape and water level).

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The impulse momentum principle also follows from Newton’s second law. The flow may be
compressible or incompressible, real (with friction) or ideal (frictionless), steady or unsteady
moreover, the equation is not only valid along a streamline. The advantage of the impulse
momentum principle is that only the conditions at the end sections of the control volume govern the
analysis. It has a special advantage for application to problems involving high internal energy
changes, such as the problem of the hydraulic jump. If the energy equation is applied to such
problems, the unknown internal energy loss represented by hf is indeterminate, and the omission of
this term would result in a considerable errors. If instead the momentum equation is applied to these
problems, since it deals only with external forces, the effects of the internal forces, the effects of the
internal forces will be entirely out of consideration and need not be evaluated. The term for frictional
losses due to external forces, on the other hand, is unimportant in such problems and can safely be
omitted, because the phenomenon takes place in a short reach of the channel and the effect due to
external forces is negligible compared with the internal losses.

Solved Problems
1. Show that the critical depth yo is related to alternate depths y and y$ in rectangular channel by
the equation:
J
$wSJ wSS =
yo =aw b
J ÆwS

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2. A rectangular channel 3.00m wide carries a discharge of 10.00m3/sec. and has its specific
energy of 2.00m water. Calculate alternate depths and corresponding Froude numbers.

3. Calculate critical depth yc and corresponding specific energy Ec for the following different
shapes of channel when Q=8.5m3/sec.

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4. Supercritical flow occurs at Froude number (Fr=2) at a depth y=0.63m in a rectangular channel.
Find the critical depth yc.

5. The discharge of 16m3/sec. flows in 8.00m wide rectangular channel under critical condition of
flow. Find the depth yc and specific energy Ec corresponding to this flow. Also find the critical
slope if mannings n=0.015

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6. A rectangular channel with a discharge 25m3/sec. bottom width of 6.25m, depth y=2m is
contracted to 5.75m.
i. Find the depth at contraction and width at contraction.
ii. When the depth at contraction is critical, what will be the width at contraction?

7. Figure 1.30 shows a submerged flow over a sharp-crested weir in a rectangular channel. If the
discharge per unit width is 1.8m3/sec./m, estimate the energy loss due to the weir. What is the
force on the weir plate?

Solution:

<S ®S
Specific energy at upstream of weir (E1) =y + $mJ , but where V$ = wSJ

®S
(E1) =y + $mwS
J

.S
(E1) =1.80 + $∗ .∗.S

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= 1.851m

<S ®S
Specific energy at downstream of weir (E2) =y$ + $mS , but where V$$ = wSS

®S
(E2) =y$ + $mwS
S

.S
(E2) =1.30 + $∗ .∗.S

= 1.398m

Energy losses due to flow over the weir (∆E) = (E1) - (E2) =1.851-1.398=0.453m

Force on the weir plate can be found by applying momentum principle as follow

∑F = F1 –F2 + w sin θ - FD = ρQ (β2 v2 - β1v1), since the channel is horizontal Ө=0, hence w sin θ=0

wS wS ® ®
F1 –F2 - FD = ρQ (β2 v2 - β1v1), where F1=ɣ ∗ B* $J , F2=ɣ ∗ B* $S, V2= w and V2= w there fore
S S

wS wSS ® ®
ɣ ∗ B* $J – ɣ ∗ B* - FD = ρQ (β2 w - β1w ) , assume β2=β1=1.00 and dividing both side by ɣ ∗ B
$ S S

wSJ wSS σ ®S  
– - ɣ∗Š = aw −w b
$ $ m S S

σ wS wSS ®S  
= $J – - aw −w b
ɣ∗Š $ m S S

σ .S ..S .S  

= – –  . a .. − .b
ɣ∗Š $ $

σ
=0.704m$
ɣ∗Š

σ
=0.704m$ ∗ 9.81KN/m$ =6.91KN/m
Š

8. In a rectangular channel F1 and F2 are the Froude numbers corresponding to the alternate depths of a
certain discharge. Show that
S
Ï = $ÆÏS
aÏS b = $ÆÏSS
J J
Solution:
F1 and F2 are Froude numbers of alternate depths y1 and y2 respectively
Since y1 and y2 are alternate depths they have the same specific energy
<S <S
Thus, E1= y + $mJ = E2 =y$ + $mS
<S <S
y + $mJ = y$ + $mS , divide both side by y$ y
 <S  <S
+ $mwJw = + $mwSw
ÑS S J ÑJ S J

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Open Channel Hydraulics Module WRIE-31142

 <S  <S <S <S

*1 + $mwJ + = *1 + $mwSw +, where Ò$ = mwJ and Ò$$ = $mwSw
ÑS J ÑJ S J J S J
ÑJ $ÆÓSS ®S ®S
= *$ÆÓS +, but Ò$ = mw= and Ò$$ = mw= subsisting these value and simplifying in the equation
ÑS J J S

Ô , ÆÔ 
aÔ b = ÆÔ
 
Exercise: - show that in a triangular channel, the Froude number corresponding to alternate
depths is given by

Ô Õ Ö + Ô
\ ] =
Ô Ö + Ô
9. A 5.00m wide rectangular channel carries 20m3/sec. of discharge at a depth of 2.00m. The width
beyond a certain section is to be changed to 3.50m. If it is desired to keep the water surface elevation
unaffected by this change, what modifications are needed to the bottom elevation?

Solution:

Flow Area at upstream ; = Ä q = 5 ∗ 2 = 10×$

Ù $L
Flow velocity at upstream Ø = : = L = 2×/ÚÛÜ.

ÝJ $
Froude number at upstream Ò = = = 0.005 < 1
√uÑJ √ .∗$

Since Froude number at upstream is less than unity the flow is at subcritical.

<S $S
E1= y + $mJ = 2+ = 2.204m of water
$∗ .

Ù $L
Discharge intensity at contracted channel section ß$ = = = 5.714m3/sec/m
àS ..¯

J J
âSS = ¯.—yS =
Critical depth at contracted section qá$ =* + = * + = 1.493×
u  .

Critical energy at contracted section ãá$ = 1.5 qá$ = 1.5 ∗ 1.493 = 2.24× äå æçèÛé

If water level is not changed at upstream the specific energy at contracted section should have to be
maintained at critical energy at that section, thus ãá$ = ã$

Then, ∆Z=E1-E2 =2.204 - 2.24 = -0.036m, therefore the channel bed level lowered by 3.6cm.

10. A rectangular channel is 2.50m wide and conveys a discharge of 2.75m3/sec. at a depth of 0.90m. a
contraction of width is proposed at a section in this channel. Calculate the water surface elevations
in the contracted section as well as in an upstream 2.50m wide section when the width of the
proposed contraction is
a) 2.00m b) 1.50m. (Neglect energy losses in the transition).

Solution:

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Ù $.—¯
Flow velocity at upstream V = = $.¯∗L.  = 1.22×/ÚÛÜ.
:J

ÝJ .$$
Froude Number at upstream Òê = = = 0.41059 < 1
√uÑJ √ .∗L. 

Since Òê = 0.41059 < 1 the flow is at subcritical state at upstream.

ÝS .$$S
Specific energy at upstream ã = q + $u
J
= 0.9 +  .z$ = 0.976m of water

Let B2min. is a minimum width that doesn’t cause water surface change at upstream

Therefore, Ec2= E2= E1

$ $
Then critical depth for rectangular channel, qá$ = . ∗ ã = . ∗ 0.976 = 0.651×

J
âSS =
Discharge intensity can be found from the relation qá$ = * u + , hence

ß$ = šë ∗ qá$
.
=√9.81 ∗ 0.651. = 1.645m3/sec./m
Ù $.—¯
Again from the relation Ä$ìíî. = = = 1.67×
âS .zy¯

a) When B2= 2.00m, since B2 > Ä$ìíî. water surface at upstream remain (i.e q =
0.9×) unchanged and since energy losses in the transitions are neglected E2= E1

ÝS Ù
Hence, ã$ = q$ + $u
S
, however, V2 = :
S

ï$
ã$ = q$ +
2ëq$$ Ä$$
2.75$
0.976 = q$ +
2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ q$$ ∗ 2$

Solving by trial and error, q$ = 0.839×

b) When B2=1.5m, since B2 < Ä$ìíî. water surface at upstream should have to increase
to q, to increase the upstream energy ãË
ï 2.75
ß$ = = = 1.83×. /ÚÛÜ./×
Ä$ 1.5
J J
âSS = ..S =
Critical depth at downstream, qá$ = * u + = *  . + = 0.6997×

Specific energy at downstream is equal to the critical energy at downstream, thus,

Ec2= E2.
. .
ãá$ = $ ∗ qá$ = $ ∗ 0.6997 = 1.0495m of water

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Since energy losses in the transition is neglected Ec2= E2= ãË

Therefore,
ï$
ãË = qË +
2ë( qË )$ Ä$$
$.—¯S
1.0495m = qË + S
$∗ .∗F ÑJò G ∗$.¯S

Solving by trial and error method, qË = 0.986× and y2=yc2=0.6997m

11. A 3.00m wide horizontal rectangular channel is narrowed to a width of 1.50m to cause critical
flow in the contracted section. If the depth in contracted section is 0.80m, calculate the discharge in
the channel and the possible depths of flow and corresponding Froude numbers in the 3.00m wide
section. Neglected energy losses in the transition.
Solution:-
The flow in the contracted section is at critical flow, therefore qá$ = q$ = 0.80×
J
âSS =
Thus, qá$ = * u +
J J
ß$ = [qá$
.
∗ ë]S =[0.80. ∗ 9.81]S = 2.24×. /ÚÛÜ./×

Discharge in the channel, Q=ß$ ∗ Ä$ = 2.24 ∗ 1.5 = 3.36×. /ÚÛÜ.

Since energy losses in transition are neglected ã = ã$ = ãó$

ã = ã$ = ãó$ =1.5*qá$ = 1.5*0.80 = 1.20m of water

Applying specific energy equation at wide channel section

ï$
ã = q +
2ëÄ$ q$

3.36$
1.20 = q +
19.62 ∗ 3$ ∗ q$

Solving by trial and error, q = 1.153×

Ù ...z
Flow velocity at wide channel section, Ø = à = .∗.¯. = 0.97×/ÚÛÜ.
J ÑJ

ÝJ L. —
Froude number at wide channel, Ò = = = 0.288418
√uÑJ √ .∗.¯.

12. Water flows at a velocity of 1.00m/sec. and a depth of 2.00m in an open channel of rectangular
cross section and bed-width of 3.00m. At certain section the width is reduced to 1.80m and the
bed is raised by 0.65m. Will the upstream depth affected and if so, to what extent?

Solution:-
Flow discharge Q = V*A =1*2*3 =6m3/sec.

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ÝJ 
Froude number at upstream Òê = = = 0.226 < 1, thus the flow is subcritical
√uÑJ √ .∗$
ÝS 
Applying specific energy equation ã = q + $u
J
= 2 +  .z$ = 2.053× äå æçèÛé
Assuming energy losses in transitions are neglected,
ã$ = ã − ∆ô = 2.053 − 0.65 = 1.401×
Let is critical at contracted section, then for rectangular channel
$ $
qá = . ãá = . ∗ 1.401 =0.934m
J
S
âSõö÷
Again for rectangular channel, qá = a b
=
u

ß$ìsø. = (qá. ë)$ = š0.934. ∗ 9.81 = 2.827×. /ÚÛÜ./×
Ù z
Minimum width at downstream B2min =â = $.$— = 2.12× > 1.80×
Sõö÷
Since B2min > B2 available energy at section is less than minimum energy at the same section,
therefore the available energy is maintained at minimum energy and the upstream depth should
have to increased to qË and the upstream energy will increased to ãË
J
² S =
a b
Minimum energy at section2 ã$ = ãá = 1.5 ∗ ›  . ž =1.563582m
J.Á

Since energy losses in transition are assumed to be neglected the increased specific at upstream is

ãË = ã$ + ∆ô = 1.56 + 0.65 = 2.21× Of water

ÙS
Applying specific energy at upstream, ãË = qË + S
$uàJS FÑJò G

zS
2.21 = qË + S
 .z$∗.S ∗FÑJò G
Solving by trial and error, qË = 2.17×
The depth is increased by 2.17-2.00 = 17cm
13. The width of a horizontal rectangular channel is reduced from 3.50m to 2.50m and the floor is
raised by 0.25m in elevation at a given section. At the upstream section, the depth of flow is
2.00m and the kinetic energy correction factor α is 1.15 if the drop in the water surface
elevation is 0.20m and the kinetic energy correction factor at contracted section α is unity,
calculate the discharge if
a) Energy loss is neglected
b) The energy loss is one-tenth of the upstream velocity head

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Figure Example 13

Solution

Referring to Fig. above q = 2.00m

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CHAPTER THREE

FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS

3.1 Critical flow
As described in chapter 2, the critical state of flow through a channel is characterized by several
important conditions.

Recapitulating:

The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge,

dEs dEs αQ 2T
=0 =1− =0
dy dy qA3
dEs αv 2T αv 2T
=1− =1 − =0
dy g.A g. A
Q 2T
=1
g . A3
This dim ensionless number is the froude number Fr 2
V2
Fr 2 = α
A
g*
T

The discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy,

The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge,

1 Q2
d ( Ay + + )
dm 2 gA
= =0
dy dy

The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope,

v2 A
=
g T

The Froude number is equal to unity,

Q 2T v 2T
= =1
g. A3 gA

The velocity of low in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution is equal to the
celerity of small gravity waves in shallow water caused by local disturbance.

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A Ac
Vc = g = g
T Bc

Discussions on critical stage of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of a channel, known
as the critical section. If the critical state of flow exists throughout the entire length of the channel or
over a reach of the channel, the flow in the channel is critical flow. The slope of a channel that
sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical depth is called the critical slope (Sc). A slope of the
channel less than the critical slope will cause a slower flow of water sub critical state for the given
discharge, as will be shown later, and hence, is called a mild or sub critical slope and a slope greater
than the critical slope will result in a faster flow of water supercritical state and is called a steep or
supercritical slope.

A flow at or near the critical state is unstable. This is because a minor change in specific energy at or
close to critical state will cause a major change in depth. This fact can also be recognized in the
specific energy curve. It can be observed also that, which the flow is near the critical state, the water
surface appears unstable and wavy. Such phenomena are generally caused by the minor changes in
energy due to variations in channel roughness, cross-section, slope or deposits of sediment or debris.
In the design of channel, if the depth is found at or near the critical depth for a greater length of the
channel, the shape or slope of the channel should be altered, if practicable, is order to secure greater
stability.

The criterion for a critical state of flow

v2 A
=
g T

is the basis for the computation of critical flow. Two major applications of critical, flow theory are
flow control and flow measurement.

The section factor for critical flow computation

Take the criterion for a critical state of flow

v2 A
=
g T

Substituting v = Q/A gives

Q2 A
2
= Equation 3-1
gA T
3
Q2 A Q
⇒ = ⇒ = A A/T
g T g

But Z = A A/ T is defined in section 2.1 as the section factor for critical flow computation

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Q Q
⇒ Z = (When α is not assumed to be unity Z = )
g g
α

The above equation stages that the section factor Z for a channel section at a critical state of flow is
equal to the discharge divided by the square root of g. Since the section factor Z is a function of the
depth, the equation indicates that there is only one possible critical depth for maintaining the given
discharge in a channel and similarly that, when the depth is fixed, there can be only one discharge
that maintains a critical flow and makes the depth critical in the given channel section.

Equation 3.1is a very useful tool for the computation and analysis of critical flow in an open channel,
When the discharge is given, the equation gives the critical section factor Zc and, hence the critical
depth yc. On the other hand when the depth and, hence the section factor are given, the critical
discharge can be computed by the following form.

Q= Z g

g
Q =Z
α

3.2 Computation of critical flow

Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity (yc & vc) when
the discharge and the channel section are known. The methods illustrated by examples are given
below. On the other hand, if critical depth and channel section are known, the critical discharge can
g
be determined from the relation Q = Z g or Q = Z .
α

Algebraic method: For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be determined by an
algebraic computation using the basic equations.

Method of design chart: the design chart for determining the critical depth can be used with great
expediency. In developing a chart for this purpose, it is convenient to define the section factor for
Q
critical flow computation as discussed before. Substituting V = is the criterion for critical state of
A
v2 A
low = yields after simplification
2g 2T

Q A3
=Z =
g /α Bs

The left hand side of the above equation is by definition the section factor for critical flow Z, and the
right hand side of the equation is a function of only the channel shape and the depth of flow. A
design chart for the purpose of solving the critical depth problem is given is figure . . . . .

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Control section (flow control)

The control of flow in an open channel or at a structure means the establishment of explicit
relationship (one to one relationship) between the stage (water level) and the discharge of flow. When
the control of flow is achieved at a certain section of a channel or structure, this section is called the
control section. Holding a fixed stage –discharge relationship, the control section is always suitable for
gauging station since it is always suitable site for developing the discharge rating curve, a curve
representing the depth – discharge relationship.
At critical state of flow a definitive stage discharge relationship can be established and represented
Q
by t he equation Z = . This equation theoretically independent of the channel roughness and other
g
uncontrolled circumstances, Therefore, the critical flow section is a control section.

Control sections occur at entrances and exits to channels and at changes in channels slopes, under
certain conditions. A gate in channel can be a control for both the upstream and downstream
reaches. When a flow changes from sub- critical to super –critical conditions or vice versa, the water
depth must pass through the critical depth. The change from sub critical to supercritical occurs in a
control section. The change from super –critical to sub –critical is only possible by means of a
hydraulic jump.

A small change in downstream conditions (depth or discharge) of a flow will and cannot change the
upstream conditions when the upstream depth is critical or less than critical (yupstream = < yc). In this
case downstream conditions do not control the flow.

All super – critical (rapid) flows are controlled by upstream conditions and computations of surface
profiles start at the upstream end of a channel. However, sub –critical (or tranquil) flows will be
affected by small changes in downstream conditions and therefore the latter controls these flows.
Sub critical or tranquil flow computations start at the downstream end of a reach and are carried out
in an upstream direction.

If a flow over a spillway passes through critical stage at the channel, the depth can be computed
therefore a given discharge or the discharge can be found from the given (measured) water depth. In
case of steep channel the computation proceed in the downstream direction.

A change in a channel slope from mild to steep causes the flow to pass through critical stage at the
break in slope. Computation advance both upstream and downstream from the control section at the
break

Example of a control section is for example a reservoir (pool) created by a dam and the water flowing
over the dam through an overflow spillway. Different flow conditions might occur in the channel
downstream of the spillway.

If the channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical throughout the
channel. In the proximity of the dam, however, the flow in the reservoir is sub critical and the
reservoir surface will approach the horizontal. At the downstream end of the reservoir, near the
spillway a so called drawdown curve will develop, extending in an upstream direction, starting at a

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section near the spillway crest. The drawdown curve will be asymptotic to the upstream reservoir
level.

If the channel upstream of the spillway has a mild slope, the flow near the entrance is initially
subcritical. In the presence of the dam, the reservoir level will be raised for a long distance (upstream
from the spillway crest). The additional height in water level is required to build up enough energy
head, necessary to convey water over the spillway crest. This effect of raising the water level
upstream of s spillway is known as a backwater curve.

When in channel the bottom slope changes and the flow at that point alters from sub –critical to
super –critical, then the slope upstream of the break is mild, because the upstream flow is sub critical
and yn > yc. At the break the depth passes through critical depth. This point called the control section
since the depth at the break controls the upstream depth.

A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which t he uniform depth is
smaller than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes through critical depth in the
vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the control section. By measuring the depth at the
control section, a reasonably accurate value of Q can be computed.

Change from sub critical to supercritical flow at a change in slope

Another example where critical depth occurs is that of a free outfall with sub –critical flow upstream
of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the direction of flow, it is clear
that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any point upstream. As critical depth is the value for
which the specific energy is a minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall.
However, the value for the critical depth is derived on the assumption that the water is flowing in
straight and parallel flow lines. However at the free outfall gravity forces create curved streamlines,
So that the depth at the brink (outfall) yb is 0.72 *yc. Critical depth occurs somewhere upstream of
the brink (between 3 yc and 10 yc). For super –critical flow conditions; upstream of the outfall, on
drop down curve develops.

3.3 Uniform flow

Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristic the depth, wetted area, velocity,
and discharge at every sections of the channel is constant; the energy line, water surface, and
channel bottom are all parallel; i.e. their slopes are all equal Sf = Sw = So

Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is practically nonexistent.
In natural streams, even steady uniform flow is rare, for rivers and streams in natural states scarcely
ever experience a strict uniform flow condition. Despite this deviation from the truth, the uniform
flow condition is frequently assumed in the computation of flow in natural streams. The results
obtained from this assumption are understood to be approximate and general, but they offer a
relatively simple and satisfactory solution to many practical problems.

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Establishment of uniform flow

When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters resistance as it flows downstream. This
resistance is generally counteracted by the components of gravity forces acting on the body of the
water in the direction of motion. A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is balanced by the
gravity forces, i.e., the head loss due to turbulent flow is exactly balanced by the reduction in
potential energy due to the uniform decrease in the elevation of the channel. The magnitude of the
resistance, when other physical factors of the channel are kept unchanged, depends on the velocity
of flow.

If the water enters the channel slowly, the velocity and hence the resistance are small and the
resistance is outbalanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating flow in the upstream
reach. The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase until a balance between resistance and
gravity force is reached. At this moment and afterwards the flow become uniform. The upstream
reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow is known as the transitory zone. In this
zone the flow is accelerating and varied. If the channel is shorter than the transitory length required
by the given conditions, uniform flow couldn't be attained. Towards the end of the channel the
resistance may again be exceeded by the gravity forces and the flow may become varied. In general,
uniform flow can occur only in very long, straight, prismatic channels where a terminal velocity of
flow can be achieved.

Figure 3-1 Establishment of uniform flow in longitudinal channel

For purposes of explanation, a long channel is shown with three different slopes (figure 3-1): sub
critical, critical and supercritical. At the sub critical slope the water surface in the transitory zone
appears adulatory. The flow is uniform in the middle reach of the channel but varied at the two ends.
At the critical slope (middle sketch) the water surface of the critical flow is unstable. Possible
undulations may occur in the middle reach, but on the average the depth is constant and the flow
may be considered uniform. At the supercritical slope the transitory water surface passes from the
sub critical stage to the supercritical stage through a gradual hydraulic drop. Beyond the transitory
zone the flow is approaching uniformity. The depth of uniform flow is called the normal depth. In the

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figures the long dashed lines represents the normal- depth line, abbreviated as N. D. L, and the short
dashed or dotted lines represents the critical –depth line, or C. D .L.

3.4 Computation of Uniform flow

For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be computed approximately
by one of a number of semi empirical uniform flow equations. All of these equations have the form

V = CRx Sy

Where

V = average velocity

R = hydraulic radius

S = channel longitudinal slope

C = resistance coefficient

X and y coefficients

The popular two equations are the Chezy’s equation, developed in 1769, and the Manning’s
equation, developed in 1889.

The chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an assumption regarding
the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference to the figure below, the definition of
uniform flow requires that the forces resisting flow exactly equal the forces causing motion. The force
causing motion is

Fig. 3.2. Derivation of the Chezy’s formula for uniform flow in open channel

F = W sinθ = γ A L sin θ

Where: W = weight of third within control volume

γ = Third specific weight

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L = control volume length

θ = Longitudinal slope angle of a channel.

If θ is small, which is usually the case, then sin θ ≈ S0

Thus, F = γAL So = ρgAL S0

For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of resistance is

Ff = τ * P * L

Equating F = Ff

τ * P * L = ρg AL So

A
⇒ τ = ρg So = ρg R S0
P

τ Is shear stress along the perimeter, if it is let shear velocity V* = gRS 0 the above equation
implies. τ = ρ V*2

V* is known as shear velocity.

From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel perimeter resisting motion.
Ff, is proportional to the square of the average velocity or

Ff ∼ V2

Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of resistance can also be
written as

Ff = KLPV2

Where K = constant of proportionality. Setting the force casing motion equal to the force resisting
motion, i.e. F = Ff.

ρ gALS o = KLPV 2

⇒ γ ALS o = KLPV 2

 γ  A
=
1/ 2
⇒ V   S0
 K  P
γ 
1/ 2

V =   RS o
 k 
γ 
=  
1/ 2
V RS
 k 

Where the subscript associated with s has been dropped. For convenience define.

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γ 
1/ 2

C =  
k

γ 
1/ 2

The resistance coefficient, c, defined as   is commonly known as the Chezy C and in practice is
k
determined by either measurement or estimate. The coefficient of resistance defined by the above
equation is not dimensionless but has dimensions of acceleration; i.e. length /time2 or LT-2.

Substituting this gives the famous Chezy Formula

V = C RS --------------------------------------------------------------------------- (*)

Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of energy line (m/m),
and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy’s C.

The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is completely empirical in
nature. In application of the Manning equation, it is essential that the system of units being used be
identified and that the appropriate coefficient is used. In the SI system of units, the Manning
equation is

V = 1/n R2/3 S ----------------------------------------------------------------------- (**)

Where n = Manning resistance coefficient. As was the case with the chezy resistance coefficient, n is
not dimensionless but has dimensions of TL-1/3 or in the specific case of the equation above S/m1/3.

From the viewpoint of modern fluid mechanics, the dimensions of the resistance coefficients C and η
and to take these dimensions into account where appropriate.

Since the Chezy’s and Manning’s equations describe the same phenomena, the coefficients C and n
must be related setting equation (*) is equal to equation (**), i.e Vchezy = VManning yields.

C = 1/n R1/6

Equivalent (Composite) Roughness Calculation

In some channels different parts of the channel perimeter may have different roughness.

Example:- Channels in which only sides are lined

-Laboratory flumes with sides are glass

-Rivers with sides are covered by grass and beds are sand covered

For such channels it is important to determine the equivalent roughness coefficient that can be applied to the
entire cross-section perimeter in using discharge calculation formula’s.

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Let’s consider a channel having its perimeter composed of N types of roughness n1, n2 , n3...nN for the
respective perimeter P1 , P2 , P3 ,....PN

Figure 3.3 Channel with different roughness

Each parts of perimeter Pi associated with a partial area Ai such that
N

∑ A = A + A + A + ... + A
i =1
i 1 2 3 N = A = Totalarea

Assume that the mean velocity in each partial area is the mean velocity “V” for the entire area of
flow, i.e V1 = V2 = V3 = ... = VN = V

Using Manning’s formula,

V1n1 V2n2 Vn V n Vn
So1 2 = 23
= 2 3 = ... = i2 3i = ... = N 2 3N = ... = 2 3 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
R1 R2 Ri RN R

Where n= equivalent roughness

From equation (1)

Vi ni Vn
=
Ri2 3 R2 3

Vi ni Vn
23
= 23
 Ai   A
   
 Pi   P

Simplifying this equation,

32 32
V   n  pi
Ai = A i   i 
V   n  p

Summing both side

32 32
V   n  pi
∑ Ai = A∑  Vi   ni  p , Simplifying this equation

n = ∑ i i 
23
 n3 2 P 
 P 

If the Darcy-Weisbatch friction formula is used under the same assumption of

i. Velocity being the same in all partial area

ii. Bed Slope is common to all partial area, then

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fLV 2
hf =
8Rg Dividing both side by L

hf fV 2 fV 2 P
= So = =
L 8Rg 8 Ag , Hence

f iVi 2 Pi fV 2 P
=
8 Ai g 8 Ag , simplifying this equation

fi Pi fP
=
Ai A , summing both side

 f i Pi 
 = ∑   , simplifying
fP
∑   A
 Ai 

∑( f P ) = f
i i

Exercise:- Repeat the equation if Chezy’s equation is used with the same assumptions.

Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

From the previous section:

The Manning’s equation gives V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2

The Chezy’s equation gives V = C RS = CR 1 / 2 S 1 / 2

and by law of conservation of mass this equations, when multiplied by the flow area, yields an
equation for uniform flow rate or

Manning’s Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2

Chezy’s Q = C AR1/2 S1/2

In Manning’s equation the parameter 1/n AR 2/3 and in the Chezy’s equation the parameters CAR1/2
are called the conveyance of a channel section. It is measure of the carrying capacity of a channel
section; since it is directly proportional to Q.

Q
Manning ‘s K = 1/n AR2/3 =
S1 / 2

Q
Chezy’s K = CAR1/2 =
S1 / 2

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The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the geometry of the wetted
area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given. Since Manning’s formula is used
extensively, most of the following discussions and computations will be based on Manning’s
equation.

Conveyance of a channel section increases within increase in hydraulic Radius R or with decrease in
the wetted perimeter.

K ∼ R ∼ 1/P Q = 1/n AR2/3 S1/2

Q = 1/n K S1/2

From a hydraulic viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least wetted perimeter for a
given area has a maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the best hydraulic section.

In Manning’s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for uniform flow
computation; it is an important element in the computation of uniform flow. From Manning’s
equation

nQ
AR2/3 =
So

The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side depends only on the
geometry of the water area. Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n, Q, and S, there is
only one possible depth for maintaining uniform flow, provided that the value of AR2/3 always
increases with increase in depth, which is true in most cases. This depth is the normal depth. When n
and S are known at a channel section, from the equation there can be only one discharge for
maintaining a uniform flow through the section, provided that AR2/3 always increases with increase of
depth. This discharge is the normal discharge.

When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the section factor AR2/3 and
hence, the normal depth yn. On the other hand, when n, s and yn, hence the section factor are given,
the normal discharge Q can be computed from

Q = 1/nAR2/3 S1/2

This is essentially the product of the wetted area and the velocity defined by the Manning’s formula.

In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q, the shape of the
channel, bottom slope and n are known and yn must be estimated. In such cases, an explicit solution
is not possible and problem must be solved by

Trial and error (Algebric method)

Numerical method (using computer)

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Design chart (using graph) or Table

In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation between depth and
section factor AR2/3 have been prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular channel sections.

Rectangular Channel

a) Wide Rectangular Channel(yo/B<0.02)

Fig. 3.3 Rectangular Channel Section

Wetted area A = Byo

Wetted perimeter P = B + 2 yo

A Byo yo
Hydraulic Radius R = = =
P B + 2 yo  2 yo 
1 + 
 B 

yo
Where = Aspect − Ratio
B

As y/B decreases R → qù
2 1
AR 3 So 2
Discharge Q =
n
2 1
By y 3 S 2
Q= o o o
n

5 1 Q
Q yo 3 So 2
= , But =q
B n B
3
 qn  5

  = yo
 So 

b) Rectangular Channel(yo/B>0.02)

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2 1
AR 3 So 2
From Q=
n

Qn 2
= AR 3
So

Qn
=
[Byo ] 5
3

So (B + 2 yo ) 3
2

Simplifying this equation

Qn
=
[ yo B] 5
3

So B
8
3 (1 + 2 yo B)23

Qn
Let Ф = 8 yo
So B 3 and ɳo = B

Φ(ηo ) =
Qn
=
[ηo ] 5
3

So B
8
3 (1 + 2ηo ) 3 2

When Φ(ηo ) Vs ηo plotted it provided a non-dimensional graphical solution

 
 Φ(η ) = Qn 
 o 8 
3
 So B 

Trapezoidal Channel

Fig. 3.4 Trapezoidal Channel section

Wetted Area A = (B + myo ) yo

Wetted Perimeter P = B + 2 yo 1 + m2

Hydraulic Radius R =
A
=
(B + myo )y
P B + 2 yo 1 + m 2

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Open Channel Hydraulics Module WRIE-31142

2 1
AR 3 So 2
From Q=
n

([B + myo ]yo )

5
Qn 3
=
So (
B + 2 yo 1 + m 2 3
2
)
Simplifying this equation

(1 + my / B) 3 ( yo / B) 3
5 5
Qn
=
So B
8
3
(1+ 2 y / B 1+ m )
o
2
2
3

(1 + mηo ) 3 (ηo ) 3
5 5
Qn
φ= =
So B
8
3
(1 + 2η o 1 + m2 )
2
3

A curve of Ф Vs ɳù with m as third parameter will provide a general normal solution.

Circular Channel

Let D be the diameter of a circular channel and 2Ө be the angle in the radians subtended by
the water surface at the centre.

Fig. 3.5 Circular Channel section

Wetted area = Area of sector – Area of Triangle portion

A = 1 r 2 * 2θ − 1 * 2 * ro sin(2θ )ro cos(2θ )

2 2

A = 1 r 2 (2θ − sin(θ ))
2

A = 1 D2 (2θ − sin(θ ))
8

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Wetted perimeter P = 2roθ = Dθ

ro − yo  2 yo 
However cos(2θ ) = = 1 −
ro 
ro 

Hence θ = f ( yo / D)

2
3
AR 1
Q= So 2
n

Qn ( 8 D (2θ − sin(θ )))

5
1 2 3

=
So (Dθ )23

(2θ − sin(θ ))
5

= φ ( yo / D)
Qn 3
=
32(θ ) 3
8 2
3
So D

This function has been evaluated for various value of y/D and given as table or graphically.

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This self explanatory curves will help to determine the depth for a given section factor AR2/3, and the
vice versa.

In the case of a closed conduit having a gradually closing top, the value of AR2/3 will first increase with
depth and then decrease with depth when the full depth is approached, because a maximum value of
AR2/3 usually occurs in such a condition at a depth slightly less than the full depth. Consequently, it is
possible to have two depths for the same AR2/3.

Compound Channel Section

Some channel section may be formed of a combination of elementary sections.

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Figure 3.6 Compound Section

As shown in fig.3.6 above the channel is divided by imaginary lines (CK and FJ )

Assuming the longitudinal slopes to be the same for all sub sections, it is easy to see that the sub
sections will have different velocities depending on the depth and roughness of the boundaries.

Generally over banks have larger size of roughness than the deeper main channel. If the depth of flow
is confined to the deep channel only (i.e y<h), discharge calculation is too easy.

If depth of flow y>h, discharge calculation is complicated as the calculation may give smaller hydraulic
radius (R), hence discharge may underestimated. This underestimation may happen for h<y<ym
Where ym = maximum value of y beyond which the underestimation of discharge as above doesn’t
occure.

For values of y>ym, considering the whole area as unity is adequate.

If h<y<ym ïûùûsü = ∑þ í
 ïí

Maximum depth up on the channel geometery.

Method of Discharge Calculation in Compound channel Section

i) The discharge is calculated as the sum of the partial discharges in the sub-areas (1, 2, 3,)
ïr =  ïí =  Øí ;í
ii) The discharge is also calculated by considering the whole section as unity (Portion ABCDEFGHA) in
fig. above. (Qw)
iii) The larger of the above two discharge, Qp and Qw, is adopted as the discharge at depth y
For determining the discharge in partial areas( Qp) two methods are available:
1) Posey’s Method:- in this method, while calculating the wetted perimeter for sub-areas, the imaginary
divisions (FJ and CI) in figure above are considered as boundary for the deeper portion and neglected
completely in the shallower portion. In this shear stress that accounted for interface of the deeper and
shallower parts.
2) Zero Shear Method:- treat the interface as purely a hypothetically interface with zero shear stress. The
interfaces are not counted as perimeter either for the deep portion or shallow portion.

Solved Problem
1) For a trapezoidal channel with base width B = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2, calculate the critical
depth of flow if Q = 17 m3/s.

Solution

The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical flow viz.

v2 A
=
2g 2T

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The top width (T) and wetted area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in terms of the depth y as

A = (B+ my) y = (6 +2 y)y

T = B + 2my = 6 + 4y

A (6 + y ) y
∴ =
T 6 + 2y
Q 17 17
and V = = =
A (6 + 2 y ) y 2(3 + y ) y

v2 A
Substituting the above relations in = gives
2 g 2T

(17 / (6 + 2 y ) y )2 =
(3 + y )
g 3 + 2y

Simplifying,

7.4 (3+ 2y) = [(3+y) y] 3

By trial and error, the critical depth is approximately,

yc = 0.84 m

and the corresponding critical velocity is

17
= 2.6 m/ s
Vc = [6 + 2(0 .84)]0.84

2) A circular channel 0.91 m in diameter conveys a flow of 0.71 m3/s; estimate the critical depth of
flow.

Solution

For α = 1
Q 0.71
Z = = = 0.227
g 9.81
Z 0.227
and 2.5
= = 0.287
d0 0.912.5
From figure (the design chart )
yc
= 0.54
d0
y c = 0.54 * 0.91 = 0.49 m

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3) Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3m, side slope 1.5, a longitudinal slope of
0.0016 and estimated n of 0.013, find the normal depth of flow for a discharge of 7.1m3/sec.

Solution:

nQ 0.013* 7.1
AR 2 / 3 = = = 2.3075
S 0.0016

With

A = (B + my ) y = (3 + 1.5 y ) y
P = B + 2 y 1 + m2 = 3 + 2 y 3.25 = 3 + 3.6 y

R =
(3 + 1.5 y ) y
3 + 3 .6 y

Then the following table in constructed by assuming values of y and computing corresponding values
of AR2/3 matches the value computed from the problem statement, the corrected value of yn has
been determined as 0.8m

Trial y, m A, m2 Pm R, m AR2/3
1.00 4.5 6.605551 0.681245 3.484027
0.90 3.915 6.244996 0.626902 2.867685
0.80 3.36 5.884441 0.570997 2.312572
0.70 2.835 5.523886 0.513226 1.817294

4. A trapezoidal channel of bed-width 4.00m and side slopes 1.5horizontal to 1vertical has a sand bed
(n1=0.025). At certain reach the sides are lined by smooth concrete (n2=0.012). Calculate the
equivalent roughness of this reach if the depth of flow is 1.50m.
Solution
• The channel bed is covered by sand (n1=0.025) and is 4.00m wide, which is wetted perimeter
at channel bed (P1=4.00m)
• The channel sides (1.5H:1V) are lined by smooth concrete (n2=0.012) and the wetted
perimeter can be found as
P2=2 *y*√1 + ×$
P2=2 *1.5*√1 + 1.5$ =5.41m
Total wetted perimeter (P) = P1+P1 = 4+5.41 =9.51m
⁄ $⁄. $⁄.
∑aî= S j b L.L$¯=⁄S ∗yÆL.L$=⁄S ∗¯.y
Equivalent roughness (n) = ” j
– = À  .¯
 = 0.018

5. A rectangular channel 3.60m wide had badly-damaged surfaces and had a Manning’s roughness
coefficient (n=0.03). As a first phase of repair, its bed was lined with concrete (n=0.015). If depth of
flow remains same at 1.20m before and after the repair, what is the increase of discharge obtained as
result of repair?
Solution

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• Wetted perimeter of channel section (P) =B+2y = 3.6+2*1.2 = 6.00m

• Wetted Area (A) = By =3.6*1.2 =4.32m2
A 4.32
• Hydraulic Radius (R) = R = = = 0.72 m
P 6.00
AR 2 / 3 S
• Discharge (Q1)=
n1 --------------------------------a
• During repairs :-
 Only the channel bed is lined with concrete (nr=0.015) and wetted perimeter
(P1=3.60m)
 The sides are remain unlined (n1=0.03) and wetted perimeter of the sides can be (P2=
2y = 2*1.2 =2.4m)
⁄ $⁄. $⁄.
∑aî= S j b L.L.=⁄S ∗$.yÆL.L¯=⁄S ∗..z
• Equivalent roughness (n2) =” j
– = À z.LL
 = 0.02163

AR 2 / 3 S
• Discharge (Q2)=
n2 -------------------------------b
• Increase in discharge can be determined by dividing equation (b) by equation (a )
2
3
AR
Q2 n2 n1
= =
Q1 AR 2 3 n2
n1

n1Q1 0.03
Q2 = = Q1 = 1.387Q1
n2 0.02163

The discharge increased by 38.7%
6. A trapezoidal channel of bed-width 10.00m and side slope m=1.5 carries a discharge of 15.00m3/sec.
at a depth of 1.30m. calculate the bed slope required if the channel bed is lined with smooth concrete
(n=0.012)
Solution

Wetted area (A) = (B+my)y = (10+1.5*1.30)*1.30 = 15.54m2

Wetted perimeter (P) = B+2y√1 + ×$ =10+2*1.30*√1 + 1.5$ = 14.69m
: ¯.¯y

Hydraulic Radius (R) = j = y.z  = 1.06×

AR 2 / 3 S
Discharge (Q) =
n
2
 Qn   15 * 0.012 
2

Therefore channel bed slope (S) =  2 

= = 0.00012
15.54 *1.06 
23
 AR 3 
7. A rectangular channel is to be laid on a slope of 0.0005. The side slope will be of smooth concrete
(n=0.013). What width of channel is necessary to carry a discharge of 9.00m3/sec. with a normal depth
of 1.60m?
Solution

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nQ 0.013* 9.00
AR 2 / 3 = = = 5.232
S 0.0005

With

A = By = 1.6 B
P = B + 2 y = B + 2 * 1 .6 = B + 3 .2
1 .6 B
R =
B + 3 .2

Then the following table in constructed by assuming values of B and computing corresponding values
of AR2/3 matches the value computed from the problem statement, the corrected value of B has been
determined as 3.64m

Trial B, m A, m2 Pm R, m AR2/3
3.00 4.8 6.2 0.774194 4.047072
3.20 5.12 6.4 0.8 4.412282
3.40 5.44 6.6 0.824242 4.782286
3.64 5.824 6.84 0.851462 5.231966
3.84 6.144 7.04 0.872727 5.610957
8) An old rectangular canal having a width of 5.00m and a slope of 0.001 was gauged to determine its
roughness coefficient. If a discharge of 18.00m3/sec. was indicated when the depth of uniform flow was
2.00m, estimate the value of Manning’s n.
Solution
 Wetted area (A) = By = 5*2 =10m2
 Wetted perimeter (P) = B+2y =5+2*4 = 9m
A 10
 Hydraulic Radius (R) = = = 1.11m
P 9
AR 2 / 3
 Discharge (Q) = S
n
AR 2 / 3 10 *1.112 3

Therefore the Manning’s (n ) = S= 0.001 = 0.0188
Q 18
9) A trapezoidal channel of bed width 3.00m and side slope 1.5horizontal to 1vertical carries a full supply of
10.00m3/sec. at a depth of 1.50m.
a) What would be the discharge at half of full supply depth (i.e at 0.75m)?
b) What would be the depth discharge at half of full supply discharge (i.e at 5.00m3/sec)?

Solution

Wetted area (A) = (B+my)y =(3+1.5*1.5)*1.5 = 7.875m2

Wetted Perimeter (P) = B+2y√1 + ×$ = 3 + 2 ∗ 1.5 ∗ √1 + 1.5$ = 8.41×
A 7.875

Hydraulic Radius (R) = = = 0.936 m
P 8.41

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AR 2 / 3 S

Discharge (Q) =
n
S Q 10
 Hence = 23
= = 1.327
n AR 7.875 * 0.936 2 3
a) Discharge at half of full supply depth (i.e at 0.75m)
Wetted Area (A) = (B+my)y = (3+1.5*0.75)*0.75 = 3.094m2
Wetted perimeter (P) = B+2y√1 + ×$ = 3 + 2 ∗ 0.75 ∗ √1 + 1.5$ = 5.70×
A 3.094
Hydraulic Radius (R) = = = 0.54 m
P 5.70
AR 2 / 3 S
Discharge (Q) = = 3.094 * 0.542 3 *1.327 = 2.72 m3 sec
n
b) The depth discharge at half of full supply discharge (i.e at 5.00m3/sec)

nQ 5
AR 2 / 3 = = = 3.7679
S 1.327

With

A = (B + my ) y = (3 + 1.5 y ) y
P = B + 2 y 1 + m2 = 3 + 2 y 3.25 = 3 + 3.6 y

R =
(3 + 1.5 y ) y
3 + 3 .6 y

Then the following table in constructed by assuming values of y and computing

corresponding values of AR2/3 matches the value computed from the problem statement,
the corrected value of yn has been determined as 1.043m
2 2/3
Trial y, m A, m Pm R, m AR
0.90 3.915 6.244996 0.626902 2.867685
0.95 4.20375 6.425274 0.654252 3.168111
1.00 4.5 6.605551 0.681245 3.484027
1.043 4.760774 6.76059 0.704195 3.768248
1.09 5.070974 6.940868 0.730596 4.113483

10) For the compound section shown in fig .3.10. find the discharge when
a) h= 0.20m and b) h=1.00m. Assume n=0.02 and So =0.0009 for all parts of the perimeter.
Use Posey’s method for computing partial discharges.

A1 A2 A3

Fig. 3.7 Problem 10

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Solution

Case (a): h = 0.20m

i) Partial Area discharge by posey’s method

Sub-area 1 A1 = (10*2+1.5*0.2)*0.2/2=10.15m2
P1 = 10+0.2*√1 + 1.5$ = 10.36m
: L.¯
R1 = j = L..z
= 0.98
23
A1 R1 S 10.15 * 0.982 3 0.0009 3
Q p1 = = = 15.02 m
n 0.02 sec .
3
Similarly Qp3 = 15.02m /sec.
Sub-area 2: A2 = area of trapezoidal section + area of rectangular section
A2 = (5+1*3)*3+0.2*(2*5+3*2*1) =27.2m2
P2 = 5+2*3* 1 + 12 + 2 * 0.2 = 13.89m
: $—.$L
R2 =j = .. 
= 1.96×

A2 R22 3 S 27.20 * 1.96 2 3 0.0009

Qp2 = = = 79.97 m 3 sec .
n 0.02
Qp = Total discharge by partial areas
=15.02+15.02+79.97 =110.01m3/sec.
ii) By the total-section Method
A = 10.15+10.15+27.20 = 47.5m2
P = 2 * 0.2 * 1 + 1.5 2 + 2 * 10 + 2 * 3 2 + 5 = 34.21m
A 47.50
R = = = 1.39 m
P 34.21
AR 2 3 S 47.50 * 1.39 2 3 0.0009
Qw = = = 88.74 m 3 sec .
n 0.02
Since QW < Qp the discharge in the channel is taken as Q = Qp =110.01m3/sec.

Case (a): h = 1.00m

i) Partial Area discharge by posey’s method

Sub-area 1 A1 = (10*2+1.5*1)*1/2=10.75m2
P1 = 10+1*√1 + 1.5$= 11.80m
: L.—¯
R1 = j = .L
= 0.91
23
A1 R1 S 10.75 * 0.912 3 0.0009 3
Q p1 = = = 15.14 m
n 0.02 sec .
Similarly Qp3 = 15.14m3/sec.
Sub-area 2: A2 = area of trapezoidal section + area of rectangular section
A2 = (5+1*3)*3+1*(2*5+3*2*1) =40.00m2
P2 = 5+2*3* 1 + 12 + 2 * 1 = 15.49m
: yL
R2 =j = ¯.y 
= 2.58×

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A2 R22 3 S 40.00 * 2.58 2 3 0.0009

Q p2 = = = 112.87 m 3 sec .
n 0.02
Qp = Total discharge by partial areas
=15.14+15.14+112.87 =143.15m3/sec.
ii) By the total-section Method
A = 10.75+10.75+40.00 = 61.50m2
P = 2 * 1 * 1 + 1.5 2 + 2 * 10 + 2 * 3 2 + 5 = 37.09m
A 61 .50
R = = = 1.66 m
P 37 .09
AR 2 3 S 61.50 * 1.66 2 3 0.0009
Qw = = = 129.33 m 3 sec .
n 0.02
Since QW < Qp the discharge in the channel is taken as Q = Qp =143.15m3/sec

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CHAPTER FOUR

GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)

In uniform flows the cross section through which water flow remains constant. Also the velocity remains the
same, in magnitude and direction; in varied flow the cross section changes in the flow direction, the water
depth changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady
uniform flow is rare, the term "unsteady flow” is used for unsteady varied flow exclusively. Varied flow may be
further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied.

The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is
gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as local phenomenon examples are the hydraulic jump
and the hydraulic drop.

Gradually varied flow is a steady flow, whose depth varies gradually along the channel. This means that 3
conditions are met.

• The hydraulic flow characteristics remain constant in time;

• The streamlines are practically parallel meaning the hydrostatic pressure prevails,
• Bed friction is assumed to be equal to the friction in uniform flow (Manning, chezy). Also, the uniform-
flow formula may be used to evaluate the energy slope of GVF at a given channel section.
Therefore, when the depth of flow in an open channel flow varies with longitudinal distance, the flow is
termed as gradually varied. Such situations are found both upstream and downstream of control sections.
In this chapter the theory and analysis of gradually varied flow are considered.

4.1 General Equation for Gradually varied flow

The main forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity, hydrostatic force due to change in depth
and friction. The first three forces represent the kinetic and potential energy, while the forth dissipates useful
energy into the useless kinetic energy of turbulence and eventually into heat due to action of viscosity. The
total energy of an elementary volume of water is given as:

V2
E = Z + Y + α
2g

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Where:

Z + Y is the potential energy head above a datum

V2
α is the kinetic energy head (v = mean velocity in the section).
2g

Each term of the equation represents energy. The gradually varied flow equation is derived by assuming that
for gradually varied flow the change in energy with distance is equal to the friction loss. For the general
equation other losses than friction, like eddy, bend and/or bridge losses are not included.

Therefore, at any section, the total energy is

V2
E =Z+Y+
2g

Where y = dept of flow, Z = elevation of the channel bottom above a datum and assuming α = 1 and cosθ = 1
(slope channel is small sinθ ≈So). Differentiating this equation with respect to the longitudinal distance x
yields:

 V2   v2 
d  Z + Y +  d  
= 
dE 2 g  =  2 g  + dy + dz
dx dx dx dx dx

dE
The term is the change of energy with longitudinal distance or the friction slope.
dx

Define,

dE
= − Sf
dx

It should be noted that the friction loss dE is always a negative quantity in the direction of flow (unless outside
energy is added)

dZ
The term is the change of elevation of the bottom of the channel with respect to distance or the bottom
dx
slope.

dZ
Define, = − So
dX

It should be noted that the slope is defined as the sine of the slope angle and that it is assumed positive if it
descends in the direction of flow and negative if it ascends. But the change in the bottom elevation dZ is a
dZ
negative quantity where the slope descends. Thus, the slope of the channel bottom So = sin θ = -
dx

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 v2 
d  
For a given flow rate Q, the term
 2 g  becomes
dx

 v2 
d   2
 2 g  = − Q 2 dA dy = − Q T dy Fr 2 dy
dx qA 3 dy dx qA 3 dx dx

 v2 
d  
=   +
dE 2g dy dz
Substituting, in + yields
dx dx dx dx

dy dy
− S f = − Fr + − So
2

dx dx
⇒ So − Sf =
dy
dx
1 − Fr
2
( )
dy So − S f
⇒ =
1 − Fr
2
dx

This equation is called the general equation of gradually varied flow (also known as dynamic equation of GVF).
It describes the variation of the depth of flow in a channel of arbitrary shape as a function of So, Sf and Fr2. Sf
 dE 
represents the slope of the energy line   . For uniform flow the bed slope (So) and the friction slope (Sf)
 dx 
are parallel. The friction slope (Sf) for non-uniform, gradually varied flow is not parallel to the bottom slope,
but is evaluated using Manning’s the Chezy’s (Colebrook–white) equation. There is no general explicit solution
(although particular solutions are available for prismatic channels). Numerical methods are normally used.

Note that

dE
= − Sf
dx
dZ
= − So
dx
dEs
= So − Sf
dx

The later is derived as:

v2
E = Z+Y+
2g

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 αv 2 
d  Z + Y + 
dE  2g  = −S
= f
dx dx

 αv 2 
d  Y + 
2g
=   = − dZ − S
dEs
But f
dx dx dx

dEs  dZ 
⇒ = So − Sf  = − So 
dx  dx 

dy dy
The slope of the water surface is equal to the bottom slope So of = o , Sw < So if is positive, and greater
dx dx
dy dy
than So if is negative. In other words, the water surface is parallel to the channel bottom when = o,
dx dx
dy dy
rising when is positive, and lowering when is negative.
dx dx

The term, Sf in the general GVF equation represents the energy slope. According to our initial assumption, this
slope at a channel section of GVF is equal to the energy slope of the uniform flow that has the velocity and
 1 2 / 3 1/ 2 
hydraulic radius of the section. When Manning’s formula is used V = R S 
 n 

n 2v 2 q 2n2
Sf = =
R4 / 3 y10 / 3

When the Chezy formula is used V = C RS ( )

V2
Sf =
C2R

For uniform flow (So = Sf)

V 2n2 q2n2
So = =
R4/3 yn
10 / 3

10 / 3
Sf  yn 
Yn – normal or equilibrium depth =  
So  y 

This general equation for GVF can also be driven as:

 v2   Q2   Q2   Q2 
d   d  2
 d  2
 d  2 
 2 g  =  2 gA  =  2 gA  = A 
dx dx dx dx 2 g

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1 1
= 2
dQ 2 − Q 2 d 2
A A

1 −2
= 2
2Q dQ − Q 2 3 dA
A A
2
2Q Q
= 2 dQ − 2 3 dA
A A

 Q2 
d  2  2
∴   = 2Q dQ − 2 Q dA
A
dx A 2 dx A 3 dx

dA dA dy dy
But = =T
dx dy dx dx

Substituting,

 Q2 
d   2
 A  = 2Q dQ − 2Q T dy
dx A2 dx A3 dx

dQ
But = 0 Assuming there is no inflow and outflow across the reach ,
dx

Putting back 2g (i. e dividing by 2g)

 Q2 
d  2  2
 A  = − 2Q T dy = − Fr 2 dy
2 g dx 2 g A3 dx dx

∴ − S f = − Fr
2 dy
dx
− So +
dy
dx
⇒ So − S f = 1 − Fr 2 (
dy
dx
)
4.2 Classification of Flow Profiles
Surface profiles for gradually varied flow conditions in wide rectangular channels are analyzed by using the
dy So − Sr
expression: =
dx 1 − Fr 2

The term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface relative to the channel bottom. If dy/dx is positive,
the depth is increasing in downstream direction (x). When the channel bottom is going down in the direction
of flow, So is positive. Similarly Sf in downstream direction is always positive; the energy is decreasing in
downstream direction. For uniform flow Sf = So, which means dy/dx is zero and the water surface parallel to
the bottom.

For a given discharge Q, Sf and Fr2 are functions of depth (y) only, e.g.

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n 2Q 2 P 4 / 3
Sr =
A10 / 3
Q 2T
Fr 2 =
gA3

Both parameters decrease with increasing A and hence increasing y; Sf = So when y = yo (uniform flow).

Hence:

Sf > So When y < yo Fr2 > 1 when y < yc

Sr < So when y > yo Fr2 < 1 when y > yc

These inequalities are used to find the sign of dy/dx for any condition. For gradually varied flow the surface
profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of dy/dx is found for each region.

The profiles of the water surface depend on

a. Bed slope

Horizontal slope So = 0 Type H

Mild slope 0 < So < Sc Type M

Critical slope So = Sc Type C

Steep slope So > Sc Type S

Adverse slope (negative) So < 0 Type A or N

b. Depth range

Region 1 y > yn and y > yc

Region 2 yn < y < y c

Region3 y < yn and y < yc

Letter Type of bottom slope Characteristics

S Steep So > Sc

C Critical So = Sc

M Mild 0 < So <Sc

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H Horizontal So = 0

A Adverse So < 0

The common classification of varied flow consists of 12 classes.

Classification of varied flow profiles

S1 C1 M1 - -

S2 - M2 H2 A2

S3 C3 M3 H3 A3

The classification is based on the relationship between the actual water depth and the normal water depth (if
existing) and the critical water depth.

Some frequent encountered curves are:

M1: The back water curve upstream of a dam or a gate. At the dam the water depth is given and y > yn and y >
yc. Also is given a mild slope (M), which means yn > yc. The flow is sub–critical and dy/dx is positive, the water
depth y increases in the downstream direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.

M2: The draw–down curve, for example above a transition from a mild slope to a less

mild.

M3: Supercritical flow downstream of a gate of weir. The transition of M3 to M2 or to M1 gives a hydraulic
jump (from super to sub critical flow). The slope is mild (yn > yc) and yn > yc > y. The flow is super–critical
and dy/dx is positive, the water depth y increases in the downstream direction; or the water depth
decreases in an upstream direction.

C3 : If a channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical throughout the
channel. In the proximity of a dam or a gate, however, the flow in upstream of the dam or gate is sub–
critical and the water surface will approach the horizontal.

Another example of flow profile is that of a free outfall, where critical depth occurs and with sub–critical flow
upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the direction of flow, it is clear
that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any point upstream. As critical depth is the value for which
the specific energy is a minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall. However, the value
for the critical depth is derived on the assumption that the water is flowing in straight and parallel flow lines.
However, at the free outfall gravity forces create curved streamlines, so that the depth at the brink (outfall) yb
is 0.72* yc. Critical depth occurs somewhere upstream of the brink (between 3yc and 10yc).

For super–critical flow conditions, upstream of the outfall, no drop–down curve develops.

A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which the uniform depth is smaller
than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes through critical depth in the vicinity of the
entrance. Once again, this section is the control section.

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There are limiting conditions to surface profiles. For example, as y approaches yc, the denominator approaches
zero. Thus dy/dx becomes infinite and the curves will cross the critical depth line perpendicular to it. Hence,
surface profiles in the vicinity of y = yc are only approximate. Similarly, when y approaches to yn, the numerator
approaches to zero. Thus the curves approach the normal depth, yn asymptotically.

Finally, as y approaches to zero, the surface profile approaches the channel bed perpendicularly, which is
impossible under the assumptions for gradually varied flow.

Summary of Flow Profiles

dy dy dy
>0 =0 <0
dx dx dx

Backwater curve Uniform flow curve Draw–down curve

y > yn Sf < So So – Sf > 0 Gradually varied

y = yn Sf = So So – Sf = 0 Uniform flow

y < yn Sf > So So – Sf < 0 Gradually varied

y > yc Fr < 1 1 – Fr2 > 0 Sub –critical

y = yc Fr = 1 1 – Fr2 = 0 Cri tical

y < yc Fr > 1 1 – Fr2 < 0 Supercritical

y > yn y < yn

Water surface profiles y > yc y < yc y > yc y < yc

So – Sf + n.a. + -

1 – Fr2 + n.a. - -

yn > yc dy/dx + n.a. - +

type M1 n.a. M2 M3

So – Sf + n.a. n.a. -

yn = y c 1- Fr2 + n.a. n.a. -

dy/dx + n.a. n.a. +

type C1 n.a. n.a. C3

So – Sf + + n.a. -

yn < yc 1 – Fr2 + - n.a. -

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dy/dx + - n.a. +

type S1 S2 n.a. S3

Remarks: + positive value; - negative; n.a. Doesn’t exist

Bottom slope Flow type Depth range of y,yc and yn Type of curve Flow type

1 2 3 Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

Steep S S1 y>yc>yn Backwater Sub-critical

So >Sc S2 Yc>y>yn Draw down Supercritical

Yn<yc S3 Yc >yn > y Backwater Supercritical

Critical C C1 Y > yc = yn Backwater Sub- critical

So = Sc C2 Yc =yn= yc Uniform Critical

yn = yc C3 Y < yc = yn Backwater Supercritical

Mild M M1 Y > yn > yc Backwater Sub- critical

0 < So < Sc M2 Yn >y >yc Draw down Sub-critical

yn > yc M3 Yn > yc >y Backwater Supercritical

Horizontal H n.a.

So = 0 H2 y> yc Draw down Sub-critical

Yn = ∝ H3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical

Adverse A n.a.

So < 0 A2 Y >yc Draw down Sub-critical

Yn = none A3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical

Depth range

Region 1 Y > yn and y > yc

Region 2 Yn < y < yc

Region 3 Y < yn and y < yc

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Figure Examples of Flow Profiles

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Figure Flow Profiles in a closed conduit

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4.3 GVF Computations

The direct step method (distance from depth)

The direct step method is a simple method applicable to prismatic channels. Depths of flow are specified
and the distances between successive depths are calculated. The equation may be used to determine

directly (with means explicit) the distance between given differences of depth (∆y ) . The equation may be

rewritten in finite difference form as:

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1 − Fr 2
∆x = * ∆y
So − Sr

The equation can also be written as:

E s 2 − E s1
∆x =
So − Sr

Es is the specific energy. In the computation Sf is calculated for the depths y1 and y2 and the average is
taken, which is denoted by Sfm.

Figure 4.3 The Channel Reach for derivation of direct step method

The hydraulic elements are independent of the distance along the (prismatic) channel. An approximate
analysis can be achieved by dividing the channel in a number of successive, short reaches. For each of the
reaches the water depth at the beginning can be estimated.

Next the length of reaches can be calculated (step by step) from one end of the reach to the other end.
The Chezy or Manning formula is applied to average conditions in each reach to provide an estimate of Sfm
and So, with the depth and velocity at one end of the reach given, the length can be computed.

Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are calculated.

For the computations are needed:

 Discharge Q
 Depth of flow y
 Area A
 Hydraulic radius R
 Roughness coefficient n or C
 Coefficient of Coriolis

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For the given data, the computations are carried out in tables.

Graphical Integration

This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a numerical procedure.

dy So − Sf
=
dx 1 − Fr 2
dx 1 − Fr 2
=
dy So − Sf
1− Fr 2
x y2

∫ dx = ∫
o y1
So − Sf
dy

1 − Fr 2
y2 y2
dx
L = x 2 − x1 = ∫
y1
So − Sf
dy ∫ dy dy
y1

Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2 and with corresponding depths of flow y1 and y2. The
distance along the channel is X. If a graph of y against f(y) is plotted, then the area under the curve is
equivalent to X. The value of the function f(y) may be found by substitution of A, P, So and Sf for various
values of y and for a given Q. Hence, the distance X between the given depths (y1 and y2) may be
calculated (numerical integration) or measured (graphical integration).this numerical/graphical method
gives the distance from depth.

Figure 4.4 The Channel Reach for derivation of Graphical Integration

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By this method the largest errors are found in the area with the strongest curvature. This is the region near
the control point(s). The accuracy can be improved by varying the steps ∆ x as a function of the curvature.
This method has broad application. It applies to flow in prismatic as well as non-prismatic channels of any
shape and slope. The procedure is straightforward and easy to follow. It may become very laborious when
applied to actual field problems.

Standard step method

The standard step method is carried out step by step from station to station. The distance between the
stations is given, and the procedure is to determine the depth of flow at the stations. As mentioned in
chapter 5.6 the computation procedure is usually carried out by trial and error.

Figure 4.5 The Channel Reach for derivation of Standard step method

For the computation are needed:

1. Discharge Q
2. Length of the reach ∆ ?
3. Area A as function of y
4. Hydraulic radius R as function of y
5. Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
6. Corilois coefficient α

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The total heads at the two end sections are:

1. Prismatic Cannels

α v12 α v 22
E1 = Z1 + E 2 −1 = Z2 + E 2 − 2 = E1 − Sf * ∆x
2g 2g
∆Es = (So − Sf ) * ∆x

2. Natural Channels

α v12 α v 22
E1 = Z1 + E 2 −1 = Z2 + E 2 − 2 = E1 − ∆x
2g 2g
v2
∆E s = h f + hc = − S f * ∆x ± ξ
2g

Z = stage, level of water surface above datum in m

Compare E2-2 and E2-1; if the difference is not within prescribed limits (e.g. 0.01m),

Re-estimate Z2 and repeat until agreement is reached.

The computation of the flow profile by the standard step method is arranged in tabular form

Each column of the table is explained as follows:

1. The location of the stations is fixed.

2. Water-surface elevation Z at the station. A trial value is first entered in this column; this will be
verified or rejected on the basis of ht computations made in the remaining columns of the table.
For the first step, this elevation must be given or assumed. In most cases the first entry is known.
After this value in the second step has been verified, it becomes the basis for the verification the
trial value in the next step, and so on

3. Depth of flow y corresponding to the water-surface elevation in col. 2. For instance, the depth of
flow y at the second station is equal to water-surface elevation minus bottom elevation (distance
from the first site times bed slope)
4. Water area A corresponding to y in col.3
5. Mean velocity v equal to the given discharge divided by the water area in col. 4
6. Velocity head in m, corresponding to the velocity col. 5
7. Total head E computed, equal to the sum of Z in col. 2 and the velocity head in col. 6
8. Hydraulic radius R corresponding to y in col. 3
9. Friction slope Sf with n or C, V from col. 5 and R from col. 8

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equal to the arithmetic mean of the friction slope just computed in col. 9 and that of the previous
step.

11. Length of the reach (∆x ) between the sections.

12. Friction loss in the reach, equal to the product of the values in cols. 10 and11.
13. Elevation of the total head E. this is computed by adding the values of hf (and hc if calculated in a
previous column) in col. 12 to the elevation at the lower end of the reach, which is found in col. 13
of the previous reach.
If the value so obtained does not agree closely with that entered in col. 7, a new trial value of the
water-surface elevation is assumed, and so on, until agreement is obtained. The value that leads
to agreement is the correct water-surface elevation. The computation may then proceed to the
next step.

In the next examples the eddy losses in the reaches are equal to zero and neglected in the calculations. If the
eddy losses are not neglected an extra column should be inserted between column 12 and 13

Solved Problem
1. Identify the slope of rectangular stream 15m and 3m deep. The slope of the stream bed is 1 in 5000.
Total discharge is 29m3/sec. Is the depth increasing or decreasing in the flow direction? (Assume
C=65)
Solution
 Rectangular channel:-
B=15m, y=3m, So= 1/5000 and Q=29m3/sec.
Flow velocity (V) = Q/A = 29/ (15*3) =0.645m/sec.
V 2 0.6452
Froude Number square (Fr2) = = = 0.0142
gy 9.81* 3
Since Fr2 = 0.0142 < 1 → the flow is Sub critical (mild slope)
Wetted Area (A) = By = 15*3 = 45m2
Wetted perimeter (P) =B+2y = 15+2*3 =21m
A 45
Hydraulic Radius (R) = ∆x = = = 2.14m
P 21
dy S −S
= 0 2f
dx 1 − Fr

V 2 n 2 V 2 ( R1 6 ) 2 V2 0.6452 1
But S f = 43
= 2 43
= 2
= =
R C R C R 652 * 45 21762.08
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1 1
−
dy S0 − S f 5000 21762.08 1
= = =+
Therefore
dx 1 − Fr2
1 − 0.0142 6400

Hence the depth of flow increases in the flow direction.

2. Water flows in a triangular channel of side slope 1:1 and longitudinal slope 0f 0.001.Determine whether
the channel is mild, steep or critical when a discharge of 0.2m3/sec flows through it. Assume Manning’s
coefficient is 0.015.For what range of depths will the flow be on a type 1,2 or 3 curve?

Solution

For a depth of y in channel, A=y2

T=2Y
q
R=Y2/2√2 . y= ¬
2√2

Critical depth,yc:

ï $¬ =;Ü .¬ =Ü z¬ Ü ¯
ë Ü 2  = ¬2

2 ï $¬ )  L.$S 1/5
Yc= ( ë ¯ =(2 .) =0.382m

Normal depth,yo:
S
J/S
: =  qä $  0.5 qä /.
ä/$¬
=î qä $ \ ¬ ] . . Úä ¬$ = 
2√2
Q= î

qä /. =ï¬
0.5ä/$
=0.015x0.2/0.5(0.001)1/2=0.18974

yo=0.536m

Since yo>yc,the channel is a mild slope channel for this discharge.

If “y” is the depth of flow:

For M1 curve y > 0.536m

M2 curve 0.536>y > 0.382m

M3 curve y< 0.382m.

3. In a very long trapezoidal channel with width B= 3.00m, side slope m = 1.5, Manning’s n=0.016, longitudinal
slope So = 0.0004, the nominal depth is measured as 1.20m. Determine the type of GVF profile existing at
section X in this channel when the depth of flow at X is:-
i) 0.50m, ii) 0.8m and iii) 1.50m

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Solution
 Trapezoidal Channel of
B=3.00m, yo =1.20m, m= 1.5 and n=0.016
 Wetted area (A) =(B+myo)yo = (3+1.5*1.2)*1.2 = 5.76m2
 Wetted Perimeter (P) = B + 2 yo 1 + m 2 = 3 + 2 *1.2 * 1 + 1.52 = 7.33m
A 5.76
 Hydraulic Radius (R) = = = 0.79m
P 7.33
AR 2 3 So 5.76 * 0.792 3 0.0004
 Discharge (Q) = = = 6.15 m3 SEc.
n 0.016
1.5 1.5
 myc   myc 
  1 + 
Q * m1.5  B   B 
=
g * B 2.5 2myc
1+
B
 Critical depth can be found from the relation 1.5 1.5
 myc   myc 
  1 + 
6.15 *1.51.5  B   B 
= 0.231405866 =
9.81 * 32.5 2myc
1+
B
 Solving for yc by trial and error (yc = 0.67m)
 Since yo > yc = subcritical (mild slope)

M1 iii) Y=1.5m
Yo=1.2m
M2
ii) Y=0.8m
Yc=0.67m
M3
ii) Y=0.8m

So
Figure 4.5 Problem 3

Exercise:- The gutter of a roadway is confined by a curb 0.15m high. The cross-slope of the road is 30 to 1, as
shown in the diagram below, and the roadway itself has a longitudinal slope of 1 to 100. A heavy rain creates a
runoff discharge of 0.4m3/sec. Assuming that n=0.014, is this a mild or steep channel?

Figure 4.6 (Exercise)

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4. A trapezoidal channel with width 6.10m , n=0.025, m=2 and S0 = 0.001 carries a discharge of 28m3/sec. if
this channel terminates in a free overfall, determine the gradually varied flow profile by direct step
method.

Solution

 The flow will be a drawdown curve.

 The first step solving the problem is establishing the depth of flow at the u/s and d/s boundaries
 Normal depth (yo) determination

AR 2 3 Qn
=
B8 3 So B 8 3
53 53
 myo   yo 
1 +   
 B  B
=
Qn
23
 2 yo 2  So B 8 3
1 + 1+ m 
 B 

53 53
 myo   yo 
1 +   
 B  B
=
28 * 0.025
= 0.178191
23
 2 yo 2  0.001 * 6.108 3
1 + 1+ m 
 B 

 Solving by trial and error method yo = 1.90m

 Critical depth (yc) determination

Q2 A3
=
g T
1.5 1.5
 myc   myc 
  1 + 
Q * m1.5  B   B 
=
g * B 2.5 2myc
1+
B
1.5 1.5
 myc   myc 
  1 + 
28 * 21.5  B   B 
= 0.275134 =
9.81 * 6.12.5 2myc
1+
B

 Solving trial and error method for yc = 1.14m

 Since yo > yc the flow is sub-critical (mild slope)
 The channel terminates in a free over fall, therefore at u/s boundary the depth of flow will approach yo
asymptotically, and at d/s the curve will meet yc line vertically (i.e M2 profile).
 The detail computation is shown in table below:-

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Open Channel Hydraulics Module

Depth Area(A) Perimeter (P) Hydrailic Velocity(V) Energy(E) Sf Sfave. ∆E ∆X

2 2 2 4/3
y(m) (B+my)y [B+2y(1+m^2)] Radius (R)=A/P V= Q/A E= y+V /2g n V /R 1/2(Sf1 +Sf2 So -Sfave. E1 -E2 ∆E/(So-Sfave.) ∑∆X=X
1.14 9.5532 11.19823499 0.853098726 2.930955073 1.577843916 0.006636
1.24 10.6392 11.64544858 0.913592974 2.631776825 1.59301984 0.004883 0.0057596 -0.0047596 -0.015 3.188511108 3.19
1.34 11.7652 12.09266218 0.972920588 2.379900044 1.628681153 0.003672 0.0042776 -0.0032776 -0.036 10.88036945 14.07
1.44 12.9312 12.53987578 1.031206388 2.165305617 1.678967809 0.002813 0.0032423 -0.0022423 -0.05 22.42620007 36.50
1.54 14.1372 12.98708937 1.088557998 1.980590216 1.739935658 0.002189 0.0025011 -0.0015011 -0.061 40.61612759 77.11
1.64 15.3832 13.43430297 1.145068712 1.820167455 1.808858795 0.001728 0.001959 -0.000959 -0.069 71.87320095 148.98
1.74 16.6692 13.88151656 1.200819804 1.679744679 1.88380949 0.001382 0.0015551 -0.0005551 -0.075 135.0330279 284.02
1.8 17.46 14.14984472 1.233935803 1.603665521 1.93107763 0.001214 0.0012981 -0.0002981 -0.047 158.5895684 442.61

problem-4)
Gradually Varied flow profile ( problem
1.8 1.74 1.64 1.54 1.44 1.34 1.24 1.14
Yo= 1.90m Yc= 1.14m

442.61 284.02 148.98 77.11 36.50 14.07 3.19

5. Water flows uniformly in a long and very wide river of 72m towards a lake as shown in figure below. In
order to raise the water level of the lake by 0.6m, a dam will be constructed. The location of the dam is as
indicated in the figure. The flow rate in the river is 50m3/sec. this river has a slope of 0.00019 and a
roughness, n=0.03. estimate the increase in depth at a station that is approximately 30km upstream of
the lake

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6. A trapezoidal channel has three reaches A, B and C connected in series with the following properties
Reach Bed Width(B) Side Slope(m) Bed Slope(So) n
A 4m 1 0.0004 0.015
B 4m 1 0.009 0.012
C 4m 1 0.004 0.015
For a discharge of 22.5m3/sec. through this channel, sketch the resulting water surface profiles. The
length of the reaches can be assumed to be sufficiently long for GVF profile to develop fully.
Solution

Calculate yo and yc by trial and error method:-

Reach Ùî Yo/B yo ÙìJ. myc/B yc Classification

Ф=
àÁ⁄= š Ѱ=àS.
√u
A 0.4186 0.566 2.264 0.2245 0.329 1.316 Mild slope
B 0.0706 0.203 0.812 0.2245 0.329 1.316 Steep slope
C 0.1324 0.296 1.172 0.2245 0.329 1.316 Steep slope

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NDL

NDL

Mild slope
NDL
Steeper slope
CDL

Steep slope

Figure 4.6 Problem 6

7. A trapezoidal channel having bed width of 7m and side slope m=2, longitudinal slope So = 0.0016 and n=
0.025 carries a discharge of 12.26m3/sec. compute the back water profile created by a dam which backup
water to depth of 2m. The upstream of a dam is assumed at a depth equal to 1% greater than the normal
depth.
Solution
 Normal depth (yo) determination

AR 2 3 Qn
=
B8 3 So B 8 3
53 53
 myo   yo 
1 +   
 B  B
=
Qn
23
 2 yo  So B8 3
1 + 1 + m2 
 B 

53 53
 myo   yo 
1 +   
 B  B
=
12.26 * 0.025
= 0.042734
23
 2 yo 2  0.0016 * 78 3
1 + 1+ m 
 B 

 Solving by trial and error method yo = 1.00m

 Critical depth (yc) determination

Q2 A3
=
g T

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1.5 1.5
 myc   myc 
  1 + 
Q * m1.5  B   B 
=
g * B 2.5 2myc
1+
B
1.5 1.5
 myc   myc 
  1 + 
12.26 * 21.5  B   B 
= 0.0854 =
9.81 * 7.002.5 2myc
1+
B

 Solving trial and error method for yc = 0.84m

 Since yo > yc the flow is sub-critical (mild slope)

3
Q Ac 12.26
Zc = = = = 3.914317
g Tc 9.81

Ao = (B+myo)yo = (7+2) =9m2

( ) ( )
Po = B + 2 yo 1 + m 2 = 7 + 2 * 1 + 2 2 = 11.47214

Ao 9
Ro = = = 0.784509
Po 11.47214

Ao 23 9 2
Ko = Ro = * 0.784509 3 = 306.2207
n 0.025

 The detail computation is shown in table below:-

Top Hydraulic Secion

Depth (y) Width(T) Area(A) Perimeter(P) Radius(R) Konveyace(K) Factor(Z) dx/dy distance(X)
2 15 22 15.9442719 1.379806 1090.673257 26.64332 663.8389
1.8 14.2 19.08 15.0498447 1.267787 893.996728 22.11686 685.8972 134.973606
1.6 13.4 16.32 14.1554175 1.152915 717.7586903 18.01059 727.9842 276.361743
1.4 12.6 13.72 13.2609903 1.034614 561.3919806 14.3168 823.2147 431.481633
1.2 11.8 11.28 12.3665631 0.912137 424.3678533 11.02866 1139.712 627.774335
1.1 11.4 10.12 11.9193496 0.84904 362.9603135 9.534948 1803.081 922.053691

Yo =1m NDL

Yc =0.84m
CDL

Figure 4.7 Problem 7

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CHAPTER FIVE

RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)

5.1 Characteristics of RVF

• Pronounced curvature of streamlines.
⇒Abrupt change of flow profile (virtually broken)

• Example: Hydraulic Jump

•
In view of contrast with GVF, the following characteristic features of RVF should be noted.

o Pronounced curvature ⇒ hydrostatic pressure distribution can not be assumed

o Rapid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance.
⇒Effect of boundary friction, which would play a primary role in a GVF, is comparatively small
and in most cases insignificant.

o In RVF the velocity-distribution coefficients α and β are much greater than unity and cannot be
accurately determined.
o Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid boundaries. (Because profiles
could be broken).

5.2 Approach to the problem

The theory that assumes Parallel flow, Hydrostatic distribution of pressure does not apply in RVF
computation.

For RVF of continuous flow profile a mathematical equation of flow can be established, based on an in viscid
and potential flow condition.

Approach to the solution of such equation include

Graphical method (e.g. flow-net analysis)

Numerical method (e.g. method of relaxation)

Despite such developments, no satisfactory general solution has yet been obtained

Practical Hydraulicians opt to treat Various RVF phenomena as isolate cases each with its own semi-
empirical/empirical treatment. In most cases the experimental results are used empirically. The physical
concepts of the aspects of the flow will be interpreted qualitatively using energy principle, momentum
principle, geometry plus sometimes dimensional analysis.

Three isolated cases of RVF are discussed here. Viz.

- Flow over spillway

- Hydraulic jump
- Flow under gate

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5.3 Flow over spillways

Spillway: is a structure over or through a dam for discharging flood flows; overflow channel; opening built into
a dam or the side of a reservoir to release (to spill) excess floodwater.

SHARP-CRESTED WEIR (SCW) VS BROAD CRESTED WEIR (BCW)

BROAD CRESTED WEIR

o Overflow structure with horizontal crest above which the deviation from a hydrostatic pressure
distribution because of centripetal acceleration may be neglected.
⇒ stream-lines are parallel and straight

o Criteria 0.5 ≥ H1/L≥0.07

- If 0.07 ≥H1/L the energy loss above the crest cannot be neglected
- 0.5 ≥ H1/L so that he hydrostatic pressure distribution can be assumed
Where L = length of the weir crest in the direction of flow, H1 total energy head over the weir crest.

SHARP CRESTED WIER

- Overflow structure (H1/L > 15)

- The crest length in the direction of the flow is short enough not to influence the H-Q
relationship of a weir
- In practice, 0.002m≥ L so that even at a minimum head of 0.03m the nappe is completely free
from the weir body after passing the weir ⇒ no adhered nappe can occur
- An air pocket beneath the nappe form from which a quantity of air is removed continuously by
the over falling jet.
- Therefore, Precaution is required not to ensure that the pressure in the air pocket is not
reduced. Otherwise resulting undesirable effects:
 Owing to the increase of the under pressure the curvature of the over falling jet will
increase, causing increase of the discharge coefficient
 Irregular supply of air to the pocket will cause vibration of the jet resulting an
unsteady flow
- SHARP CRESTED WIER is the simplest form of overflow spillway
- Motto:
 Spillways must discharge the peak flow under smallest possible head.
 Negative pressure on the crest must be limited to avoid danger of cavitation on the
crest or vibration of the structure.
 Theoretically, there should be atmospheric pressure on the crest

Round-Crested overflow spillway

 Designed in conformity with the shape of the low surface of the flow nappe over a
sharp-crested weir
 shape of the flow-nappe is interpreted by the principle of the projectile

Derivation of Nappe Profile over Sharp Crested Weir by the Principle of Projectile.

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- Let Vo = the velocity at pt-x = 0, θ is angle of inclination of the velocity Vo with the horizontal
- Horizontal velocity = Vo Cos θ - constant and the only force acting on the nappe is gravity.
• Horizontal distance traveled is time t
s
X = Vo t Cosθ , V= ⇒ S = vt (1)
t

• In same time t, the particle will travel a vertical distance y (taking y is positive downward)
1 2
y = − Vo t Sin θ + gt (2)
2

• Move the origin up so that it coincides with the peak.

1 2
⇒ y = − Vo ts inθ + gt + C '
2

 x 
• Eliminating t from 1 & 2, from 1 t =  
 Vo Cos θ 
2
 x  1  x 
y = − Vo   Sin θ + g   + C '
 V0 Cosθ  2  Vo Cos θ 

• Dividing each term by the total head H above the crest

Y
= − tan θ
X
+
gH
( HX )2 +
C'
H H 2Vo2 Cos 2θ H

gH C'
• Let A = , B= - tanθ, & C =
2V02 Cos 2θ H
2
Y X X
= A  + B +C = General equation for the lower surface of the nappe in dimension less term
H H  H

• Since the horizontal velocity component is constant, the vertical thickness of the nappe T may be assumed
constant and

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T
• Adding a term D = to the above equation the general equation for the upper surface of the nappe is
H
2
Y X X
= A  + B +C+D
H H H

• These equations are quadratic hence, the nappe Surfaces are theoretically parabolic.
• Several experimental studies on the nappe over a sharp-crested weir have been made.
- Reputed works has been done by US Bureau of Reclamation; they developed the following
equations for the constants in the general nappe equations.
hv
A = - 0.425 + 0.25
H

2
hv  hv  hv
B = 0.411 - 1.603 - 1.568   − 0.892 + 0.127
H H H

hv
C = 0.150 – 0.45
H

D = 0.57 – 0.02 (10m)2 exp (10m)

Where:

hv = the velocity head of the approach flow

hv
m= - 0.208
H

• For high weirs, the velocity of approach is relatively small and can be ignored (hv ≈ 0)
A = 0.425

B = 0.055

C = 0.150

D = 0.559

• Experimental data have indicated that these equations are not valid When,
X hv
< 0.5 and that > 0.2
H H

i.e., Additional data for verification are required

X
For < 0.5, The pressure with in the nappe in the Vicinity of the weir crest is > Patm because of the
H
convergence of the streamlines. Consequently, forces other than gravity are acting on the nappe, which
makes the principle of the projectile invalid.

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N.B: The above theory and equations apply only if the approach flow is sub critical. For Supercritical flow, or Fr
< 1, the nappe profile becomes essentially a function of the Froude number rather than a function of the
boundary geometry as described above.

Discharge of Sharp Crested weir

• Discharge formula over sharp-crested weir can be expressed in the general form as:

Q =C L H 1 .5

Where C = discharge Coefficient.

L = effective length of the weir crest

H = is the measured head above the crest; excluding velocity head

• Effective length may be computed as

L = L' - 0.1NH

Where L’ = is the measured length of the crest

N = number of contractions (Eg. piers for gates)

N = 2 for two end contractions

N = 1 for one end contraction

N = 0 for no contraction

• According to a well-known Rehbock formula

X
C = 3.27 + 0.40
h

Where h – is the height of weir.

H H
N.B - This equation holds up to = 5 but can be extended to = 10 with fair approximation.
h h

H
- For > 15 the weir becomes a sill, and a critical section immediately upstream from the sill controls
h
the discharge. The critical depth of the section is approximately equal to H+h. By the critical depth –
discharge relationship, it can be shown that the coefficient C is: -

1.5
 H
C = 5.68 1 + 
 h

H
• The transition between weir and sill (between = 10 & 15), however, has not yet been clearly defined.
h
• Experiments have shown that the coefficient C remains approximately constant for sharp-crested weir
under varying heads if the nappe is aerated.

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Weir: Low river dam used to raise the upstream water level, built across a stream to
control raise or diver) the flow of water. Measuring weirs are across a stream for the
purpose of measuring the flow.
Sill: - horizontal overflow section of an irrigation check or measuring structure also used for
under water of structure across a river or canal.

Aeration of the Nappe

• In the preceding discussion the over falling nappe is considered aerated; i.e., The upper and lower nappe
surfaces are subject to full atmospheric pressure.
• In practice, usually insufficient aeration below the nappe occurs due to removal of air by over falling jet.
• Effects of reduction of pressure
- Increase in pressure difference on the spillway itself
- Change in the shape of the nappe for which the spillway crest is designed
- Increase in discharge, sometimes accompanied by fluctuation or pulsation of the nappe, which
may be very objectionable if the weir or spillway is used for measuring purposes.
- Unstable performance of the hydraulic model

Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways

• Earliest shapes were based on a simple parabola designed to fit the trajectory of the falling nappe (the
equation for the lower surface of the nappe).
• Bazin’s made comprehensive laboratory investigation for nappe shapes. the used of Bazin’s data in design
will produce a crest shape that coincides with lower surface of as aerated nappe over a sharp-crested weir.
• Such a profile is known as Bazin profile Advantage
- Should couse no negative pressure on the crest (the presence of negative pressure will lead to
danger of cavitation damage).
- In selecting a suitable profile avoidance of negative pressure should be considered an
objective, along with such other factors as maximum hydraulic efficiency, practicability,
stability & economy.
• Extensive experiments on the shape of the nappe over-sharp crested weir were conducted by U. S Bureau
of Reclamation; including Bazin’s, The Bureau has developed coordinates of the nappe surface for various
slope faced weirs.
• On the basis of the Bureau data, The U.S Army. Corps of Engineers has developed several standard shapes
at its Waterways Experimental Station. Such shapes designed as the WES standard spillway shapes, can be
expressed by the following equation:-

n −1
X n = K Hd Y

Where

- X and Y are Coordinates of the crest profile with the origin at the highest point of the crest.
- Hd is the design head excluding the velocity head of the approach flow
- K & n are parameters depending on the slope of the upstream face. values of k & N are given
as flows

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Slope of upstream face k N

Vertical 2.000 1.850

3 pm 1 (V = H) 1.936 1.836

3 on 2 1.939 1.810

3 on 3 1.873 1.776

• For intermediate slopes: approximate value of k and n may be obtained by plotting the above values
against the corresponding slopes and interpolating from the plot the required values for any given slope
within the plotted range.

The upstream face of the spillway crest may sometimes be designed to set back, as shown in the figures.

Discharge of WES Spillway

• The discharge over a spillway can be computed by an equation in the form of SCW/BCW
Q = CLHe1.5

He the total energy head on the crest, including the velocity head in the approach canal.

• The effect of the approach velocity is negligible when height h of the spillway is greater than 1.33Hd (h >
1.33 Hd), where the design head exclude the approach velocity head.

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• Under this condition, i.e. h/Hd > 1.33, He = Hd can be taken (the approach velocity head is negligible) and the
coefficient of discharge C has been found to be C = 2.21 (if is in ft C He = 4.03) shown by the dashed lines

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5.4 Hydraulic Jump

The theory of jump developed is for horizontal or slightly inclined channels in which the weight of water in the
jump has little effect upon the jump behavior and hence is ignored in the analyses. The results thus obtained
however can be applied to most channels encountered in engineering problems.

For channels of large slope, the weight effect of water in the jump may become so pronounced that it must be
included in the analysis.

Practical Applications
- To dissipate energy in water flowing over a dam, weir and other hydraulic structure and thus prevent
scouring d/s from the structure.
- To recover head or raise the water level on the d/s side of a measuring flume and thus maintains high
water level in the channel for water distribution purposes.
- To increase weight on the apron and reduce uplift pressure by raising the water depth on the apron.
- To increase the discharge of a sluice gate by holding sack tail water, thus preventing drawn jump.
- To mix chemical used for water purification.
- To aerate water for city water supplies

Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel

For supercritical flow in a horizontal rectangular channel, the energy of flow is dissipated through frictional
resistance along the channel, resulting in a decrease in velocity and an increase in depth in the direction of
flow.

A hydraulic jump will form in the channel if the Frond Number Fr1 of the flow, the flow depth y1, and a drown
stream depth y2 satisfy the following equation:

y2 1
=  1 + 8F1 − 1
2

y1 2 

This has been verified with experiments

Types of Jump
Hydraulic Jumps on horizontal floor are of several distinct types. They can be conveniently classified according
to Froud Number Fr1 of the incoming flow as follows.

 Fr1 =1 critical flow no jump can form

 1< Fr1 < 1.7 the water surface shows undulation (undular jump)
 1.7 < Fr1 < 2.5 a series of small rollers develop on the surface of the jump,
but the d/s water surface remains smooth. The velocity throughout is fairly
uniform, and the energy loss low. The jump is called weak jump.
 2.5 < Fr1 < 4.5 there is an oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to surface
and back again with no periodicity. Each oscillation produces a large wave of
irregular period which, very common in canals, can travel for miles doing
unlimited damage to earth banks and ripraps. This jump is called Oscillating
Jump.
 4.5 < Fr1 < 9.0 steady Jump:- The down stream extremity of the surface roller and the point
at which the high-velocity jet tends to leave the flow occur at practically the

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same vertical section. The action and position of this jump are least sensitive
to variation in tail-water depth. The jump is well balanced and the
performance is at its best. The energy dissipation ranges from 45 to 70%.
 Fr > 9.0 Strong jump:- The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent slugs of water rolling
down the front face of the jump, generating waves down-stream and a rough
surface can prevail. The jump action is rough but effective since the energy
dissipation may reach 85%.
N.B. It should be noted that the ranges of the Froude Number given above for the various types of jump are
not clear-cut but overlap to a certain extent depending on local conditions.

Basic characteristics of the Jump

Energy Loss: the loss of energy in the jump is equal to the difference in specific energy before and after the
jump.

∆E = E1 − E 2 =
( y 2 − y1 ) 3
4 y1 y 2
∆E
Re lative loss : the ratio
E1

Efficiency: the ratio of the specific energy after the jump to that before the jump is defined as the efficiency
of the jump.

E2
=
( 2
)
3
8F1 + 1 2 − 4 F1 + 1
2

E1 8F1 2 + F1
2 2
( )

This equation indicates that the efficiency of a jump is a dimension less function, depending only o the Froude
E2
Number of the approach flow. The relative loss is equal to 1− , this also is a dimensionless function. of Fr1.
E1

Height of Jump:- the difference between the depths after and before the jump.
Hj = y2 – y1

Expressing each term as a ratio with respect to initial specific energy.

h1 y2 y1
= −
E1 E1 E1

hj y1 y
Where is the relative height, is the relative initial depth, and 2 is the relative sequence depth. All
E1 E1 E1
these ratios can be shown to be dimensionless function of F1. For example

1 + 8 F1 − 3
2
hj
=
F1 + 2
2
E1

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Length of Jump:
The length of a jump (also length of stilling basin) is empirically given as

(
L = k y − y1
2
)
Where, k – is a coefficient derived from laboratory and filed experiment. 4.5 < k < 5.5 where the lower k = 4.5
applies of Fr2 > 10 and the highs for Fr2 < 3.

Flow under Gates

Gates in canals are mainly used as water level regulators. Sometimes, gates are used as discharge regulator
(measuring device). They are under-shot or underflow structures. Example slice gate, radial gate roller gate

The design of underflow gate focuses on head-discharge relationship (Q-H). The objective is to minimize head
loss; this means that the gate has to be lifted out off the water for design discharge. The other concern of the
design is the pressure distribution over the gate as a function of opening and gate form.

The H-Q relationship for gate depends on the shape and dimension of the control section and the resulting
curvature of the streamlines.

For gated structures the control section is defined by the vena contract, being the smallest cross section just
down steam of the gate. In the vena contract, streamlines are straight and parallel.

In gate flow 3 flow types can be distinguished.

 h1 
Free flow: the opening is relatively small  > 2  and the contraction of the steam-lines in vertical direction
a 
is strong. The downstream water level (h2) won’t affect the flow underneath the gate and a hydraulics jump
will occur downstream of the vena contra. The discharge depends up on the gate opening the upstream water
level and the contraction coefficient.

Submerged flow: the d/s water level influences the flow underneath the gate. The hydraulic jump is
drowned and the jet underneath the gate is submerged. The discharge depends upon the upstream and
downstream water level and the gate opening.

The boundary between free and submerged flow is a sharp one, which can be cleanly found from the gate
opening and the two water levels.

Weir flow: on off gate

The Discharge equation for a free flow underneath a sharp edged gate is:

Q = C d Ba 2gh1

Cd = discharge coefficient

B = Width of gate opening

a = height of gate opening

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h1 = upstream water depth

The discharge coefficient Cd

Cc
Cd =
a
1 + Cc
h1

h1
Where, CC = Contraction coefficient of the jet depending on the shape of the gate and on a

d = diameter of the rounded bottom edge

2
d d 
< 4.7 23.04 −  − 4.69 
For a : CC = 0.51 + 0.1* a 

≥ 4.7 ; C c = 0.99 (Rounded edged gates )

d
For
a

Where d is diameter of the rounded bottom edge. For sharp edged gates d is small and CC = 0.61.

The limit between tree flow and submerged flows follows from.

h2 Cc   H  
= + 1 +16  1 − 1 − 1
a 2   aCc  

h2 = downstream water level

H1 = upstream energy level

d
> 4.7
CC is 0.611 for sharp edged gates (d=0) and CC is 0.99 for rounded of edged gates with a

For submerged flow, some equations include the difference between the upstream and downstream depths
and others use the upstream water level only. The general equation is given as.

Q = C 2 Ba 2gh1

Where,

a = vertical opening of the gate (a< 0.67h1)

h1 = Upstream water depth

B = Effective width of the opening

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C2 = discharge coefficient.

h1 h2
The equation is the same as for free flow but the discharge coefficient C2 is a function of , andCc ,
a a

Where h2 is the downstream water depth, C2 values range between 0 and 1

Others roughly classify the flows as,

h1
> 2 − free flow
a
h
1.5 < 1 < 2 − submerged
a
h1
< 1.5 − weir flow
a

h1 h
For values of a > 0.67 * h1 or 1 > 0.67 ⇒ 1 < 1.5 the discharge follows the equation for a broad-
a a
crested weir.

3
Q = 1 .7 * B * H 2
.

Solved Problem
1. An over flow spill way has its crest at elevation 136m and a horizontal apron at an elevation102m on the
downstream side .

Estimate the tail water elevation required to form a hydraulic jump when the elevation of the energy
line just upstream of the spill way crust is 138 meter. Assume cd=0.735 for the spill way. (Neglect
energy loss due to flow over the spill way)

Figure 5.6 Problem- 1

Solution

The discharge per unit width of the spillway, q, is:

=2/3 Cd š2ë H3/2

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H=138-136=2m

Q=2/3 0.735 √29.81 (2)3/2=6.1369m3/sec/m

E1=138-102=36m

E1=y1+v12/2g =y1 +q2 /2gy12=y1+(6.139)2/19.62y12=y1+1.9208/y12

36=y1+1.9208/y12 by trial and error y1=0.2317m

V1=q/y1=6.139/0.2317=26.495m/sec.

F1=v1/šëq1 = 26.495/√9.810.2317

=17.574

ÑS
ÑJ
=1/2(-1+š1 + 8Ò$ )=1/2(-1+√1 + 17.574$

=24.36

y2=y1X24.36=0.2317x24.36=5.644m

Required tail water elevation=102+5.644=107.644m

2. A hydraulic jump occurs in a horizontal 90o triangular channel. If the sequent depths in this channel are 0.6
meter and 1.2 meter respectively, estimate

I. The flow rate?

II. Froude number at beginning and end of the jump and

III. Energy loss in the jump.

Solution

i) Consider a triangular channel of side slope m:1 as fig below.

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Ñ Ñ=
ᵞ = ᵞ(my ) +ᵞm
.
2
P=Pressure force= AӮ .

Ù S ÙS
M=Momentum flux= : =ρ S
ìÑ
For a hydraulic jump in a horizontal, frictionless channel:
P1+M1 = P2 + M2

γmy12 ρQ12 γmy 22 ρQ22

+ = +
3 my12 3 my 22
Q2
m
1 1  gm 3
 2 − 2= y 2 − y13 ( )
 y1 y 2  3

On Simplifying

=
( )
Q 2 m 2  y13 η 3 − 1 η 2 y14 
η =
y2
g

(
3  η 2 − 1 y12  ) Where
y1

In the present problem m=1

y 2 1.2
η= = =2
y1 0.6
Q2 1 22 − 1
= * 0.6 5 2
(
= 0.2419
)
g 3 2 −1
Q = 1.541 m 3 Sec.
ii) For triangular channel

Q
F=
A gA T
Q 2T Q 2 (2my ) 2Q 2
F =
2
= =
gA3 gm 2 y 6 gm 2 y 5
1.5412
F = 2*
1
2
= 6.222
9.81*1 * 0.6 5
F1 = 2.494

Froude Number at the end of the jump

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5
2Q 2 F  y 2
Since F 2 == 2 5
, 1 =  2 
gm y F2  y 1 
5
F1  1 .20  2
=  = 5 .657
F2  0 . 6 

F2 = 2.494 5.657 = 0.441

iii) Energy loss

 V2   V2
E L = E1 − E 2 =  y1 + 1  −  y 2 + 2 
 2g   2g 
A1 = 1 * 0 .6 = 0 .36 m
2 2

V1 = 1 .54 = 4 .281 m / sec .

0 .36
A2 = 1 * 1 .2 2 = 1 .44 m 2
V 2 = 1 .54 / 1 .44 = 1 .070 m / sec .
 4 .281 2  1.070 2 
E L =  0 .6 +  1 .2 + 
 2 * 9 .81  2 * 9 .81 
E L = 1 .534 − 1 .258 = 0 .276 m

3. A stationary hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular channel with the initial and sequent depths being equal
to 0.2 meter and 1.2 meter respectively. Estimate
I) Discharge per unit width.
II) Energy loss
Solution

y2 1
(
= − 1 + 1. + 8 F12
y1 2
)
1.20 1
(
= − 1 + 1. + 8 F12
0.2 2
)
F12 = 21

F12 = 4 .583
V1
F1 = = 4 .583
9 .81 * 0 .2
V1 = 6 .419 m / sec

Discharge per unit

q = V1 y1 = 6.4190.2 = 1.284m 3 / sec. / m

ii) The energy loss ( EL) is given by

EL =
( y 2 − y1 )
3

=
(1.20 − 0.2)
3
= 1.042m
4 y1 y 2 4 * 0.2 *1.20

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