Solutions Manual for Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics Third Edition Adrian Bejan J. A. Jones Distinguished Professor of Mechanical Engineering Duke University 2006CONTENTS Chapter 1 2, 3 i 12, B The First Law of Thermodynamics The Second Law of Thermodynamics Entropy Generation, or Exergy Destruction Single-Phase Systems Exergy Analysis Multi-Phase Systems Chemically Reactive Systems Power Generation Solar Power Refrigeration Thermodynamic Optimization Irreversible Thermodynamics The Constructal Law of Flow Configuration Generation el 12-1 13-1 This solutions manual was typed by Kathy Vickers, Linda Hayes and Deborah Fraze. Adrian Bejan January 2006Chapter 1 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Problem Ll (a) W;-+ =[ PdV=P,V>. Next, to calculate Ts we note that from (i) to (f) we have dt dU Ge = W + hy where th is the instantaneous flowrate into the cylinder, and M and U are the mass and energy inventories of the system (the "system" is the cylinder volume). Integrating in time, cd [a Up—- Uj, =—Py¥2 +hy (Mp- Mi) a) and recognizing that U; = 0 and Mj = 0, the first law reduces to Ug= Mphy - PrV2 ay For the "ideal gas" working fluid we write Up= Mey (Tr- To) hy = cy (Ty - To) + Pv hence, eq. (1') becomes Mey (T - To) = Mf [ey (Ti - To) + Pvi] - Pi V2 Noting that V2 {ve and dividing everything by Mg yields cy Te+ Pi vp = ey T1+ Pv or ey Te+RT¢=eyTj + RT} in other words, T= T}. The final ideal-gas mass admitted is hence the goodness ratio(b) my =P1V/ RTj, based on the solution for me given in part (a), and Vi Va { PaV + i Pav o Ny, &y = PV +e (PAV -PoVa) The second group of terms on the right-hand-side is the work output during the reversible & adiabatic expansion (path: PVK = constant). Finally, the goodness ratio is oy Wey _PrVit ye (PV ~PaVa) cy, _ PaVo =—— 8 erty 1 1-2 m) P,V, /(RT;) PV, (c) The relative goodness is (Wistmrpat i _ | , &v{_PaVe . PIV; (Wisma ker Tek Va, ‘The quantity in the square brackets is positive because k > 1 and Vi < V2, therefore w, >| i) Me Jpart (a) ate a4Proble: (a) Given are m= 1 kg, T; = 100°C, and x} = 0.5. The path is constant volume. t pate \ (b) To pinpoint state (2) we must determine {wo properties at the final state. ‘The first one is the volume vo=v1 67, +%1 Vig, Ty = 0.001044 + 0.5 (1.6729 - 0.001044) 0.837 m3 / kg ‘The second property is the internal energy: this comes from the first law Qi2- Wi2 = mu - un) @ where W).2 = 0 and uy = ug, 7, + X1 Ufg, T, = 418.94 + (0.5) (2087.6) = 1462.74 kilkg Equation (1) yields up = uy +h Q)-y = 3662 KI / kg (©) To find T and Pz we must first locate state (2) on the P(v, t) surface (or tables). At state (2) we know up and v2, therefore, one way to proceed is to look at the table of superheated steam properties and find the u values of order 3662 KI /kg. This is the equivalent of traveling along the t= up line and looking for the v value that comes closest to v2. This search leads to this portion of the table: 0.5 MPa P=0.6 MPa u 800°C 0.9896 3662.1 0.8245 3661.8 Fitting v2 between 0.9896 and 0.8245, we interpolate linearly for pressure and find 592 MPa‘The final temperature is clearly T = 800°C. (d) Atsstate (2) the system is superheated steam. ‘This particular fluid approaches ideal gas behavior if near state (2) the following two conditions are met: @ u=u(t) (i) Pv=RT, ie. Pv / T = constant. Condition (i) is satisfied, as shown by the u values listed in the preceding table (u depends on T, while being practically independent of P). As a way of testing condition (ii), we calculate the group (Pv/T) for the states immediately to the left and right of state (2): @) (05) 10° (0.9896) _ yg, Pam /ke Thea 273.15+800 K Py) (0.5) 10° (0.8245) _ gop g Par /kg G ight 27315 +800 : K Condition (ii) is also satisfied (approximately, or course), therefore, the ideal gas model could be used to describe the behavior of the system at states that are sufficiently close to state (2). Observation: note the use of absolute temperature in the denominators of the (Pw/T) calculations presented above. Problem 1.3 Taking the m gas as "system", we write the first law for the process (1) - (2), Qi2-Wi2=U2-U1 which means O- Pia (V2 Vi) = ey (Tx Ti) + Bey (Tz -T1) + Fey (T2-T)) or iw Pic Noting that Pz = Pq, the above statement can be written as 1, Ha /Pin)+ialPid T, 1+Rie, 3(1+R/ey) Pi P +B (128.2) op 3p Pip PicProblem 1.4 The process is one of heating at constant volume. Let mg and my represent the instantaneous liquid and vapor inventories in the system, my-+mg=m, (constant) Furthermore, the constant-volume constraint reads myvy-+ mgvy=V, (Constant) ‘The first law of thermodynamics requires on a per unit time basis that au wed Q dt or, since W = 0, {mug + mguy) eeedme ss dug Sup etme ate @) a uy ap dP dt ‘The time derivatives dmg/dt and dmg/dt follow from solving the system of two equations a a at a) and a (2) The solution is dm, eA and ae (4) where dy ap We ap Meg ""™ GP at "SGP dt Combining (3) and (4) we obtain after a few manipulations dP. Qim ® Vy oH VyProblem L5 After the seal is broken the atmospheric air rushes into the glass tube and the pressure inside the tube becomes atmospheric. If we wait long enough, the temperature inside the tube becomes equal to the atmospheric temperature also (this scenario is described in Example 1.2 in the text). In that example we learned that en route to thermal equilibrium the bottle air rejects heat to the ambient. This means that immediately after we break the seal the air that occupies the glass tube is warmer than the ambient. If we dip the open end of the tube into the pool of water immediately after breaking the seal, the water will rise into the tube as the air mass that is trapped insde the glass tube cools down (and shrinks) to atmospheric temperature. Problem 1.6 (a) Applying the first law to the water container as an open system, we have & Camu) = (thn ~ (Cabo o where 7 Min Ve m=¥ — — Ty To) 1 Mass conservation dictates £ (mn) = thig=thgye =O hence thin = thy, = th. The first law (1) reads finally pace ae a 8 =a. ~ Bou) Vw For an incompressible fluid we also have duscdT and dh=cdT + vydP In the present case Pin = Pout, therefore iin ~ Hout = (Tin - Tous) = ¢(T2 - T) Equation (1) becomes (T,-T) Ww which, integrated from 0 to t, meansT,-T Thy in -T Vv (b) The mass of hot water that raises the contianer water temperature from 10°C to 20°C is 405.5 kg Problem L7 (a) We treat the instantaneous water inventory of the container as an open system operating unsteadily, so that the first law and the principle of mass conservation read er} d (mu) Q— W + (tith}in — (rh) oyp a £ (mm) = thig~ thoy Q) State 1 State 2 where Q = W = 0 and rh, =0. Integrating (2) and writing m) and mp for the initial and final mass inventories of the system yields 4 f tingyy dt = my — mg The objective is to calculate x9, therefore, we focus on pinpointing state (2). We already know one property at that state (namely, P2). To obtain the second property we use the first law (1) in integral form mp Uy ~ my uy =— Poa oy dt = Mou (mg—m}) or the dimensionless form m1) 8)Next, we note that the volume of the container is fixed, V=mvi=mv2 (4) wher vp = vig + x2V%g.2. What follows from eq, (4) is a relationship between my/mz and x2: 001154 , x, 0.13064 9 3944 "2 0.03944 = 0.02926 + xp (3.312) A similar relation exists between uz/uy and x2, = pale 17513 © 2597.1 ©"? 2597.1 = 0.3246 + xq (0.6743) Substituting eqs. (5, 6) into eq. (3) yields an equation for x alone, whose solution is x2 = .805. r () The final vapor / liquid volume ratio is zl -(24) S (%) Velo \Meve lo aaa: 0.805 1317 =4714 0.Problem 1.8 Selected for analysis is the system that contains the two masses (mj, m,). In the initial state (a) the velocities of the two masses are different (V, V2), while in the final state (b) mutual friction brings the velocities to the same level (V,,). Since there are no forces between the system and its environment, the total momentum of the ensemble is conserved. m, V, +m) V2=(m, +m) V,, @ The initial and final kinetic energy inventories of the ensemble are KE, 4m,V,2+4m,v,2 Q) KE, = Hm, +m) V.? @) ‘The evolution of the total kinetic energy during the process (a) - (b) is described by the "efficiency" ratio KE, KE, (4) Eliminating V., between Eqs. (1) and (3), the efficiency can be expressed in terms of the initial mass and velocity ratios m, /m, and V>/V,, 6) Tecan be shown analytically that 1 is less than 1 as soon as V the ratio my /'m,. Two limits of Eq, (5) are worth noting, different than V,, for any value of 1=ap © m7! ite 1 my a eae m, with the special case = | when V, = V2 for any m,/m,. Equations (5) - (7) show that the order of magnitude of 1 is 1 when my /m, is a number of order 1 1-9In conclusion, the kinetic energy of the system decreases from state (a) to state (b). According to the first law of thermodynamics, this decrease is balanced by the other energy interactons and energy changes of the system, Qap- Wat U,-U,+KE,- KE, (8) b where W,. increase in U, . If the process is adiabatic, Q, 4, = 0, then the KE decrease is balanced by an U,-U, = KE, - KE, 9) If the system boundary is diathermal, and (a) and (b) are states of thermal equilibrium with the ambient temperature reservoir (Ty), then Qyp = Up- Ua + KEy - KE, (10) If'm, and m, are two incompressible substances then U = U(T), and at thermal equilibrium (To) the energy change U,, - U, is zero, Q,. = KE, - KE, <0 ay 1-10Chapter 2 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Problem 2.1 With reference to system A sketched below, assume that W>0 and Q>0 The first law for one cycle completed by A is, Q+Q=W Investigating the possible signs of Qy and Qo we see three options: @ QOand Q>0 Gi) QQ<0 a Option (i) is ruled out by the first law (1) and the assumption that W is positive. Option (ii) is a violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement (2.2). In order to see this violation consider system B which executes one complete cycle while communicating with (T1) such that Qp=-Q Since the net heat transfer interaction experienced by (T') is zero, Q1 + Qp = 0, the (Ty) reservoir completes a cycle at the end of the cycles executed by A and B. “The aggregate system [A + B + (T))] also executes a complete cycle. This cycle is executed while making contact with (2) only. ‘The net heat transfer interaction of this cycle is positive @>0 which is a clear violation of eq, (2.2). In conclusion the only option possible is (iii): QuQo <0. ) Q ae) 2) > w,Problem 2.2 With reference to the system A shown in the preceding figure, we write the first law for one cycle Q+Q=w 0 and assume this time that W is negative, w<0 ‘There are three options to consider @® Q<0 and Q<0 (ii) Qi>0 and Q>0 Gi) W<0 of which only option (ii) can be ruled out, because it violates the first law. Option (i) is definitely compatible with the sign of eq. (2.27), QW Woo 27 T, T) Option (ii), in which Qo is the negative of the two heat transfer interactions, produces an analysis, identical to the segment contained between eqs. (2.11) and (2.27) in the text. The second law (2.27) is valid therefore for W < 0 and, as shown in the text for W > 0, In the special case of W = 0 the first law requires that Q) =-Qy. The second law (2.27) reduces to Quti-T)>0 which means that (a) if Q1 is positive, then (Ty - Tz) cannot be negative, or (b) if Qy is negative, then (Tj - T2) cannot be positive In less abstract terms, (a) and (b) mean that in the absence of work transfer the heat transfer interaction Q; cannot proceed in the direction of higher temperatures.Problem 2.3 According to the problem statement, it is being assumed that two paths (1 - 2yey and 1 - 2’,ey) can be traveled in both directions (see sketch below). The two paths are reversible and adiabatic. This assumption allows us to execute the cycle 1 - sey ~ 2rev ~ 1 in two ways: i) clockwise, in which f8=O, 2, =U, - Uy, <0 (i) counterclockwise, in which f 8Q=&,,, Note, however, that the counterclockwise option violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law. This means that the original assumption on which options (i) and (ii) are based is false, i.e. that two reversible and adiabatic paths cannot intersect at state 1. Is state 2yey unique on the V = V2 line? Worth noting is that options (i) and (ii) are both compatible with the Kelvin-Planck statement in the case where state 2’,., (or, for the matter, any other state 2’, , on the V = V2 line) coincides with state 2rey. In this case the reading of the cycle goes as follows: Sete ee ee (i) clockwise $80=,,-2,, = 0 Gi) counterclockwise f 8Q= Q2,.,-2eey = 9 Geometrically, this second law compatible limit means that state 2rey is unique, i. that there is only one state at V = V9 that can be reached reversibly and adiabatically from state 1. > rev 2rev re 0 which is a violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement. (b) Consequently we assume that the state 2’ that is accessible adiabatically trom state 1 is situated above state 2rev, Uy a c m 2m =| m = 3.219 me T) | 27 | 4M 2 ab m [im 2m S - Sp = 3.199 me To |2le | 215Starting again from state A (3 partitions present), we remove two partitions at a time. We have the following choices and results: c 3m m S - So = 3.466 me 2 4T9 b 2m 2m a | S - So = 3.316 me 2 Zan a m 3m S - Sp = 3.296 me To 3T Regarding the number of paths from A to B, we can have the following scenarios: (i) Removing a single partition each time, we have 3 x 2 = 6 choices, therefore 6 possible paths (ii) Removing a single partition in the first step and nwo partitions in the second, we have 3 x 1 = 3 choices, meaning 3 paths (iii) Removing nvo partitions in the first step and a single partition in the second, we have again 3 x 1 = 3 choices, hence 3 paths. (iv) Removing all three partitions at the same time, one path ‘The total number of paths is then 6 +3 +3+1 = 13. wProblem 2.7 Assume first that the end state is (b), in other words, that the piston is pressed against the ceiling of the enclosures. The first law for the (gas + weight) system during the process (a) + (b) is Qa-b ~ Wars = (Un Valea * (PE PE abit eee ee 0 0 mef-T,) ME v,-v) ‘This equation delivers the final temperature, : Mg/A ,=7,-84 v,-v,) o For configuration (b) to exist, the final pressure Pp must be greater than the pressure that could be sustained by the piston weight alone, hence mRT | Mg Mg 2) Ve > Q) Combining eqs. (2) and (1), this criterion becomes Mg/A ee Me @) a V; = mey Inge + MR in yt (4) Using eq. (1), we can put eq. (4) in the following dimensionless form Sg Mg/A R [V; V2 \Riey 'gen.a-b eee eee £3 atm SE) 7The objective is to show that the above quantity is positive, ie. that the quantity between accolades {_ }is greater than one. The proof that { } > I is even stronger if we replace the factor (Mg/A)P) by its ceiling value, which is listed on the left side of the inequality (3). In other words, if we prove that 6 then we can be sure that (5) is positive. To prove the inequality (6) means to prove that (¥ ye Vos an M o Rie, Vy vr Both sides of the inequality (7) are monotonic in (V2 / V1). The inequality is clearly correct in the limit V2/V —> «2. To see its true sign in the opposite limit, V2/V — 1, let aia l+e,wheree<<1 and rewrite (7) side by side as This form reduces to which certainly validates (7) in the limit ¢ > 0. The inequality (7) is true for all values of V2/Vj in the range (1, e) becuase the derivative of the left side of (7) with respect to (V2/V1) is always spreater than the derivative of the right side, R er : (y d re reer vm ames mM) (ap te awn for (V2/V1) > 1 and (R/cy) > 0. Consider next the process (a) — (¢), which occurs when (3) is violated. The first law (1) for this case reads . MgA 13=T)-Tre, (V3 VW)In order to find V3 we combine (3) with P3V3 = mRT3; the result is, ie V3 _ cy ee R We [B * oy, where P3 at all, V3= Mg/A. This result makes it easy to verify that when P = P3 the piston does not move 1. Finally, the entropy generated during the process (a) + (c) is where x is shorthand for V2/V}. To prove that the entropy increases from (a) to (c) we must prove 1 ) xRey > 1 P in other words >x-1 (10) where k cpley. Both sides of the inequality (10) approach zero in the limit x > 1. In the opposite limit (x +) the inequality is correct. It is correct also at intermediate x's, because the same inequality exists between the d(_)/dx slopes of the left and right sides of (10), respectively, kel a xel> 1, 3 a G0)) forx> landk> 1. Problem 2.8 The initial pressures above and below the partition are ‘The first law for the (m + M) system requires Quo Wah = (Up ~ Ualaas + (PEp~PEahveight Relais | setae 0 0 mel-%) MEv,-vy where -10and Combining these results we obtain the expression for T2, PY where k= cp/ cy. We can verify at this point that when the initial pressure difference across the partition is zero, the final state (b) is identical to (a): this is in agreement with eq. (1), where Pi below = Pi above (= P2) means that T= T1 “The entropy increase from (a) to (b) is associated only with the ideal gas part of the system, Spent (Spena),, + Brena) originally originally sibove below panition partition r, p, z Pp m 2m eM 2m _ =Bepin=2-@Ring—2— + Bepin2-BRin 2 eT 2 Pi apove 2 PT 2 Piteiow T =meping—-BRinz where m = P2/P| below is a given constant. We must prove that is positive, ie. that (2) ‘Assuming the ideal gas constants of air (k = 1.4, cp/R = 3.5), we discover numerically that the inequality (2) is satisfied as long as m+ 1, i.e. when there is an initial pressure difference across the partition: 0.1 0.5 1 1.21 1.03 1 ULProblem 2.9 From state (1) to state (2) the trapped gas evolves isentropically, Hes Gla ae: ds= cp Sr -RY =0 which means that T PR? = constant or 1, Py Ber = T, BRee From state (2) to state (3) the system is being heated at constant volume, Py _ Ps ee Eliminating T between eqs. (1) and (2) yields R_ In(Ps/ Fa) ee were or, for the ratio of specific heats, ep _ In(Py/Py) & ~ In (PP) state 1 state 2 state 3 | | 1 1 PLT, Py To PsTy Pi>Py > Po; the Tr result is +1 | Pw Va, "Ee ijeri? @ k 2-14(b) If the air/water interface is diathermal, the air and the water have the same instantaneous temperature, T(t). They also have the same P(\) if the process is slow enough. Conclusion: we can model the “contents” (air + water, upstream of the valve) as undergoing a reversible and adiabatic process. This system is open, hence je Sgen =0= Ge Dept isy —— = oS , Sw ( oy) ata twa which in the end yields ma ds, + my ds fc, dT _ pa at m, (cp $F - RP) + myc FF =0 8) my Pw Now, combining eq. (3) with (v. + ) in order to eliminate my, we obtain m, (cp 2 -R B) + py(V- Vale F=0 PY, Next, we eliminate T by recalling that T= > y cpl, , Pw wea p ava) _ eli Tt ley)! 4) Equation (4) is the P(V,) relation needed to integrate eq. (1) numerically. More progress can be made analytically by regarding the quantity insde the square brakets [ ], eq. (4), as constant, 6) 1 close to t= tp This point of view allows us to see that the integral of eq. (4) is essentially V, PIA = constant where (note: A<1) Finally, from eq. (2) with 1 - A in place of k, we calculate approximately -15ty © where A (and the quantity [ ]) can have two limiting values, eq. (5). Now, which discharge mode is faster, (a) or (b)? Since (V/Va,) > I, the above time ratio is dominated by the (V/Va,j)" terms. This means that Kho > Hy o if in other words, if k>1-A This last inequality is valid because k > 1. In conclusion, the relation between ty, and ty, is as shown in eq. (7), if V is considerably larger than Va,i- Problem 2.12 (a) Process (1) —> (2) evolves such that §Q = 8W = 0, which means Uz - Uj = 0 (from the first Jaw), and at constant volume, V2 = Vj. These two equations lead to the following system: (Amu + (m)ug = (Am + mug (Am)vo + (m)vg = (Am + mv2 Let us use Am/m = y, and introduce x2 as an unknown,ug = Ug? + X2 Ufg.2 v2= ve2 + X2 Vig2 a2 BS piano a0 +X; Upga 2M 2 Thave assumed P2 = 50 kPa; for this choice the above system becomes (numerically) _ LOL =x _ 0.5162-x9 Y= D109 Fay OF The solution is x2 = 0.09382 and y = 4.502. (b) Process (2) > (3) is slow (PdV-type work) and adiabatic, hence $3 - $2 = 0 (from the second law), Note also that $32 Sh aun) + *3 SQ aim We know all the properties at state (2), fy +82 gy = LTOL GE Uy = Ug, # Xo Up, = 541.52 ig 17$0, We Write 5) = Sp) #3 Stay gap OF LTOL = 1.3069 +13(6.048). We obtain x3= 0.06518, ug = 418.94 + x3 (2087.6) = 55.01 55.01 m3 va= 0.001044 + x3 (1.6719) = 0.1102 ‘The work required to compress the mixture, W2.3, follows from the first law, -W23 =U3- Q-3-Wo3 = U3-U2 0 = (m+ Am) (u3 - ua) = (m+ Am) (13.49) ig Note that W2.3 is negative because it is absorbed (©) From (3) to (1), we execute the following changes | steam added m (m - mg3) State 3 mg3 = (1 - x3) (m + Am) = 0.9348 (m + Am) mg,3 = X3 (m + Am) = 0.06518 (m+ Am) ‘Madded = M - Mg3 = m{1 - 0.06518 (1 + y)] = 0.6415m (d)_ The cycle is (1) - (2) - (3) - (1); the only work-transfer process is process (2) - (3). From (2) to (3) the atmosphere expands into "our system" and performs the work -18Watm = Po(V2- V3) t \<— u Po (m+ Am) (v2 - v3) (m+ Am) 19.753) o —>| + 0 P our system ‘Wau is positive, because it is written for the atmosphere as a system that performs work. The force balance on the piston shows that Watm is used for two purposes, / (-W>,) done on our system ‘Warm (done by the atmosphere) ( Wonan (left for man’s use) Conclusion: Wrnan = Warm ~ (-W23) Wonan = (19.753) (m+ Am) ~ (13.49) (m + Am) m + Am) (6.2628) kK/kg, Problem 2.13 (a) The model suggests that (A) executes a quasistatic and adiabatic compression, whose path is PVK = constant, therefore Likewise, (B) executes a quasistatic and isothermal compression, which means that the path is PV constant, or that -19Finally, in order to calculate Ta we note that since PaV = mRT the path of "PVK = constant” is the same as T P(I-Kyk = constant This allows us to conclude that Py \k-DK t=%(F) (b) Inthe case of system (A) two walls are moving slowly, therefore where Py VX = constant Performing the integral and using the V.,2 result derived earlier yields in the end PyV, | Pa\(e-1 Waroe- 2 () -1\<0 ‘This quantity is negative because P > Po and because it is necessary to invest work into the compression of the trapped air. (©) The net work transfer experienced by (A +B) equals the net work experienced by (A) plus the net work experienced by (B): Wass, 1-2 = Wa,1-2 + WB,1-2 What we need is Wa, 1.2, therefore, we recognize the "Pg Vp = constant" path and write PY; In 22 <0 =PoVi In pe < () The second law for the aggregate system (A +B) is Sgen, 1.2 > 0 where Qala Sent-2=(82-Saay Oo and where (S2-Spa+w= (S2-Siat(S2-SdB (Qia)aww = Qa,-2 + QB,1.2 ‘We have to evaluate four quantities: Q4,1.2= 0, (adiabatic enclosure) 2-20Qp,1-2= W,1-2, (apply the first law to system B) Vaz Py (Sa-Si)q=mey In pe +mep In ine = mey In 52 Py Ty Py (S2—S1)p = mep In G2 —mR In Be mR In fo Putting everything together we obtain P note: FOVA = mp’ Ty In conclusion, the process 1-2 executed by the aggregate system is reversible, and so are the processes executed by (A) and (B) individually. Problem 2.14 The second law statement for an unsteady open system is, os Ssen= Geo Ty SRO or, integrated from state (1) to state (2), Qo Sgen,i-2 = S2 - Sj - = - (mg - my)sR > 0 es Te In this expression we recognize that $1 = 0, mj = 0 and sp = sp(To, Pr). The heat transfer Qo follows from the first law in which Uy = 0 and mj = 0. This means that Qo Uz + PLV2- mgh = Hp - mghg =m; (hz ~ hg) = 0because the enthalpy of an ideal gas is a function of only the temperature [note: ho(To) and hg(To)].. In conclusion, the entropy generation is, Sgen,1-2 = S2—m2sR and since Pz = Pi, < Pr, s, = mR In FB >0 gen. 1-2 = MR In p> Problem 2.15 (a) During the braking process the total work input to the brake is W, and the total heat transfer from the brake to the ambient is Q. The system consists of the brake material and the immediate air layers that are heated by the brake (ie. the system boundary is a surface of temperature Tp). The first law and the second law require (note the directions of Q and W) -Q+W=U-Uo w Q Soon =S-Sgp+ = 20 Q ‘gen odoTs ) where U-Uo=me (T-To) ey S-Sy=meInZ. 4) 'o = me nT @) Eliminating Q between eqs. (1) and (2) we obtain Sgen= ar ~ me (—— w T_-inT\20 5) a a (b) The quantity in parentheses in eq. (5) is positive, therefore 0? S(Ty,P,) = 8(Ty,P) = 0? cpln Rink 20? P fo The conclusion is In z > 0, positive definitely, because P > Pa, 2 (®) Process 1 > 2 is irreversible, because the inequality sign is >, not =. 2.24Chapter 3 THE TWO LAWS COMBINED: THE DESTRUCTION OF EXERGY Problem 3.1 It was shown in Fig. 3.9 that the refrigerator deposits exergy in the (Ty) space at the rate (-£q)=0 (72-1) @ Looking now at the thermal insulation (the "system") sandwiched between (Tx) and (Ty), we see that Oy enters from Ty and exits through TL, The net exergy flow into this sytem is [see eq. G14] secre itor = 041-23} -09 2) =a -i)>0 T, TL The fact that this quantity is positive means that the thermal insulation system acts as a "sink" for exergy. Note that the quantities of eqs. (1) and (2) are equal. Ta Qe (ambient) <7 thermal insulation system * Wa Problem 3.2 Considering first the refrigerator, the refrigeration load could theoretically be provided by the heat rejection from a reversible (C) engine operating between (Ty) and (Ty). The useful work that would be produced by this engine is, ff T We= Quc( 1-75) 31and, since Quc/TH = QUTL, ' This quantity is exactly the exergy poured by the refrigerator into the (T.) reservoir. TH Qu Quc R x7 TL Qa <7 Qa Similarly, the heat transfer pushed up by a heat pump (Qu), could theoretically drive a reversible heat engine between (Tq) and (T1). The work produced by this engine Ty veo is exactly the exergy that was deposited by the heat pump into the warm space (Tj) [see the first term on the right side of eq. (3.26)Problem 3,3 Starting with eq. (3.37) and choosing the dimensionless temperature and pressure variables we obtain the dimensionless non-flow exergy of an ideal gas in the limit t— 0 and x — 0: 5 2+ Rn-y (3.38) cy To Note that a line of constant & is a circle in the plane in which t and (R/ey)¥/2( - 2) are the cartesian coordinates (Fig. 3.13). On the other hand, in the t - % plane the constant-§ line is an ellipse represented by © bea (SE +1) 2—2et + x? ® where b2 is a constant proportional to & The presence of the "zt" term on the right side indicates that the axes of this ellipse are not aligned with the (t, x) frame. Let (t, p) be the cartesian system of coordinates that is aligned to the axes of the ellipse, ie. the frame in which the ellipse equation does not contain the tp term, say B2=ky 2+ kp p? Q ‘The (t, p) frame is rotated by 0 degrees relative to the original frame (t, m) (see the sketch). The relation between the two systems is t=tcos@-psin® n=tsin 8 +p cos 8 Now, in order to obtain eg, (2) we must eliminate t and r from eq. (1) by using the transformation (3) and setting the coefficienct of the emerging tp term equal to zero. ‘This last step yields cetan 29=-2R &y which means that the angle of inclination of the ellipse in the t - = plane is a function of R/cy. This function is illustrated in a different notation in Fig. 3.13, Problem 3.4 The specific flow exergy is ex = h- hg - To (s - $0) In the case of an incompressible liquid we have, in order, dh= dT +vdP h=hg= c(T-To) +v(P- Po) ds= oF = ee S-so= cing T a = eTo(t ~g)}tvP-Pa) (3.49) For an ideal gas we write similarly h-hn= ep (T-To) s-s0= pln Ty -Rin ey eaine Ee x= To (t, dl Inge] +RTo Ing (3.51) Both ex formulas - eqs. (3.49) and (3.51) - are functions of T and P. The main features of these functions are reproduced in the following sketch. At sufficiently low pressures P, and at temperatures T,, near To, the flow exergy becomes negative. The negative value means that if the original state of the fluid in the stream is (To, Po), then work (at least as great as lex!) must be done on the stream in order to bring it to the state (T,., P,). 34x fe (GRD - Problem 3.5 The non-flow exergy of a closed system is ==E - Eo- To (S - So) + Po (V - Vo) (3.32) If the system is isolated, then In conclusion, (i) Bis fixed, eq. (2.49) (ii) _V is fixed [see the discussion above eq. (2.49)] (iii) S increases or, in the limit, remains the same if the isolated system undergoes a change, its non-flow exergy = decreases or, in the limit, remains the same. Problem 3.6 a ‘atin, P) where tin = th ‘The first law and the second law for the control volume (mixing chamber) are xhy + (1 - x)hp = hg a) ins (3, P) gen = Mis3 — xthis, ~(I-x)thsy > (2) thy +1hg, When the two streams rh and rhy carry the same ideal gas, eqs. (1)- (2) become 35xT, +(1-x)T2=T3 @) S, T. rT. 80 in 84 (ex) Ine @ nee )In ae >0 ) Eliminating T3 between eqs. (3) - (4) yields Seen _, [ ©) ihep Solving OSgey/9x = 0 we obtain the critical mass flowrate fraction for maximum irreversibility, Int @-oInt Problem 3.7 The maximum useful work is the non-flow exergy "stored" in the purchased bottle, E=mlu - ug - To(s - so) + Pov - vo)] or, using u=h - Py, = mfh - ho -Tols - so) + ¥ (Po- PY] In this problem Po - P = 0 and 0.05 m3 m=——U02 MY __ = 40,3 kg 1.24 x 1073 mk hence 40.3 kg [-121.5— 172.1 -300(2. 85-629) 5 = 2.93 x 104, 3-6Problem 3,8 Consider the aggregate system indicated by the dashed line: this system is closed and contains all the components that operate at temperatures higher than To, We apply the first law to this system, and obtain : Qu Q where the quantity in the parentheses is the total rate of entropy generation of the system: 8 jen SH - 80 en Ty Ty In conclusion, the power required by the heat pump is proportional to the rate of entropy generation in the heat pump and the rest of the space situated at temperatures above To, W=Tp Seen house heat pump ambientProblem 3.9 The system is closed and occupies the space of the bottle and the mass of atmospheric air that will reside inside the bottle in the final state (state 2). In the initial state (state 1) the total volume of the system is 2V. The end states are STATE 1 STATE 2 T VEY To Po Vv | I vacuum | air air Vi=2V U1 =Uo S1=So where Uo and So are the energy and entropy inventories of the mass of atmospheric air (V. To, Po). The maximum work that can be extracted from state I to state 2 while the system makes contact with the atmospheric reservoir (Tp, Po) is the nonflow exergy (¥~ pS + PoV1-(U- ToS +Po V2 =P (Vi- V2) =PoV This agrees with Example 2.2, where it was shown that Po V is destroyed (during the bottle filling process there is no "user” — no mechanism for extracting and delivering = to us). Problem 3.10 The second law efficiency of the power plant (P) is defined as P) hid P= aaah) Similarly, for the second law efficiency of the refrigeration plant (R) we write ou tt,)= 1 Aircrew crac where the numerator is the exergy "deposited" in the cold space. The aggregate system (P +R) has one exergy input and one exergy output, as shown in the figure:Ty Qu (-ap) Via Ge) ‘The second law efficiency of the aggregate system is the ratio. np®) exergy output _ Qu {(To/t.)- 1] : exergy input ~ Qu(1-Ty/Ty) © which is equivalent to nge® anf? nf 3.9Chapter 4 SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEMS Problem 4.1 Starting with the Euler equation and fundamental relation in entropy representation (4.30) (4.18) dU + Ud| (a) and subtract eq. (a) from eq. (4.18): =ud 2 -Na{#) o= U(x) +velF)-Na{F) (b) “The alternate approach is to start with the Gibbs-Duhem relation SdT - VdP +Ndp=0 (4.32) replace $ using eq. (4.30"), EU+EV-EN) aT VaP + Nap =0 © divide eq, (c) by T, aT, y PaT=TaP , y Téw-paT _ Ut Ra tN 0 @ and recognize the emergerice of the differentials that appear on the right-hand-side of eq. (b). Problem 4.2 We have a system of four equations U(S, V, N)= (a) TS, V, n=(¥ hs (b) WS. VN) =(F) ©ey) we S50 i F,(S, V,N)=U-TS uN=U (qr) exp 1 @ Ne, To obtain F, as a function of (T, V, 1) we eliminate U, $ and N between eqs. (b) - (d). First, dividing (b) and (c) yields = 3)-5 © Second, combining (d) and (¢) we obtain the wanted result F(T. Vw) =Up yn" ee(-ar o Problem 4.3 In order to derive F(T, V, N) we begin with three equations (review Table 4.3): UG.V.N= (Xl oo (S) @ TGV, m=), Pla) "e( O) FG,V.N u-T5= Ue) 5 ( © ‘The objective is to find F= FCT, V, N). First, we combine (b) and (¢) to write Fete, (I-xe] @ Second, we eliminate $ between (4) and (b), and obtain the wanted result: F=(T,N, V)=TNg . ‘The second part of the problem concerns the derivation of G(T, P, N). We have a system of four equations, namely (a) and (b) as well as ® (g) First we eliminate and V between (b), (£) and (g). Dividing (b) by (£) yields 42Vv NE ) Next, we divide (g) by (b) @ Using (h) and (i) to eliminate V and $ from (g) yields, finally, G=TN(e, +R)-SyT-TN which is a function of T, P and N. Problem 4.4 The (n+2)th Legendre transform is, a The fundamental relation has (n+2) arguments U=U(S, V.Nie. Nay oF Y= Y¥ (Kr, X2, XB, +» X42) which means that the (n+2)'® transform of U is its "total" Legendre transform aff?) =U -TS +PV-wiN-...-HnNn However, according to eq. (4.30") the right-hand-side is identically equal to zero, hence ng=0 Problem 4.5 We must prove that ap) Sp _/aP (= (35), oO Invoking eqs. (4.58) and (4.60) we work successively on the left-hand-side (LHS): =(2) 7/2) 1(aD us =(5)7($4), + (3s), ®) Next, we eliminate (4P/2v)p using the cyclical relation between P, v and T, 43(39), (St), (SE), =! © such that eq, (b) becomes us =-(3F) (3), (3), =-(5),8, @ Putting (d) and (a) together, ~(35), 8), GF, @ wwe recognize the cyclical relaiton for P, v and s, (55), (33), 5), = ® The fact that (f) is an identity proves the validity of equation (a). Problem 4.6 as) _ (ae @ (= &, using eq, (4.561) _ _ @vlT)p i : ~ BaP, = the cyclical relation for P, v ani Lav vith _p = oy ov\eas -+(5l, as) _ _[2¥) : ) ($),= -S), using eq. (4.563)(©) First, a method involving the use of Jacobians: using eq. (4.58) using eq. (4.86) using eq. (4.87) using eq. (4.562) = cp- EBT ‘An alternate proof, one that does not involve the use of Jacobians, begins with recognizing that the objective is to expres the difference (cp - cy) as a function of P, v, T and their derivatives, uf ° We go back to the entropic definitions of ep and cy and write using eq. (4.56g) = pont (SF) a using eq. (4.561) Eliminating ds between the two expressions developed above, we solve for dT and find ($i), pee (Ge, & 45in other words, are lit ara (ar, (i), Equations (b) and (¢) are the same equation namely oo-s=T(5), Ft), (i) With an eye on eq. (a), We invoke the cyclical relation (33), ($0), and eliminate (@P/2T)y between (e) and (d): (e) (fy we = (-BT+Dv (, 46 I (b) © (a) (©) @ using dh = Tds + vaP using eq. (4.562) using the cyclical relation for T, P and h using the answer to part (d) above using ds = z aT+ using eq. (4.568)Problem 4.7 We must prove that eu ou _ Ht @ av? lasdv) "952 ~ av? Since du = Tds - Pd, we recognize that (8) ant P= G8) ‘The left-hand-side of eq. (a) becomes -B@) Las = - (2) and, using Table 4.6, LHS =— 5 rh fam) Gr (0v),] ° (shy er) ae For the right-hand-side of eq. (a) we note that df = -sdT - Pdv, hence (5) Ov) al (P)r rus =-(54), Or In other words, we conclude that LHS = RHS.Problem 4.8 ds= ds = cpdT + (-BT + 1) vdP ($t), at+ ($), ep T aT Sp Far —pv ar (Se), at (3), = aT+ (2) dv c 48 using du = Tds - Pdv using dh = Tds + vdP using eq. (4.56) using eq. (4.561) using the cyclical relationProblem 4.9 (a) From Problem 4.6g we learn that Gl, Integrating at constant temperature we obtain av SY) =-2vg AT (a }, i) cp (T, P)- cp (T, 0) = - 2voATP hence ep = cg- D(T - Tp) - 2avoTP. (b) From Table 4.7 we have = gr ds =< dT Bv dP where We integrate 7 : ds= (2 ao ZavgP) AT — Zip (T-Ty + aP) P from the reference state (T = To, P = 0) to an arbitrary state (T, P), by choosing the path (Tp, 0) > (T, 0) followed by (T, 0) > (T, P). The result is 49S(T, P) - S(T, 0) = (Co + bTo) In = B(T = To) = 2AvoP (T= To) - Avo aP2 (©) For the Gibbs free energy g(T, P) we start with (see Table 4.3) dg = -sdT + vdP where we know both s(T, P) and v(T, P). We integrate from (To, 0) to any state (T, P) along the path (To, 0) -> (Tr, 0) followed by (T, 0) > (T, P), T P A(T, P) = g(Ty,0) ~~ f stT,0) a+ [ vcr, Pa % 0 Setting both g(To, 0) and s(To, 0) equal to zero we obtain g(T, P) = -(cg +bTy)T In b +(Co# bTo)(T- To) +3 (TT)? +y0(P-2P?} 2 a? 52 +A voP|(T- To}? + aP(T ~ To) + 5 P: (d) The incompressible liquid model with constant specific heat means that 2 = 0, Ko = 0 and b=0. In this case the g(T, P) expression reduces to g(T, P) =~ ¢oT In + co(T = To) + voP 0 Problem 4.10 This process is a zero-work process, therefore the first law requires 8Q=dU (constant V) If the process represents "heating", then (dU)y >0 a Constant-volume pressurization means that (dP)y > 0 Q) Dividing (1) and (2), we find that the condition for the described process to be a heating process is (leo 4-10or me, ($5), >0 @ Finally, invoking the cyclical relation (GF), (3), (SP ).-! the inequality (3) reduces to hence cy BPO Problem 4.11 2 Blt = +97($) (SE). using the cyclical relation for P, v, and s = (34), 50), (35), (FF) HELE e ve HG), using the cyclical relation for P, v and T all(b) According to Table 4.5, in the ideal gas limit we have k= P", therefore, y 2 = kRT ‘Alternatively, according to Table, 4.7, for an ideal gas we can write cp ds=F dv+ St aP and, in conclusion, Problem 4.12 (i) Regarding u as a function of T and v, we have ave(B oto =eyot+{r($), ~Plav seat 4 [T (F), -Plav and, after evaluating (@P/@T)y for a van der Waals gas, we obtain Integrating from (To, vo) to (T, v), we obtain finally = ug = ey (T- To +a(ye y (ii) The same procedure can be used for deriving the function s(T,v), 4-12yielding finally = 89 =¢y In aob_ s-soseying + Rin (iii) Using the ds expression obtained above, we write Gh = Tds + vaP =1(tar+ Ray R_gp__RT_ gy 4 24 = Pats Sw) +o] ot tvs Bay s, +R—YJar+[- BIB 4 2a)av fv Rtp)ar + aural ‘The difference (h - ho) is independent of the path linking the end states (To vo) and (T, v). Therefore, we can integrate dh by first proceeding isothermally from (To, vo) to (To, v), and later by keeping the volume constant from (To, v) until (T, v): because du = Tds - Pdv because cy = 7( $8) =O because dh = Tds + vaP o a cs because ep (St, 413because df =-sdT —Pdy 1 Lf av 7 because x= —+{ wv v\ ap Problem 4.14 The “system” is the total volume V, which contains two compartments, A and B, V=Va+ Vp a) or Va=xV and Vp=(1-x)V 2) where the volume fraction x is a number between 0 and 1 The initial equilibrium state of the system is specified. Chamber A contains the gas mass ma at initial pressure Pas and temperature T,;, from which follows the ideal gas volume maRTa xV= (3) Pal Chamber B contains the gas mass mp at given initial pressure Pa) and temperature Tp), therefore mpRT 31 (l-x)V= (4) Par Dividing eqs. (3) and (4) we conclude that the initial (locked) position of the adiabatic partition (x:) is known: =x myn Pat 6 a maTar Pp ‘The partition must be “locked” in this position because in general Pa, #Pp 4-14The question is to determine the final equilibrium position of the adiabatic partition (x2) after it is allowed to slide freely. Equilibrium of this kind (mechanical) means that Par = Par 6) or, in order, maRTy2 _ mgRTp2 7 0 Var Vp2 =x. _ mplp2 8) XQ mTar Equation (8) shows that the unknown x2 depends on two additional unknowns, Taz and Ter. We need two more equations, The first additional equation is the first law of thermodynamics invoked for the entire (isolated) system during process 1-2: Qe2 — Wi-2 = (U2 — Ups + (U2 - Upp 0) in which Q\_7 = Wj = 0. The result is macy(Ta2 ~ Tai) + mpey(Tp2 ~ Tai) = 0 (10) ‘The second additional equation is the subleity that apparently has eluded thermodynamicists for a hundred years. The partition is massless. ‘This means that when the locking mechanism is removed and the partition slides freely, the pressure must be the same on both sides of the partition. Which pressure will that be, Pa(t) or Pa(t)? Let us convene that subscript A means that initially chamber A is more pressurized than chamber B, Par > Pai (ily When the partition is free to move (i.e. when the force that used to be provided by the lock is no longer present), the pressure on both sides of the partition will be the ower of the two pressures, namely Pp. This means that a pressure nonuniformity is created inside chamber A, and from 41this the opportunity for gas A to expand. The expansion of A means that B will be compressed. Whereas gas A expands as a nonequilibrium (nonuniform Py) subsystem, gas B contracts quasistatically: at every point in time, the pressure on its moving wall, Pp(t), is the same as the pressure throughout the gas mass my, So, the final equation comes from the fact that the adiabatic compression of mg is quasistatic. ‘The first Jaw for an infinitesimal change of state of subsystem B requires 8Qp — Wy = dUy (12) where 5Qp = 0, and OWg = PadVp (13) dU = mpeydTg (4) From eqs. (12) ~ (14) follows the conclusion that cydTp /Tp + RdVp / Vp = 0, or that the path of the process undergone by mp is TyV$ = constant, where a= R/c,; fom this we obtain the final equation, Oe) or = BL (16) x In summary, we have three equations [namely, eqs. (8), (10) and (16)] for three unknowns, Xs, Tar and Typ. The final state is unique, and it has just been determined. For example, by climinating T2 and Tyo from the three equations we obtain the final position of the partition, I=x =(I- 4) (7) 4-16where =14 Bala (18) mT ‘The other properties that define the final state are calculated after x2 is determined: (19) (20) ce mpRTp (1- x) Y'_ Pao yi] Pao a1) What role does the second law play in all this? It plays the role of test of irreversibility. The solution developed above must not violate the second law, which, for the process 1-2 executed by the entire (isolated) system, requires that 2 (22) 8-512 f 1 The right-hand side is zero because the system is isolated (6Q = 0). The second law becomes (Sz - 81), + (82 - $1), 20 (23) where the B contribution is zero +Rin2B2 |= (24) Vai (S2 - Si) =m (som Equation (24) is a reaffirmation of the fact that the process executed by the B chamber is adiabatic and quasistatic, hence isentropic. ‘This means that all the irreversibility of process 1-2 is located in the gas of chamber A. Left to prove is that 417-3),2 (82 -S)), 20 23) as long as the assumption of initial mechanical nonequilibrium (Pj, 2 Pig) is correct. This ean be shown numerically, by assigning numerical values to all the symbols, given and calculated. Here I show it analytically, after I make the “convenient” assumptions that the setup is such that ma= mg, Tar = Tai and a= 1. This means that f= 2 and, from eq. (5), N= Fara] (26) bial Pal therefore xj <4. The second law test (25) becomes 8) =§, EB (a= Sa in VA2 nf ta]z0 en) Marty Var Tar Vat The question is whether the quantity in the square brackets is greater than 1 ee ee 2 (28) 1=x_ 1x) % This question can be rewritten in several ways until this form: (1-year) 20? (29) This conclusion is correct as soon as. x, @) = 0.0126 > Oo T3 = 15°C > @ = 0.00641 < @o Interpolation results: T3 = 19.43°C 3 = 0.0142 © = 0.0229 Similar results can be read off a psychrometric chart, in which T3 is the wet-bulb thermometer temperature corresponding to To and $o. ‘The formula for the total [uw exergy of liquid water reduces to 4, w= [Po — Psat (Tall ve (To) Ry To In Oo = 0,098 + 70.212 = 70.31 kI/kg water liquid For the total flow exergy of the inflowing stream of humid air, eq. (5. ), we obtain e120 because the mixture is at the environmental state (To, Po, 60). Finally, for the outflowing stream of humid air we obtain [note that there are three terms in eq. (5.49): €1, 3 = 0.0542 + 0 + 0.0298 = 0.84 ki/kg dry air Now we can put numbers in place of the following quantities: exergy flowrate out= hye, 5 5-4ji Thy exergy flowrate in = thy ey = ape Ma ey, w = (05-0) My ew exergy lost, per kg dry air = (03-@) ew &1,3 = 0.0777 ki/kg dry air thy &, 3 0.084 NU (pray) thew” WOLE- 0.0119) T0aT = 05? Note: This problem can be expanded by asking the question of how the irreversibility (or na) depends on the original humidity (61). One way to proceed is by repeating parts (a) and (b) assuming a different 1 value (e.g., 91= 0.5), while keeping $9 and all the other data fixed. Problem 5.5 (a) The conservation of water in the two parts of the apparatus requires thy, 1 + thy = thy, 2 os thy, 2 = My, 3 or, divided by ring (the dry air flowrate between 1 and 3) and) =O} We conclude that 0139, or @ = 0.0224 = 0.00788, or @; = 0.0127 ‘The answer iswith the additional observation that ©» = 0.00788 and 6), = 0.0127. (b) The intermediate temperature T2 follows from the observation that 2 = 1, which provides the equation Knowing Po and @2, we find that Psae(T2) = steam tables" , means that .268 kPa, which, via linear interpolation in the T= 10.23°C (c) Applying the first law to the rectangular box delineating the "first part" of the apparatus we obtain Q Fae =P, a(To~ Ta) +O by, 1 by, 2=(0) - Oy) hy. After recognizing that hy, 1 = hg(T9), hy, 2 = hg (T9) and hy = hp (T2), the first law yields. 0.11 Kirke dry air (@) Similarly, the first law analysis of the second part of the apparatus requires Gee eeall-T)+ ey bys By,2 in which hy, 3 = hg(To) and hy, 2 = hg (T2). The numerical results is Qu 215.03 karky dy air my (e) The exergy analysis of the first part of the apparatus consists of calculating e4, 1 = 0 +0 + 0.0226 = 0.0226 Kilkg dry air = eq. (5.49) 1,2 = 0.3851+ 0 + 0.1024 = 0.4875 ki/kg dry air & eq, (5.49) ex, w= 1319 +0.1 + 70.212 = 71.631 kivkg water eq. (5.49) ‘The steam tables used throughout this Solutions Manual and the calculations reported in Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics are the classical Steam Tables by J. H. Keenan, F. G. Keyes, P. G. Hill and J. G. Moore (Wiley, New York, 1978).\= + 1.5694 ri, ki/kg dry air zy Note that in the calculation of e,, w the value "1.319 kI/kg water" represents the sum of the four terms listed on the first (top) line of eq. (5.59). In conclusion, the rate of exergy destruction in the first part of the apparatus is: total exergy inflow — total exergy outflow = rh, ¢, 1 +E, ~ tity e,2— My €, w = th, (0.0226 + 1.5694 — 0.4875 — 0.00602 x 71.631) = th, (0.673 kifkg dry air) The exergy flowrates into and out of the first part of the apparatus are represented by their respective number of kJ per kg dry air in the sketch below. 1.5695 1024. 0.4875 —— first part as 0.0226 “second part 0.00602 x 71.631 A312 (P) For the exergy analysis of the second part of the apparatus we calculate e, 3 = 0 +0 + 0.1024 = 0.1024 Kivkg dry air eq. (5.49) : 1a) fg,=O(1 ~ Th) =0 therefore (see the preceding exergy accounting diagram) total exergy inflow total exergy outflow = rh, e, 9 ~ tier, 3 = th, (0.4875 - 0.1024) = th, (0.3851 kI/kg dry air) (g) The second law efficiency of the entire apparatus is 57= {otal exergy outflow _ 0.4312 + 0:1024 _ 9 335 TUI= “otal exergy inflow ~ 0.0226 + 1.5694 ~ Rewriting the second law efficiency as total exergy lost Total exergy inflow "1 (exergy lost) > (exergy lost) ~ total exergy inflow ~ total exergy inflow 0.673 (see part"e") __ 0.3851 (see part "f") ~ 0.0226 + 1.5694 ~ ~ 0.0226 + 1.5694 — 0.423 - 0.242 0.335 wwe see that the first part of the apparatus destroys roughly twice as much exergy as the second part, 0.423/0,242 = 1.748. In other words, the larger part of the irreversibility of the apparatus occurs between state I and state 2 Problem 5.6 The analysis begins with eq, (5.13'), expressed per mole of humid air mixture: E=E + Eon = Xal(Eat Gen, a) +8 =x,[t $y [BB ~To (Sy —8}) + Py (%y— Wi) + Hoo] Ey + Sen, v) a~ Va) # Ha ~ Ho, al ¢ ( a ~To la Sq) +Po| Invoking the ideal gas model for dry air, we write Rink P RTy (T/Ty Py \PIPy The total non-flow exergy per mole of humid air mixture (E,) becomesThe corresponding total non-flow exergy per kilogram of dry air (E) is obtained by recognizing that which yields 1 +R, T (1 +0)In 1% om 2| Problem 5.7 We begin with the single-component version of eq, (5.9'), which per mole of water is Ew =O Tos + Pov — Ho, w where Hp, = Zo, w= fo, w—ToSo, w- Rewritten per kilogram of water, eq, (1) reads Sw =u- Tos +Pov-ho, w+ Toso, w in which, based on the incompressible liquid model, we substitute usug(T) 59‘The end result is &, w= hp (T) - hg (To) - To s¢(T) + To Sg (To) + (Po - P) ve(T) - Rv To In G0, where the four terms in the top row add up to zero if T= Tp. The same result can be expressed as &e, w = he (T) - hy (To) + To [sr (To) - se (T)] + (Po - P) ve(T) - Rv To In 60 by noting that hg(To) = hy(To) + Tosfy(To).Chapter 6 MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS Problem 6.1 The system evolves at constant $ and P. Let "L" denote the half of the system in which the entropy increases, and "R" the half in which the entropy is being depleted, sp=4(s +68) Sp=4(S-88) Since we will be invoking the H-minimum principle for constant $ and P, we evaluate the overall ‘change in the enthalpy inventory of the system. For each half we write 5(S), 69? : ‘| +5[S3) 9? | where H is the original enthalpy inventory of the entire system. Adding Hy and Hp we find The original state is one of stable equilibrium if the net enthalpy change [(Hy + Hp) - H] is positive - this, in accordance with the enthalpy minimum at constant $ and P. This requirement translates into or, since dH = TdS + VaP, into hence cp>0 However, cp is also defined as (Ah/2T)p, where Ah equals the infinitesimal heat transfer experienced isobarically as the temperature increases by AT. Therefore, the stability condition cp > 0 means that the substance must be one whose temperature increases while it is heated isobarically Finally, according to Problem 4.6c, the specific heat at constant pressure always obeys the 61relation vt EBT cp= Clearly, if ey and x are both positive, ep is also positive. Problem 6,2 First we recognize the approximation and that for an ideal gas, = ve=ReE Using these ingredients, we have ap _ beg aT ~ Tig Baer R, 7? which really means Recalling the definition ef = Tdsp/ dT, we conclude that h, Vie r= cp.¢— Be ve ® 6-2‘The relevant properties of saturated liquid water at 95°C are Br= 0.00072 K ve= 0.00104 m/kg hyg = 2270.2 ki/keg Vig= 1.981 m/kg cpp= 4.2 Ki/kgiK therefore eq. (a) becomes, numerically, or = (4.2 - 0.00086) Se In conclusion, cf: cp, ¢ for saturated liquid water at common temperatures, Problem 6.4 Repeating the preceding analysis for sg = sg[T, P(T)] we obtain hence hey Be veve @ Treating the saturated vapor as an ideal gas we note that (b) Furthermore, a good approximation is, Vig = ¥g-¥. © Equations (a) - (¢) yield 1 Pg hig = CP, ShyProblem 6.5 To find either spinodal line we must solve therefore, in the high volume limit P, varies as vy Problem.6.6 The slope of the "ice + water" line at the triple point is given by Clapeyron's relation dP _ Swater~ dT Ywater~ The negative sign of dP/4T shows that the "ice + water" line leans to the left starting from the triple point TP. Assuming that the line is straight all the way up to P) = 10 MPa, we write P,-Prp __10MPa___ 13,6 MPa gP . 17 IP = at T,-Tp 01S K Solving this equation for T), we obtain Ty = -0.73°C. Figure 6.7 ‘The new equation of state is 393 + (2+30)m-8t=0 therefore, the critical isochore (the constant-volume curve v = V¢) is described by the straight line 2n-8t=0 (=0) ‘The slope of this line is (Ox /91)9=0 =4. All the isochores (6 = constant) are straight lines. 6-4Problem6,8 This problem can be solved numerically in the following steps: (1) Fix the value of T; (clearly, Tr< 1) (2) GB) (4) Guess the value of P, that might correspond to the selected T; (note: P, < 1) ‘Use eq. (6.46) to calculate the limits of integration ve and vg Evaluate the integral [r dy, and see whether it is zero. If it is not, go back ¥ to step (2) and guess a better P, value. ‘ y, % v My own results are listed in the following table: Te P ve Ym Yg Area [= Area II 0.97 0.884 0.738 1.0235 1.498 0.00559 0.95 0.8119 0.685 1.043 L727 0.0152 0.9 0.647 0.604 1.091 2.349 0.0618 0.85 0.504 0.554 1.146 3.128 0.141 0.8 0.383 0.517 1.2085 4.172 0.255 0.75 0.282 0.490 1.282 5.642 0.404 0.7 0.2004 0.467 1.367 7814 0.592 0.65 0.136 0.449 1469 1.18 0.818 0.6 0.0869 0.433 1591 16.722 1.087The Pitzer acentric factor and the te parameter are Problem 6.9 At the critical point eq, (6.98) requires Z3-Z2 +(A,-B,-BZ)Z,-A,Bo=0 where Problem 6.10 The slope of the saturation pressure curve P(T) is given by Clapeyron's relation oP te dT” Vig In the limit T > the right-hand side of this relation approaches (As/v)r-=T,, hence we reach the conclusion that where the left-hand side refers to the slope of the "L + V" domain projected on Regnault’s diagram P-TProblem 6.11 We start with j1y = 0 and the identity (e) of Problem 4.6, ='Pep Problem 6.12 We begin with the Clapeyron relation (6.136), in which hj = a + DT and Zfg = Z, constant, ae Problem 6.13 The analysis consists of writing gr= gy and noting that in both states (f and g) the system is a "simple" system, Therefore, according to Table 4.3 we have ges ur- Tr sp+ Pr ve a Bg = Ug - TeSg + Pevy 2) In the present case, however, Ty = Ty =T and Pr= Py = P; subtracting eq. (1) from eq. (2) yields (ut Pry - (ut Pre = Ths - 88) and, finally, : ig = Tig 67Problem 6.14 All along the edge of the dome [e.g. at state (m)] the system is single-phase, therefore dm = TmdSm + ¥indPm a) Integrating from () to (g) along the edge of the dome we obtain hy—hp= (tm Next, we replace the left side with Tosty and, using the approximation siy/vjg = constant, we obtain nt — 2 Sie (Tn —Tp) dS = - a | VT 8) i On the left side of eq, (3) we recognize the area trapped between the dome and the T = To horizontal line. The line integral appearing on the right side can be broken up into two line integrals, one for each side of the critical point, 7 i vig DAT h a ‘Combining eqs. (3) and (4) we obtain finally 1, slo) ° (Tn — Told = ae | vig( DOT eg(TO)For the second part of the problem we note that gr (T) = gy(T) means, in order, % » | siy(DAT = i Vig(P)P o Py Problem 6.15. In the case of the van der Waals fluid we have, in order, ‘The last expression matches eq. (6.46). Considering now Paynter’s fluid, peli OD lee a 92am) 6-9‘The Z = Z (T,, P,) chart is obtained by combining Paynter’s P; = P;(Tr, Px) equation of state with =z, 7 * Z=Z, Tp, ‘Sg T obtained the following chart, first, by fixing the value of T,, second, picking a pr value, third, calculating Pr from Paynter's relation and, fourth, substituting all three into the Z formula (*) 6-10Problem 6.16 The linearized Clapeyron relation can be integrated from Tsar to Tq, to relate P to Tsate me (constant) a sat Psat, ~ P= a (Tr - Tsav) @) where Psat, # iS the saturation pressure comesponding to TH. The second relation between P and Tear, which is needed to determine P and Tsar uniquely, is provided by the ideal gas model applied to the nonisothermal steam layer, Tx) = TH (TH Toad) (3) ‘The steam mass dm contained in an infinitesimal slice of thickness dx has the press ature T(x), and volume Adx; we write the equation of state P Adx = (dm) RT 4 and integrate from x =0 to x=L, L = [* PAdx m= i: = ©) Combining eqs. (3) and (5) we obtain m P=acRT™ oat © where t is the dimensionless unknown Tat ee Aimee 7) Ty ‘The (P, Tsax) Solution is determined uniquely by the system of eqs. (2) and (6). For example, eliminating P we obtain and implicit expression for t, -a(1 (8) where [Lis the dimensionless steam mass, (9) O-lLChapter 7 CHEMICALLY REACTIVE SYSTEMS Problem 7.1 At constant V and T, eq. (7.10u) states that or, in view of eq, (7.14), Problem 7.2 Recognizing Y/T as a function of T, P and ¢ we write ci ‘The first partial differential coefficient is given by eq. (7.19), =+ (oH 1 HB a(x = AE, TRH, oR L For the second coefficient we invoke eq. (7.30),Put together, the above statements yield or) 8. Problem 7.3 We focus on the following portion of the table T, [K] logygKp TL IKY 298 -35.612 1/298 500 @ 1000 -8.646 1/1000, where (2) stands in place of the correct value og (500 K) = -20.158 The numerical results and percentage deviation from the correct value are: (1) linear interpolation in T, (2) = -27.846, error = 38.1% (2) linear interpolation in T-!, (?) = -20.090, error = 0.34% In conclusion, the numerical error can be significant if we do not keep in mind the analytical form of the van't Hoff relation. Problem 7.4 Following Example. 7.1, we conclude the Kp = 0.0454 and 12 le 0.0454 = —2 (e Po where P/P, = 0.1. In terms of th extent of the reaction 6, the above condition reads u2 0.0454 (0.316) o Its solution is z = 0.288, which means that [see eqs. (d) of Example 7.1] 622, ee ).126. H,0 Comparing these values with those found in Example 7.1 for the case when P = | atm, we learn to expect that if the pressure were to increase the mole fractions of the products H and O> would decrease. The isothermal increase in pressure decreases the extent of the reaction, ¢Wrnax, Fig. 7.14 / Wmax, Fig. 7.13 Problem 7.5 The analysis consists of dividing eq. (7-123) by eq. (7.119) and using the shorthand notation tye = Tye! To» Wona Fig. 7.14 2 12 | W, ‘max, Fig. 7.13, ne G The graph shows that this ratio is greater than one. It increases from a value of 1.43 at typ = 10 to the limiting value of 2 at typ= 1. For combustion processes we look at Ty; Values of the order of 10 and see only a modest increase in the W harvest if we optimize the system according to Fig. 7.14 This anlaysis and its graphical conclusion are only approximate because of the constant specific heat assumption made beginning with eq. (7.117). 14 L iL L L i LProblem 7,6 The theoretical-air chemical equation is CH, + 2(O, + 3.76 Ny) > CO, + 2H,0 + 7.52 Ny a) ‘The first law reduces to H, = Hp, which is = [Fp +an(ty |. +2{R, AR (T a9) ot 52 Bl, (Tu) ) i.e, and implicit equation for T,5, ieee F ae 802.3 —Sreihane 7 Abco, (Tap) + 248 Hola) +752 Afi (Tad) © The Ty, value that satisfies this equation is Ty- = 2320 K. The case of 200% theoretical air is analyzed similarly, CHy + 4(0, + 3.76 Ny) > CO, + 2H,0 + 203 + 15.04 Ny (a) 302.3 —_= af, war ane = Sco, (Fa) +28 fT) +248 (Tyg) + 15.04 AB nfta) © 2 and the answer is T,p= 1480 K. In the case of 400% theoretical air we have CH, + 8(0, + 3.76 Ny) > CO, + 2H,0 + 60, + 30.08 Ny @’) Meee i Rf Fi : 802.3 Saran =A, (La * 2g ofTar) #OAbig (Typ) * 30.08 Ay (Tye) CC) and, finally, T,¢= 950K. The composition of the products is shown as a function of "percent theoretical air" in the figure. The mole fraction of CO, at 100% theoretical air, for example, is calculated based on eq. (@): 1 co," T$2 4752 x, 0.095 [As the amount of air increases the composition becomes dominated by Ny and 03. At the same lime Tp decreases.composition (mole fractions) percent theoretical air ‘The method of solution is outlined already in Example 7.6. The general chemical CgHjg + 12.540, +47 AN) 8CO, +9H,0 +47 AN3 + 12.5 (2 = Op where 2.= I represents the case of theoretical air combusion treated in Example 7.6. Here are the new numerical results” : * Solution worked out by Prof. J. L. Lage, Southern Methodist University, using the numerical and graphical information available in Table 7.2 and Fig. 7.73 (200% excess air, or) 1% theoretical air P octane 1.499 3.704 mol octane Th, : kg water water 2 KJ/K Spon ae 9 TT Sroctane Wis 3787 3-123 ki/mol octane Wotant 999 406 kJ/mol octane a The splitting of W,., into usable work (Wpjaqq) and lost work is affected by the amount of air in the following way hel 2 n=3 = see 00 0) T= Wotant! Wrev oo oe Wee Wee 0.20 0.148 0.073 Wosty /W, 0.44 0.588 0.797 combasion be The heated water flowrate (m,,,.) and, with it, the plant power output and the second Law wate efficiency decrease as 2. increases, These three quantities are all zero when R= 3.68. Another view is to consider varying & when the water flowrate delivered to the power plant is fixed. In this case the plant work output per ke water (W,j.5:/ Myer) and the ratio Wioot ar! water fe also fixed. The preceding results can be recombined into the following table 2 hed Units Ith, 9018 14019 33747 _ KK gen! water kg water y 4 5 kivkeg wat Wen 184 567711 566 Sg water Weary "Mya 1845-3337 9-221 Kieg water combustion loneProblem 7.8 (a) The chemical equation is C0 +30, + CO, + $0 @ which means that the total number of moles in the enclosure decreases from n, = 4 to a= aes ‘The first law pinpoints the final temperature, T, (8, +ah-RI,) 0 +3 (Bp + Ah-Rty), = : : ) (f+ ah-Rr),., +25 (8, +ah-Rr) and reduces to a: ea : ie 273.1 mol CO * AR co, +2.5 AR °, (T)-3.5RT (c) Interpolating graphically with the help of Fig. 7.7 yields the temperature of the final products T = 2705 K. The final pressure, P, follows from the constant volume ideal gas condition n_RT, o RT <9 = volume = @ P which means that aa PaPy gi qe 74am © (b) In the second part of the problem the final temperature is given, T = 500 K, therefore we can calculate the final pressure immediately, = 1.47 atm oO -(Bj +8 “RT og -25 (AR-RT) = (110.53 48.314 x 107 « 298.15 4 393.52 — 8.314 ~ 2.5 x 6,09 + 3.5 x 8.314 x 107 x 500) kI/mol 264.1 kJ/mol.Problem 7.9 We write the first law for the entire system, W=thep(T,-T,)-Qo a the second law for the lower (reversible) compartment, Q) ear To and the first law for the upper (irreversible) compartment, Q=thep(T,-T,) 8) Eliminating Q and Qo between eqs. (1) - (3) we obtain W as a function of Tz: (4) Maximized with respect to T, this W expression yields 2 Tope = (TT) ©) fit U2 2 6) Wopax = Hep (T{?-Tp") - ‘The efficiency that corresponds to this maximum power design is, cf. eqs. (3), (5), and (6), ® w ay where Q=thep(T,-Tyy) 2 and 8Eliminating Q and Toy, we rewrite eq. (1) as We the, (T,-TaJe 0 2] (4) and, solving dW / 3T2 = 0 we obtain ©) 6) M The same power plant model (well mixed stream + reversible power cycle) was optimized in section 7.3.4, In the present notation, the optimum is described by 2 Toope = (Ts To) 8) and the efficiency at maximum power output becomes @)Chapter 8 POWER GENERATION Problem 8.1 It is more efficient to use the shorthand notation eNisy so that Ty- Ty Ty-Tp T3-T eee iT iT atea ad =a Ty Ts The total entropy generation rate S., is the sum of eqs. (8.18) and (8.19), Seen _ tq Tole z Hu, Cy TT: hep ~ “TiN, eile 0 Solving the system (8.20) - (8.22) for the four corner temperatures, we obtain y{x-l) + aTy (y-1) 2s xy-1 1 1 ty(x-1)+ xT (y-1 nye THON + TOD xy T, = aT, =etc., using eq. (c) Ty = etc., using eq. (b) Substituting eqs. (b) - (¢) into the $49 formula (a) yields (8.20) (8.21) (8.22) @) (b) © @ (©) oOwhich is the same as eq. (8.25) in the text. In terms of the notation used above, the "Ny + Nj, = constant" constraint reads Inx+Iny-InC=0 ) where Cis a constant, Minimizing (1) subject to the constraint (g) is equivalent to minimizing YL), o= (N08 atinx +iny Inc) (a) subject to no constraints. The system ad Od _ oe Cpe 2 becomes @) One immediate result is x=y, (ie. Nq=Np) Finally, to verify eqs. (8.28) and (8.29), we substitute "x y" into eqs. (b) - (e), and write in order xTy+aTy (Talope = HES TL AtqiexTy (Tope = EEE =aTyt+T)=. +aT, (8.28) +T=1()+aTy=t 7, +7) lo =a TAT T, (8.29)Problem 8,2 Starting with the definition of lost work (lost exergy), eq. (8.40), we write in order 1 eee ad wa ios =a Boy a Waet = (1-2 )- tas fet cycle: 1-2-3444Problem 8.3 We start with the total area counted on the left side of Fig. 8.7, ieftside area= [areal + fTHs + B [areal os 7 cycle 1-2-3-4-1 L —_o—~ 3 7 a ' | ts) Tyler) +2 pits) Va ul j T = [tes : 1-2} T;| “— orate areaon reduction the right factor side, before shrinking = right-side area (shaded) Problem 8.4 As shown in the sketch, Ty = Ty = Ty ayg- The first-law (heat engine) efficiency is (a) In addition, we have (jr To(s3-s4) ‘a Jey = T(2-s1} o ‘Combining eqs. (a) and (b), and recalling the flow availability definition b= h-Tps, we write finally:Problem 8.5 With reference to the left side of Fig. 8.9, we write hy-hy WD hy —hy From dh = 'ds + vdP, in which v = v, (constant), we deduce that hy shy = ¥) Py-P) Integrating dh = Tds + vaP at constant pressure, from state (1) to state (1') we find hy-h,=Ty Gyp-sp @ where {ins | Gee sy-Sy al ‘Adding and subtracting hy. on the left side of eq. (a) yields, in order, in other words, as We write in orderhy hy = = be-all = (hy -hs)(I-m) = epa(Tz-Ts)(I-m) ) Note the use of the ideal gas and constant-cp model in eq. (b). The isentropic expansion of such a gas from (2') to (3) also means that Ricp (k-1)/k } : (2) L LPL (k-D/k Pp, a Finally, the ratio describing the power lost by the pump divided by the power lost by the turbine is therefore, eq. (b) becomes -| (en Wiostpump. To (sy -sy) total W, ee ete ra vj Pp To(e-Di [= eps TT =i Ion) Problem 8.6 Based on the geometry of the right side of Fig. 7.9, we define the average temperature T; by writing 3(53~ 3s) @