Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 7 (2023) 100145

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Journal of Advanced Joining Processes

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Zero programming robotics in additive manufacturing repairs

Daniel Rodrigo Ramirez Rebollo *, Syed Irtiaz Alam, Patricio F. Mendez
University of Alberta, Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This document explains the implementation of an integral additive manufacturing system at the Canadian Centre
Automation for Welding and Joining (CCWJ). Highlighting its use to remanufacture high-value components with a stream­
Laser cladding lined workflow using an optical coordinate measuring machine and parametric programming. The resultant
Optimisation
output robot code is embedded with control of dimensional accuracy, laser power, beam velocity, and powder
Remanufacture
Additive manufacturing
feed rate. This approach centers its attention on the remanufacturing of parts and their inherent complex surface
Advance manufacturing as well as the time-consuming task of programming the robot to construct tool paths for the cladding strategy.
Mechatronics These issues are solved using a set of topologies implemented in software and hardware that deliver a system that
Advance automation integrates the control parameters and the tooltip toolpaths into a highly automated system offering versatility,
Direct energy deposition scalability, and reproducibility. The results show the capacity of the system to directly repair worn-out parts from
Parametric programming a 3D scanner and deliver short-time programming sequences with integrated process constraints, precision, and
Laser high dimensional accuracy.

Background sensors, control theory, and powder metallurgy to deposit layers of the
desired metal over a substrate to enhance or restore the substrate’s
Remanufacturing is a key economic activity, according to a rema­ performance. The complex dynamics of laser cladding make it a
nufacturing study led by the European Remanufacturing Network, that powerful tool to manufacture and remanufacture high-value compo­
impacts industries such as Aerospace, Automotive, EEE, Furniture, nents with critical characteristics in highly specific applications.
HDOR, Machinery, Marine, Medical Equipment, and Rail, and generates The challenge of laser cladding resides in the surgical level of pre­
around ∈40B in turnover and employs around 190,000 people. Rema­ cision that must be achieved to correctly deposit layers of metal in
nufacturing reduces costs by 60–80% which is paramount in industries thicknesses ranging from 0.05 mm to 2 mm over a substrate. The chal­
where cost reduction is critical, such as Mining, Oil, and Gas (Hollins, lenge of melting powdered metal into a base material has been solved
2020). theoretically, but the practical application is far from reaching peak
A considerable portion of manufacturing in Alberta consists of the performance and accuracy. A key factor in practically solving this issue
repair of heavy components worn out during service. Repairing worn is to create an integral system that provides dimensional accuracy for the
components (also called “remanufacturing” or “rebuilding”) has signif­ whole toolpath while simultaneously monitoring the process variables
icant economic and environmental advantages. An advantage is that to obtain correct dilution rates, surface finish, bead size, etc.
remanufacturing enables companies to operate with higher profit mar­ Therefore the development of laser cladding technology depends on
gins compared to manufacturing new components, which is a current the enhancement of the technologies involved. Understanding the in­
constraint in Alberta’s natural resources industry. Remanufacturing is terconnections between the involved technologies and the process
one of the earliest forms of additive manufacturing, in which material is quality is a major step for the development of laser cladding.
added to worn parts through welding-related techniques such as arc
welding or laser cladding, and follows a different business and appli­ Distributed control automation and parametric programming in
cation model than, for instance, additive manufacturing applications in laser cladding
aerospace.
Laser cladding is an interdisciplinary applied science that utilizes Currently, the automation of laser cladding is focused solely on
laser technology, computer-aided design, manufacturing, robotics, metallurgy and is only directing some attention towards the creation of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.R. Ramirez Rebollo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jajp.2023.100145
Received 28 March 2022; Received in revised form 8 October 2022; Accepted 5 May 2023
Available online 14 May 2023
2666-3309/Crown Copyright © 2023 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
D.R. Ramirez Rebollo et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 7 (2023) 100145

Fig. 1. System block diagram showing feedback and interconnection between laser cladding hardware and the implemented automation layout.

systems capable of visualizing the process variables for later feedback et al. (1994); Ritter et al. (1991), “laser powder deposition” Corbin et al.
control. Although effective up to this point, these efforts in automating (2003); Toyserkani et al. (2004) or “laser surfacing” Steen and Courtney
laser cladding are ultimately reactive rather than preventive. There are (1979); Tam et al. (2002); Toyserkani et al. (2004).
no automation systems that embed the characteristics inherent to this In layered manufacturing applications or rapid prototyping, the use
manufacturing process or implement a setup that can use them to the of “selective laser sintering of metals” Abe et al. (2001); Steen (2003) or
advantage of the system’s development. Dilution, heat affected zone, “direct metal laser sintering” Tang et al. (2003) have been used. For
powder catchment efficiency, preheating, and feeding velocity, among powder injection laser cladding process we can find “laser engineered
other technicalities, are the critical control and optimization objectives net shaping TM” Griffith et al. (2000, 1996); Hofmeister et al. (1999),
for different approaches towards the automation of laser cladding “direct metal deposition” (DMDTM) (Choi and Hua, 2001; Hua and
(Boddu et al., 2001; Calleja et al., 2014; Hofman et al., 2012; Lian et al., Choi, 2003; Mazumder et al., 1997; 2000), “laser direct casting” (LDC)
2020; Xi et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2021). (McLean, 1997), “laser consolidation” Islam et al. (2001); Xue and Islam
Nevertheless, none of the previous or current methods have ever (1998); Xue et al. (2001, 2003), “laser powder fusion” (LPF) (Tejedor
tackled the problem from a manufacturing perspective. Past imple­ et al., 2013), “laser metal forming” (LMF) (Gremaud et al., 1996; Laeng
mentations of automated laser cladding do not answer the following et al., 2000), “direct light fabrication” (DLF) (Mah, 1997; Milewski et al.,
questions; which set of technologies are the best to further develop laser 1999; 1998), “laser powder deposition” (LPD) (Pinkerton et al., 2003;
cladding manufacturing? Which technology harnesses the advantages of Xu et al., 2003), “solid free-form fabrication” or “shale deposition
these technologies at its best? What’s the optimal hardware and soft­ manufacturing” Billingsley et al. (2003), “laser rapid forming” (LRF)
ware topology to optimize results?. In contrast to these efforts, this work (Chang et al., 1999), “laser additive manufacture” (LAMSM) (Arcella
presents a distributed control system with a disruptive approach et al., 2000; Braumann and Brell-Cokcan, 2011).
(parametric programming) to not only embed process characteristics in Regardless of the variety of names, all of these terms describe a
the toolpath but simultaneously overcome the actual drawbacks of the technology that shares a common definition - the deposition of thin
process. The presented approach also considers the metallurgical part of layers of powder particles melted by a laser heat source on a metal
the problem and uses it for further development of technology and substrate. Even, laser cladding is a technique that can produce a high-
methodology centering its attention on the construction of a new setup quality coating with minimal dilution, minimal distortion, and high
for remanufacturing with laser cladding. Solving problems at the surface quality. However, this is only true if the process is run with close
implementation stage rather than using existing systems and then to zero variations in all given variables - laser power, beam velocity,
forcefully adapting them to laser cladding is the main design objective. powder feed rate, absorptivity or catchment efficiency, and dimensional
Otherwise, laser cladding also is a highly diversified activity that has accuracy, to name a few. This phenomenon is called reproducibility and
been used in several applications and fields of study, and the given name is inherent to laser cladding due to its high sensitivity to small changes in
of the process depends on the area of application. An example that il­ operating parameters and their relationship with physical variables.
lustrates this is in coating applications, where in addition to “laser Additionally, it is well documented by the industry that variation in
cladding”, researchers have used the term “laser coating” Jianglong quality may be observed between processing cycles are performed using

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D.R. Ramirez Rebollo et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 7 (2023) 100145

Fig. 2. Typical workflow using CAD based robot programming with forward propagation of data.

the same operating conditions. This suggests that open-loop laser clad­ unnecessary machining. The system was designed to be robust enough to
ding processes may not be feasible for obtaining good quality clads due handle uncertainty and guarantee the cladding of the worn-out surface
to random or periodic disturbances in the system. Thus, it is necessary to by using a streamlined workflow with enough transparency that the
develop an integral system with intelligent closed-loop control systems process can be configured and set to any engineering requirements.
to overcome such issues. The system makes use of disruptive technology commonly used in
For part repair (remanufacturing) in particular, reproducibility of other engineering systems, such as an optical coordinate measuring
the dimensional accuracy of the glad is achieved by destructive machine (3D scanner) and parametric programming. The former used to
machining processes. Machining the part prior to cladding provides a create an accurate digital copy of the worn-out part with an accuracy of
simpler surface to clad on. The advantage of machining prior to cladding 0.025 mm and the latter used to provide an integral parametric pro­
is that the robot can be programmed using an easier path to follow as the gramming platform rather than line-by-line coding for the cladding
tool tip’s normal orientation relative to the part’s surface is constant and toolpath. The system is directly monitored in a parallel configuration
well-defined. Although machining offers a simple surface to work on, using a process-specific programmable logic controller (PLC) to verify
machining also poses a significant risk. If done incorrectly, geometrical all functions without compromising the creation of future control loops.
and microstructural errors can be introduced which harm the integrity Figure 1 shows the general layout of the system as well as the general
of the laser cladding process later on. Therefore, machining not only data interchange between the different components. Furthermore, for
becomes a step in the manufacturing process but a complete process that the specific purpose of metal deposition, a Laserline 9 kW laser was used
must be monitored and controlled. In addition to possible machining to melt the metal powders delivered by a Tormach AT-1200 powder
errors, the part must be geometrically interpreted to provide dimensions feeder. Additionally, a coaxial cladding head with adjustable beam focus
and later use those points for the robot toolpath decreasing the fidelity of manufactured by Precitec was mounted on the robot’s flange, directing
the part, inducing more errors. Sensor arrays can be configured to tackle the powder flow and pointing the fiber-guided laser beam onto the ob­
this issue and enhance the reproducibility rate, but the result is limited, ject’s surface normal plane. The six-axis robotic manipulator is coupled
and the machining step is not withdrawn from the manufacturing with a two-axis positioner for precision deposition.
workflow. The laser beam is routinely profiled after focus adjustment using a
The system implemented at the CCWJ tackles crucial drawbacks of Primes beam profiler to characterize power distribution, geometry
laser cladding by using an integral approach. This means that the system changes, and beam quality, all of which directly impact metal deposi­
is built around the theoretical foundations of the problem, while tion. A pyrometer was also implemented for adaptive laser power
considering the technical implementations, and taking advantage of the control.
nature of the problem to achieve high dimensional accuracy. To assist in automating the metal deposition process, a supervisory
The aforementioned aspects were chosen as the foundations to control and data acquisition (SCADA) system was implemented. At the
design the system (Fig. 1) that uses existing technologies and theories to control layer, a Siemens S7-1500 PLC was used to monitor and control
repair worn-out parts without the need for intermediate and both the process variables and hardware such as laser power control and

Fig. 3. Raw scan of worn-out part (a) Complete workpiece scan. (b) Unnecessary scanned shop floor to be removed. (c) Area of interest.

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D.R. Ramirez Rebollo et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 7 (2023) 100145

Fig. 4. (a) Original orientation of the 3D scan (b) Corrected orientation of the coordinate system (c) Constraints used to correct the orientation, point, line, and plane.

powder feeder velocity. Additionally, the PLC controls the trigger pro­ 3D scanning and preprocessing of the workpiece
cess of all signals throughout the laser cladding process which takes
place in a leader-follower configuration between the robot and periph­ To obtain a digital model of the part to be repaired, an optical co­
eral hardware. Siemens TIA Portal, CAD and CAM software, and ordinate measuring machine was used, manufactured by Creaform it
VXelements were used in the software layer to ensure an efficient flow compels the use of a tracking device (C-Track) and a registering device
and format of all the data including the 3D model of the worn-out part, (metraSCAN). The device was designed to generate a file with a 0.025
robot programming, and signal monitoring and analysis. mm resolution that can precisely track and measure all imperfections on
To take advantage of each step of the metal deposition process, the the worn part. Figure 3 shows the 3D model of the workpiece in its raw
design procedure is as follows: form including some of the scanned shop floor (red) and the surface to be
repaired (green).
1. 3D scanning of the workpiece At this stage, the 3D model needed to be pre-processed by removing
2. Pre-processing of the 3D scan the unnecessary sections of the scan (red) and reducing the model’s facet
3. Alignment with geometrical and parametrical constraints count to obtain a manageable file then fed to the next part of the
4. Tool path obtention workflow. It is important to notice that these steps, in their entirety,
5. Parameter synchronization were completed using proprietary software from Creaform (VXele­
6. Parameter verification ments) which are part of the normal workflow for any scanned
7. Test workpiece.
8. Run
Coordinate system harmonisation and synchronisation
The overall workflow is shown in Fig. 2, where the process starts
with a geometric model as the foundation of the robot’s target positions. Once the 3D model was obtained and pre-processed the point cloud
Once determined, these target positions are linked to specific motion forming the mesh must be referenced to a global and consistent coor­
types and then automatically translated into the robot program. dinate system to sync with the robot’s coordinate system. This step was
Parametric programming facilitates the final step in the coding of the crucial for the success of the cladding operation as any misalignment can
robot in such a way that the cladding strategy determines the toolpath lead the robot to an inaccurate position or wrong orientation.
and correct parameters for the desired repair process. With such a The process involves three stages. In the first stage, the obtained
workflow, it is possible to reduce time-consuming processes such as line- mesh is relative to the C-track device and all the points (therefore mesh)
by-line robot coding and the configuration of infinite toolpath variants are at a certain distance and orientation where they had originally been
for one or multiple workpieces. This workflow can be used regardless of scanned. As this orientation and location can be unknown and irrelevant
a part’s complexity, material, or process-specific parameters, with ease to the robot’s coordinate system, part-specific features are selected to re-
of use and operator-level parameter configuration. The explained orient the whole 3D scan.
workflow successfully implements parametric programming in laser This is known as constraint alignment and it takes place in VXele­
cladding applications with the added value of synchronizing the para­ ments using geometric features such as a line (orthogonal vector to the
metric programming with the high-level controller that oversees the selected plane), a point, and a plane of the scan to seamlessly coincide
automation, verification, and control process. with the robot’s base framework in the next stage of the workflow.
Figure 4 shows the selection of such features in the scan. It is important
to notice that these features are exclusive to the specific scan, offering

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D.R. Ramirez Rebollo et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 7 (2023) 100145

Fig. 5. 3D scanned model (a) Region of interest (ROI) (b) Set of points over ROI (c) Mesh (in green) created from points. (For interpretation of the references to color
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

great adaptability for further applications and setups. the parametric generation of tooltip curves is required. This was ach­
ieved by the use of the normal vectors constructed from poly-lines build
Tool path generation from the center of gravity extracted from the surface facets of the 3D
scanned part.
Once the 3D scan of the workpiece was aligned, it was imported into After the scan was imported into Rhinoceros, the region of interest
Rhinoceros CAD software. Here, the file was passed through a para­ was created on the 3D model which includes the area to be repaired. To
metric programming algorithm. The used algorithm was presented in ease the workflow, different layers were created to maintain the features
Braumann and Brell-Cokcan (2011) and developed by Dr. Johannes separated. These layers correspond to each of the operations carried out
Braumann. Originally, the algorithm was developed for architectural and are as follows:
purposes but rapidly found its way through other disciplines due to the
advantages that parametric programming offers. • Scan - the scanned workpiece imported into the rhinoceros
This parametric tool was specifically used for the several advantages environment.
it offers - such as its ability to work with complex geometries and its • Drape - the drape through point operation to select the region of
seamless and improved workflow. Kuka parametric robot control (PRC) interest (ROI).
can deliver complete feedback on the robot’s toolpath by being able to • Mesh - the final mesh created using the remaining points from the
detect immediate modifications in the toolpath as the object’s geometry previous layer. This mesh will be fed to the Grasshopper program to
is altered. Furthermore, the Kuka PRC can deliver the Kuka robot lan­ create the tool path based on the parametric characteristics.
guage (KRL) code directly to the robot as a file that was sent and then
executed. Figure 5 shows the detailed views of the operations executed to
Another highly important aspect to consider; the dimensional accu­ localize the ROI. The ROI was used to construct the mesh which at the
racy, must be achieved to obtain geometrically consistent cladding same time was then used to create polylines, points, planes, and vectors
beads. As mentioned earlier, laser cladding can suffer from degradation for further development of the toolpath.
due to its high sensitivity to stand-off distance, laser orientation, and It is worth noticing that the use of this methodology allows taking
laser travel speed. Therefore, the use of a methodology that allows for advantage of KRL code characteristics such as the use of yaw, pitch, and

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic of laser cladding. (b) Declining surface cladding with uneven bead. (c) Corrected dimensional accuracy maintaining a normal angle between
the laser and the surface.

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D.R. Ramirez Rebollo et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 7 (2023) 100145

strategy. It was necessary to convert the vector data into angles A, B, and
C to successfully generate the KRL code. As discussed, the A and B angles
(yaw and pitch) are calculated using trigonometric functions, while
angle C (roll) requires a custom approach according to the robot’s
workspace, as seen in Fig. 7.

Results

To test and validate this novel approach of re-manufacturing parts

using laser cladding and parametric control, industry partners donated
three parts used in the downhole drilling industry. The parts showed
different degrees of wear. No grinding or geometrical interpretation was
done to the pieces. They were directly scanned, mounted, and cladded in
the automated set up in a time no longer than 45 min. In which the
previously explained workflow was applied and the whole system was
put to work.
The results are shown in Fig. 8 in which it’s visible that the cladding
took place right where the worn pattern was before. For this case, test 2
Fig. 7. Toolpath points relative to the world coordinate system. cladding parameters were selected as shown in Table 1. The tests do not
intend to show the performance of the clad rather the capacity of the
roll angles rather than I, J, and K, which only specifies the orientation of whole system to create the correct toolpath clad in high complexity,
a vector in a specific point(compared to G code). As a result, there can be unknown and unmeasured area of a worn-out part.
complete control of the end effector of the robot and robot tool orien­ In order to obtain the right set of parameters; test clads were per­
tation referenced to the world coordinate system. formed on a tubular substrate of 4140 HF steel with an outer diameter of
Regardless of whether the system needs to re-manufacturing a worn 212 inch and a wall thickness of12 inch thick tubular. The substrate tube
part or manufacture a new piece, laser cladding operations can benefit was loaded on to the chuck by tightening the 3-Jaw. A radial dial in­
from this approach. Precise control that was achieved with this approach dicator was used to ensure the alignment lies within ± 0.020 inch and a
embeds critical parametricity that leads to uniformity and repeatability mallet was used to hammer the tube to stabilize the jaw-tube grab. The
of the clad height and width. surface of the tube was initially scrubbed with abrasive aluminum oxide
Figure 6 shows how the dimensional accuracy of the clad can be pads to remove oxide layers, followed by a cloth wash with industrial
heavily affected by the injection angle of the laser head relative to the degreaser. A dry-run of the tool path was performed for each run and the
surface. In Liu and Li (2004) the authors solved this problem by utilizing working distance from the nozzle to the work piece was measured
an in-time motion adjustment strategy which resulted in a homogeneous carefully.
cladding surface, suggesting a resulting decrease in defects. Three runs of test were carried out to achieve the maximum bead
Nevertheless, the parametric programming approach offers a uni­ geometry. Table 1 shows the test variables with measured bead geom­
versal solution to this problem by using the correct strategy to construct etry. In laser cladding, the aim is to create an inter facial bond between
the robot’s toolpath. As shown in Fig. 5, the ROI was first localized in the the clad and the substrate keeping the dilution to minimum. The inter­
scanned model to be re-manufactured then followed by toolpath gen­ twined relationship between the process parameters makes the path to
eration. The toolpath consists of parametrically generated tooltip curves obtaining the right size bead challenging. An analytical models based on
and tool axis orientation vectors. Internally, these operations were Gaussian heat and mass sources were used to narrow down the process
executed by Kuka PRC blocks where the points on the tooltip curve parameter (Lu, 2021). Quick predictive calculations using the analytical
represent the XYZ coordinates of point pn in the desired cladding models makes the tedious process of cladding qualification easy. By only

Fig. 8. Region of interest and cladding results.

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D.R. Ramirez Rebollo et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 7 (2023) 100145

replicable not only for high complex geometries but for diverse and
simpler geometries.

Conclusion

An automated laser cladding system to repair worn-out parts using

3D scanning technology was built. A streamlined workflow free of
grinding operations to repair complex geometries present in the worn-
out parts was developed. The repairs were carried out successfully
using the advantages of parametric programming providing the system
with versatility, reproducibility, and flexibility. Parts from industrial
partners were repaired to prove the feasibility of the system without the
need to code line by line or point by point the robot. Validation results
show how the streamlined process can short the processing time for high
complexity geometries and at the same time build toolpath strategies
taking into consideration process-specific needs such as dimensional
accuracy.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the support of The following Institutions and

Programs; Prairies Economic Development Canada by the Western
Economic Diversification grant Canada PrairiesCan / WD WDP Project
Fig. 9. Macro cross section of cladding tests for Table 1.
#15235, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
for the awarded grant NSERC CRDPJ 537378 - 18 and Canada Foun­
Table 1 dation for Innovation for the awarded grant CFI Project #32435.
Process parameters with measured bead geometry.
Run Laser Travel Power Beam Measured Measured
Supplementary material
power speed feed (g/ size width (mm) height
(W) (mm/s) min) (mm) (mm) Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
1 2977 3.0 22.2 1.4 7.10 3.07 the online version, at 10.1016/j.jajp.2023.100145.
2 2040 2.5 27.3 1.4 6.83 3.88
3 2977 2.5 22.2 1.4 7.87 3.15 References

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Further reading
inconel alloy 690. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 91 (1-3), 18–28.
Milewski, J.O., Lewis, G.K., Thoma, D.J., Keel, G.I., Nemec, R.B., Reinert, R.A., 1998. Parametric robot control J Braumann, S Brell-Cokcan - Integrated CAD/CAM for
Directed light fabrication of a solid metal hemisphere using 5-axis powder architectural design, 2011.
deposition. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 75 (1-3), 165–172.