National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

National Junior College

2015 – 2016 H2 Mathematics

Topic 14: Vectors I

Part 1: Vectors in Two and Three Dimensions

Key questions to answer:

1. What is a vector? How is it different from a scalar?

- What is a zero vector?
- What are unit vectors?
- When are two vectors equal?

2. What is the difference between position vectors and displacement vectors?

3. How do we carry out addition and subtraction of vectors

- from an algebraic perspective, and
- from a geometrical perspective?

4. How do we carry out scalar multiplication of a vector?

- Is it possible to divide a vector by another vector?
- What is the geometrical interpretation of vectors that are scalar multiples of each
other?

5. How do we calculate the magnitude of a vector?

6. How do we prove that three distinct points lie on the same line?

7. When do you apply the Ratio Theorem?

§1 Introduction

If a person asks you how many pens do you have in your bag, you might
answer “Seven.” This response, which is a magnitude, is perfectly
satisfactory. If the same person asks you how to get to the nearest
bookshop, and you respond “Just walk 7 blocks”, you will most likely get a
puzzled look. From your answer, the person knows the walking distance or
magnitude, but he does not know which direction to head towards. An
appropriate answer would be:

walk three blocks east,

walk four blocks north.

We can represent the above as a vector v, where

v describes “walk 3 blocks east and 4 blocks north”.

Vectors I Page 1 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

1.1 Scalars and Vectors

Scalar Vector
A quantity that has both magnitude and
A quantity that has only magnitude, and
direction.
obey the usual laws of algebra.
Examples: force, displacement, velocity,
Examples: mass, distance, speed, time, etc.
etc.

1.2 Geometric and Algebraic Representations of Vectors

Geometrically, a vector can be represented by a directed line segment, where the arrowhead
represents the direction of the vector.
Q
u

P
The points P and Q are called the starting and ending points of the vector PQ respectively.

Notations: PQ , u (in print form), PQ, u (in written form)

Reminder: Do not write u .

1.3 Magnitude of a Vector

Definition 1.3.1 (Magnitude of a vector)

The magnitude (or modulus) of a vector u is the length of the line segment that it is
represented by. It is denoted by |u|.

Note: The magnitude of vector PQ can be written as PQ or PQ.

1.4 Vectors with magnitude 0 or 1

Zero Vector

A vector with magnitude 0 is called the zero vector. It is denoted by 0 (in print) and 0 (in writing).
The direction of the zero vector is arbitrary, that is, it can take any direction.

Unit Vector

A vector with magnitude 1 (i.e. has a length of 1 unit) is called a unit vector.

Vectors I Page 2 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

§2 Vectors in 2-D
y
A
2.1 Position Vectors

With reference to a fixed point O (called the origin), a point A is located by a

the vector OA which is called the position vector of A relative to O. x
O

Let i and j be unit vectors in the positive direction of the x-axis and the y-axis respectively. The
position vector of point A with coordinates (x, y) on the Cartesian plane relative to O is

x
OA xi yj .
y
Remarks:
x
OA must be written as a column vector. It cannot be written as (x, y).
y
The scalars x and y are called the Cartesian components of the vector.

Example 2.1.1
3 5
For points A(3, 4) and B( 5, 1) , OA 3i 4 j and OB 5i j .
4 1
y
A

j x
O i
B

Results 2.1.2 (For vectors in 2-D)

1. The unit vectors i and j are reserved notations. They are represented by column vectors
1 0
i and j .
0 1
x x
2. The magnitude for the vector is given by x2 y 2 . This result can be
y y
deduced from Pythagoras’ Theorem.

Reflect: Does a column vector provide information about its magnitude and direction?

Vectors I Page 3 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

2.2 Displacement Vectors

The displacement vector between two points, say from point A to point B, is the vector AB with
initial and end points A and B respectively. If the position vector of the starting and ending points
(say A and B) are known, then the displacement vector can be calculated by
AB AO OB OB OA.

Example 2.2.1

For points A and B as given in Example 2.1.1, the vector AB is a displacement vector with
5 3 8
AB OB OA . (Exercise: Verify this by counting grids).
1 4 5

Questions: A position vector is always a displacement vector. True or false?

A displacement vector is always a position vector. True or false?

2.3 Equality of Vectors

Definition 2.3.1 (Equality of vectors)

Two non-zero vectors are equal

if they both have the same magnitude and the same direction.

Note: In terms of column vectors, both vectors must have the same Cartesian components.

In geometrical terms, if a vector can “fit exactly” onto another vector via a translation of the first
vector such that their start points (or equivalently their end points) coincide, without changing the
length or direction of the vector being translated, then the two vectors are equal.

For example, given a parallelogram as follows, D C

we can say that AB DC and AD BC .

A B
Example 2.4.2

3 q
If , then p = –2 and q = 3.
p 2

Vectors I Page 4 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

§3 Basic Vector Operations (2-D)

3.1 Vector Addition

Vector addition can be seen as componentwise addition of column vectors. For example,
3 0 3
3i 4 j . Note. The following is not correct:
0 4 4 3
3u 4 v .
4

Triangle Law of Vector Addition:

The vector sum of two vectors u and v, denoted by u + v, is the resultant vector that starts from the
start point of u and ends at the end point of v, after translating the vector v so that its start point
coincides with the end point of u.
u+

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition:

The vector sum u + v can also be found by first translating the vector v such that its start point
coincides with the start point of u, then obtaining u + v as the vector starting from the common start
point of u and v, and ending at the opposite vertex of the parallelogram formed.

u+
u

Polygon Law of Vector Addition:

Consider n vectors u1 , u2 ,..., un represented by a polygon with U4
sides OU1, U1U2, …, Un 1Un respectively.
Un–1
U3
By using the triangle law of vector addition (n – 1) times,

OU 2 OU1 U1U 2 u1 u 2 U2
OU 3 OU 2 U 2U 3 u1 u 2 u3 Un

OU n OU n 1 U n 1U n u1 u 2 u3 un O U1

Note: The vectors u1 , u2 ,..., un are not necessarily coplanar when 3-D vectors (see Section 4) are
involved, so the polygon may not be a plane figure.

Vectors I Page 5 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

3.2 Vector Subtraction

u = (u – v) + v v
The vector u – v is the vector whose sum with the vector v
gives the vector u.

u–v

3.3 Scalar Multiplication of a Vector

x x x
Let u = be a non-zero vector and be a scalar. Then u , i.e., is multiplied
y y y
to all the compoments of the vector. Furthermore,

If > 0, then u is the vector with the same direction as u and times its magnitude.
If < 0, then u is the vector with the opposite direction as u and | | times its magnitude.
If = 0, then u is the zero vector 0.

u u
u
a u
a
a a

1 1 0 0 1 1

Result 3.3.1 (Scalar multiplication law for parallel vectors)

Two non-zero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if for some scalar ,
u = v (or v = u ).

Note: Parallel vectors can have either the same OR opposite direction.

Example 3.3.2
Given non-zero vectors PQ a b and RS 2a 2b, show that PQ / / RS.

Solution:
Since RS 2a 2b 2 a b 2PQ, PQ / / RS.

Vectors I Page 6 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

3.4 Laws of Vector Algebra

The following laws of vector algebra can be proved by using column vectors.

Algebra for scalars Vector Algebra Remarks

x y y x u v v u
1. x ( x ) ( x) x 0 u u u u 0 Commutative law of addition
x 0 0 x x u 0 0 u u
2. x y z x y z u v w u v w Associative law of addition
3. m nx mn x m nu mn u Associative law of multiplication
m( x y ) mx my m(u v) mu mv
4. Distributive law
( m n) x mx nx (m n)u mu nu

Question: For each of the following, construct a suitable example to explain why equality does
not hold.
(i) u v u v; (ii) u v u v;
(iii) mu mu.

Notes: Suppose u, v are non-zero vectors and is a non-zero scalar.

u 1
The vector is defined, and is used to denote u.

u
is a valid notation, since v is a scalar.
v
u
There is NO DIVISION of vectors, i.e. and the ratio u : v are meaningless.
v

Vectors I Page 7 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

§4 Vectors in 3-D
z
zk
P(x, y, z)

yj
y
O
xi
A
A
x

Consider the Euclidean x-y-z space (also denoted by 3 ). Let i, j, k be unit vectors in the positive x-
, y- and z- directions respectively, and P be a point in the x-y-z space with coordinates (x, y, z). If x =
2, y = 3 and z = 5, then the coordinates of P is (2, 3, 5).

The position vector OP is also shown in the above diagram. Using the triangle or parallelogram
law of vector addition, we see that
OP xi yj zk.
We can also denote the above in column-vector notation as
x
OP y .
z

and x, y and z are called the Cartesian components of the vector OP .

Result 4.0.1 (For vectors in 3-D)

1. The unit vectors i, j, and k are reserved notations. They are represented by column
1 0 0
vectors i 0 , j 1 and k 0 , and must be written in i , j and k
0 0 1
respectively.
x x
2. The magnitude of the vector y is given by y x2 y2 z 2 . This result can be
z z
deduced from Pythagoras’ Theorem.

Exercise: Use the above diagram (left) to find OA . Then verify that Result 4.0.1 is true.

Vectors I Page 8 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

4.1 Equality of Vectors in 3-D

x1 x2
Two vectors y1 , y2 are equal if and only if their respective components are equal, i.e.,
z1 z2
x1 x2 , y1 y2 and z1 z2 .

Example 4.1.1

3 p
Given that q 2 , find the values of p, q and r.
4 r

Solution:

p = 3, q = 2 and r = 4.

Example 4.1.2
1 3
Given that a = 2 and b = 1 , find
2 4

(a) a + b, (b) 3b, (c) 4b – 5a, (d) |a|.

Solution:

(a) a + b = (i + 2j + 2k) + (3i + j + 4k)

= (i + 3i) + (2j + j) + (2k + 4k) (Associative Law of Vector Addition)
= 4i + 3j + 6k.
1 3 1 3 4
Alternatively, a + b = 2 + 1 = 2 1 = 3 .
2 4 2 4 6

(b) 3b = 3(3i + j + 4k)

= (3×3)i + (3×1)j + (3×4)k (Distributive Law of Scalar Multiplication)
= 9i + 3j + 12k.
3
3 3 9
Alternatively, 3b = 3 1 = 3 1 = 3 .
4 3 4 12

Vectors I Page 9 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

3 1
1
(c) 4b – 5a = 4 1 – 5 2
(d) a 2
4 2
2
4 3 5 1
= 4 1 5 2 12 22 22
4 4 5 2 3.

7
= 6 .
6

In general, we have the following result:

x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x1
For any two vectors y1 , y2 and scalar λ, y1 y2 y1 y2 and y1 y1 .
z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z1

4.2 Unit vector of a vector

Recall from Section 1.4 that a unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1.

Definition 4.2.1 (Unit vector of a vector)

The unit vector of a non-zero vector u is the vector of magnitude 1 that has the same direction
as u. It is denoted by uˆ , and is pronounced as “u-hat”.

Note: The unit vector of a vector AB must not be written as AB or AB.

a
1

|u| = 3
1

1
Suppose a non-zero vector u has magnitude of 3. Then the vector u has the same direction as the
3
1
vector u and times the magnitude of u and hence has a magnitude of 1, as shown in the diagram
3
u
above. Therefore, is the unit vector of u.
3

Vectors I Page 10 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

1
Suppose the vector u has a magnitude of instead. Then we have the following diagram.
2
a

1
u 2u

u
We see that 2u = is the unit vector of u in this case.
1
2

In general, the unit vector of u is computed by dividing the vector u by its magnitude |u|, i.e.,
u
uˆ .
u

Example 4.2.2
1
Given that a = 2 , find
2

(i) â , and
(ii) a possible vector c, where c is parallel to a and |c| = 9.

Solution:

a (ii) Since â is a unit vector parallel to a, 9aˆ is

(i) aˆ
a a vector parallel to a with magnitude 9.
Hence a possible vector c is
1
13 3
2
c = 9 â = 9 2 3 = 6 .
2
23 6
12 22 22
1 13 Alternatively, since a has a magnitude of
1 3, we just multiply a by 3 to obtain a
2 or 2 3 .
3 vector parallel to a with magnitude 9, i.e.,
2 23
1 3
c = 3a = 3 2 6 .
2 6

Explore: In Example 4.2.2(ii), is 3i + 6j + 6k the only possible answer for c?

Vectors I Page 11 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 4.2.3

Given that the points A and B have coordinates (1, 2, 2) and (3, 1, 4) respectively, find

(i) the position vectors of A and B,

(ii) the displacement vector AB , and

(iii) the distance between points A and B.

Solution:

(i) Position vectors of A and B: B(3, 1, 4)

1 AB OB

OA = i + 2j + 2k or 2 .
2
3 O
OB = 3i + 1j + 4k or 1 .
4

(ii) AB = OB OA
3 1 OA
= 1 2 A(1, 2, 2)
4 2
2
= 1 .
2

(iii) Distance between A and B

= Length of AB
AB
2
1
2

22 ( 1) 2 22
3.

Vectors I Page 12 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

4.3 Collinearity

Three points A, B and C are collinear (i.e. they all lie on the same line) if and only if the vectors
AB and BC are parallel.
C
Note that B is the common point. A B

It follows from Result 3.3.1 (for parallel vectors) that

A, B and C are collinear AB BC for some real number, λ.

We can also show AB AC or BC AC to prove that A, B and C are collinear.

4.4 Ratio Theorem

Ratio Theorem (Provided in MF15):

Let OA and OB be two non-zero and non-parallel vectors and let P divides AB in the ratio :
AP
, i.e. AP : PB = : or . Then
PB
OA OB
OP .

Proof:

Since AB OB OA, we have AP AB OB OA .

It follows that
A P B
OP OA AP

OA OB OA

( )OA OB OA

OA OB
.
O

1
Note: If = and P is the mid-point of line AB, then OP OA OB .
2

Vectors I Page 13 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 4.4.1

The points A, B have position vectors i j k , 4i 2 j k respectively, with reference to an origin

AC 2
O. The point C lies on AB such that . Find the position vector of C.
CB 1
Solution:
Using Ratio Theorem, A 2 C 1 B

2OB OA 1 4
OC
3 1 2
4 1 1 1
2 2 1
3
1 1 5
3 .
3
1
O

Example 4.4.2

The points A, B have position vectors i j k , 2i 2 j k respectively, with reference to an origin

AB 1
O. The point C lies on AB produced such that . Find the position vector of C.
BC 2
Solution:
A 1 B 2 C
Using Ratio Theorem,

OC 2OA
OB
3
3OB OC 2OA
2 1 4
OC 3OB 2OA 3 2 2 1 4 .
1 1 1 O

Question: Is there a difference between the following phrases:

(a) point C lies on AB,
(b) point C lies on AB produced,
(c) point C lies on BA produced?

Answer: Yes! Take note of the order as shown below.

(a) (b) (c)

C produces C
B B
B C A
A A

Vectors I Page 14 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Part 2: The Scalar and Vector Products of Vectors

Key questions to answer:

1. What is the scalar product of two vectors?
- What are the applications of the scalar product?

2. What is the vector product of two 3-D vectors?

- What are the applications of the vector product?

3. How do we project a vector onto another vector?

- How do we resolve a vector into two perpendicular components?

§5 Scalar or Dot Product

In 1773, Joseph Lagrange was working on a problem involving tetrahedrons, and he came up with
two ways to “multiply” vectors. Today, we call these two methods

dot product and cross product.

As with many ideas in mathematics, they underwent both evolution and mutation over time. The
end result was two ways of “multiplying” vectors that are:
(1) extremely useful, and
(2) rather bizarre in appearance.

5.1 Definition and Laws of Scalar Product

Definition 5.1.1 (Algebraic definition of scalar product)

The scalar or dot product of two vectors a a1i a2 j a3k and b b1i b2 j b3k is defined
as
a1 b1
a b a2 b2 a1b1 a2b2 a3b3 .
a3 b3

Vectors I Page 15 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 5.1.2
1 1 1
Given that a 1 ,b 1 and c 1 , find
1 1 1

(a) a b, (b) b a,
(c) a (b c), (d) a b a c,
(e) a (2b) , (f) (2a) b , and
(g) a a.

Solution:

1 1 1 1
(a) a b 1 1 (b) b a 1 1
1 1 1 1
(1)(1) (1)(1) ( 1)(1) (1)(1) (1)(1) (1)( 1)
1. 1.

1 1 1
(d) a b a c
(c) a b c 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 0 from Part (a)
1 1
1 2
1 (1)(1) (1)(1) (1)( 1)
0 1
2.
(1)(0) (1)(2) (0)( 1)
2.

1 2 2 1
(e) a 2b 1 2 (f) (2a) b 2 1
1 2 2 1
(1)(2) (1)(2) ( 1)(2) (2)(1) (2)(1) ( 2)(1)
2. 2.

1 1
(g) a a 1 1
1 1
(1)(1) (1)(1) ( 1)( 1)
3.
Remarks:

Vectors I Page 16 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Parts (a) and (b) show that the order of the vectors in the scalar product does NOT matter. In
other words, the operation is commutative.
Parts (c) and (d) show that the scalar product operation is distributive over vector addition.
Parts (e) and (f) show that scalar multiplication of vectors is associative over the scalar
product.

In general, we have the following properties for the scalar product.

Result 5.1.3 (Laws of scalar product)

(i) a b b a (Commutative Law of Scalar Product)
(ii) a (b c) a b a c (Distributive Laws of Scalar Product)
(b c) a b a c a
(iii) a ( b) (a b) ( a) b for . (Associative Law of Scalar Product)
2
a1 a1
(iv) a a a. a
2
a2
a2 2
a3 2
a2 a2 a a.
1

a3 a3

Notes:
1. The scalar product a b is indeed a scalar.
2. a b c is a scalar multiple of the vector c. The scalar is a b.
3. It is meaningless to write a b c. (Why?)
4. If a = 0 or b = 0, then a b = 0.

Questions:
Does the cancellation law hold: a b a c b c?
c d
Is the following true: a b c d a ?
b
Is the following true: a b 0 a 0 or b 0 ?

Justify your answer.

Vectors I Page 17 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

5.2 Angle between Two Vectors

The angle θ between two non-zero vectors a and b is defined to be the non-reflex angle
(0 θ 180 ) formed when the two directed line segments representing the vectors a and b are
drawn such that either both their start points coincide or both their end points coincide.

Correct angle Wrong angle

a a
a a
θ b θ
b θ
θ
b b

Note: The angle between two vectors a and b is unique. This is in contrast to the angle between two
lines, which is NOT unique, as illustrated below:

θ1
θ2

Definition 5.2.1 (Geometrical Definition of Scalar Product)

The scalar product of two vectors a and b is given by

a b a b cos

where θ is the angle between two vectors a and b.

Given the algebraic definition of the scalar product, one can prove that the geometrical definition of
the scalar product is consistent as follows:

Using the Cosine Rule,

a a–b
2 2 2
a b a b 2 a b cos
a b a b a a b b 2 a b cos
a a a b a b b b a a b b 2 a b cos
b
2 a b 2 a b cos
a b a b cos (shown).

Hence we can use Definition 5.2.1 to find the non-reflex angle θ between vectors a and b:
a b
cos .
| a || b |

Vectors I Page 18 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 5.2.2
2 1 3
It is given that c 3 , d 2 and e 2 . Find the angle between the vector c, and
6 3 2
(a) the vector d; (c) the positive y-axis;
(b) the vector e.

Solution:

(a) Let the angle between c and d be . (c) Let the angle between c and the positive
c d y-axis be θ. Since the positive y-axis has
Then cos the same direction as the vector
| c || d |
0
2 1 Can we use vectors
j 1 ,
3 2 other than j?
0
6 3
2 0
22 32 62 12 ( 2) 2 32
3 1
14 14
. c j 6 0 3
7 14 7 cos .
c j 2 2 2
3 6 2 2
1 7
14
Hence cos 1
57.7 . 1 3
7 Hence cos 64.6 .
7

(b) Let the angle between c and e be .

c e
Then cos
| c || e |
2 3
3 2
6 2
22 32 62 32 22 ( 2)2
= 0.
Hence cos 1 0 or 90 .
2

Vectors I Page 19 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 5.2.3
It is given that two vectors a and b satisfy the following relationship:
a b 6.
Find the value of a b for each of the following scenarios.
(a) The angle between a and b is 60 .
(b) The angle between a and b is 120 .
(c) Vectors a and b are perpendicular.

Solution:
a
(a) a (b) a (c)

b a b b
a
a b a b cos 60 a b a b cos 120 a b a b cos 90
1 1 6 0 0.
6 3. 6 3.
2 2

Wonder: From Example 5.2.3, what do you observe about the sign of the scalar product a∙b
when

(a) the angle between a and b is acute? Answer: The sign is positive.

(b) the angle between a and b is obtuse? Answer: The sign is negative.

From Example 5.2.2(c) and Example 5.3.2(c), we have the following result.

Result 5.2.4 (Scalar product for perpendicular vectors)

Two non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular if and only if a b 0.
OR
If a b = 0, then either a = 0, or b = 0, or a b.

Note: This result can be used to test for two perpendicular vectors, provided that the two vectors
are non-zero.

Remark: Since the x-, y- and z- axes are pairwise perpendicular, i.e., each axis is perpendicular to
the other two axes, we have
i j i k jk 0.

Vectors I Page 20 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 5.2.5

The position vectors a and b are given by

a 2 p i 3 p j 6 p k and b i 2 j 2k,

where p > 0. It is given that a b.

(i) Find the exact value of p.

(ii) Show that the vectors (a + b) and (a – b) are perpendicular.
[adapted from N2010/I/1]
Solution:

2p 1
(i) Since a b, 3p 2
6p 2

(2 p)2 (3 p)2 (6 p)2 12 ( 2)2 (2)2

4 p2 9 p2 36 p2 1 4 4 (after squaring both sides)

9
p2
49
9 3 3
p or (rejected since p 0).
49 7 7

(ii) To show that (a + b) and (a – b) are perpendicular, it suffices to prove that

(a + b)∙(a – b) = 0.

2 6
3 1
From Part (i), a 3 9 .
7 7
6 18
Hence
6 1 6 1 6 7 6 7
1 1 1 1
a b a–b 9 2 9 2 9 14 9 14
7 7 7 7
18 2 18 2 18 14 18 14
13 1
1
5 23
49
32 4
1
13 115 128
49
0 (shown).

Vectors I Page 21 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

§6 Vector or Cross Product

6.1 Definition and Laws of Vector Product

Definition 6.1.1 (Algebraic Definition of Vector Product)

The vector or cross product of two vectors a a1i a2 j a3k and b b1i b2 j b3k
(denoted by a b ) is
a1 b1 a2b3 a3b2
a b a2 b2 a3b1 a1b3 .
a3 b3 a1b2 a2b1

A quick way to remember the above definition is as follows: To obtain the x-component of the cross
product a b , consider the y- and z- components of a and b as follows:
a1 b1 ?
a2 b2 ? .
a3 b3 ?

Each arrow signifies multiplying the numbers at the ends of the arrow and the direction signifies
whether to add (for left to right) or subtract (for right to left) the number obtained after
multiplication.

To obtain the y-component of the cross product a b , we move one component “downwards” by
writing out the x-components again directly below the vectors, then carry out a similar operation as
the previous step on the z- and x- components of a and b as follows:
a1 b1 a2b3 a3b2
a2 b2 ? .
a3 b3 ?
a1 b1
To obtain the z-component of the cross product a b , we move one component “downwards” again
then consider the x- and y- components of a and b as follows:
a1 b1 a2b3 a3b2
a2 b2 a3b1 a1b3 .
a3 b3 ?
a1 b1
a2 b2
Therefore result follows, that is
a1 b1 a2b3 a3b2
a2 b2 a3b1 a1b3 .
a3 b3 a1b2 a2b1

Vectors I Page 22 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 6.1.2
1 1 1
Given that a 0 ,b 1 and c 1 , find
1 1 1
(a) a b; (b) b a;
(c) a (b c); (d) a b a c;
(e) a (2b); (f) (2a) b;
(g) a a.

Solution:
1 1 1 1
(a) a b 0 1 (b) b a 1 0
1 1 1 1
(0)(1) (1)( 1) 1 (1)( 1) (0)(1) 1
( 1)(1) (1)(1) 2 . (1)(1) ( 1)(1) 2 .
(1)(1) (1)(0) 1 (1)(0) (1)(1) 1

Note that a b is NOT equal to b a .

1 0
(c) a b c 0 2 1 1 1
1 0 (d) a c 0 1 ... 2 .
1 1 1
(0)(0) (2)( 1) 2
( 1)(0) (0)(1) 0 . 1 1 2
(1)(2) (0)(0) 2 Hence a b a c 2 2 0 .
1 1 2

Note that a b c a b a c.

1 2 2 1
(e) a 2b 0 2 (f) (2a) b 0 1
1 2 2 1
(0)(2) (2)( 1) 1 (0)(2) (2)( 1) 1
( 1)(2) (2)(1) 2 2 . ( 1)(2) (2)(1) 2 2 .
(1)(2) (2)(0) 1 (1)(2) (2)(0) 1

1 1 (0)( 1) (0)( 1) 0
(g) a a 0 0 ( 1)(1) (1)( 1) 0 0.
1 1 (1)(0) (1)(0) 0

Vectors I Page 23 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Remarks:
1. a b is a vector (and hence the name vector product).
2. The vector product is only meaningful in 3 dimensions.
3. If a = 0 or b = 0, then a b = 0.
Note that 0 represents the zero VECTOR. This is in contrast to the scalar product of a zero
vector with any other vector (which is the SCALAR 0).

From Example 6.1.2, we can deduce the laws of Vector Product.

Result 6.1.3 (Laws of Vector product)

(i) The vector product is NOT commutative i.e.

a b b a.
However, b a (a b).

(ii) The vector product is distributive over vector addition, i.e.,

a (b c) (a b) (a c),
(b c) a (b a) ( c a).

(iii) Scalar multiplication is associative over the vector product, i.e.,

( a) b = (a b) = a ( b).
Note that the relative ordering of the vectors must stay the same, regardless of how the scalar
is “shifted” in or out of the vector product. So for example,

( a) b is not the same as b ( a).

(iv) a a 0.

Check: Identify whether each of the following is a scalar, a vector, or is meaningless.

2
(1) a , (2) a2 ,
(3) ab, (4) (a b) c,
(5) (a b) c, (6) (a b) c,
(7) (a b) c .

Reflect: Verify the following results:

(1) i j k; (2) k i j;
(3) j k i.
Interpret the above results with the use of the x-, y- and z- axes.

Vectors I Page 24 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

6.2 Perpendicularity of the Vector Product

Definition 6.2.1 (Geometrical Definition of the Vector Product)

Let θ is the angle between two vectors a and b. Also, let n̂ be the unit vector perpendicular to the
plane containing a and b such that a, b, n form a right-handed triple (*).

The vector product of a and b is given by

a b a b sin nˆ .

(*) Other than your thumb, point all fingers in the direction of a, such
that when you curl your fingers inwards, the fingers point in the
direction of b.

Straighten your thumb. The direction of your thumb points in the

direction of a b.

Notes:

- The vector product a b is always perpendicular to both vectors

a and b, and hence is perpendicular to any vector that is parallel a b
to any plane that is parallel to both a and b, as shown in the
diagram on the right. b
θ
- Therefore, the vector b a is also perpendicular to both a and b, a
but is in the opposite direction of a b .

- The vectors a b and b a are called normal vectors to this plane.

- The magnitude of a b is
a b sin ,
which is always positive since is non-reflex by our definition of the angle between two
vectors, i.e. 0 θ 180 .

Vectors I Page 25 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 6.2.2 (Generating a vector perpendicular to two given vectors)

Given that a 3i 5j 6k and b 3i 3j 2k, find a vector perpendicular to both a and b.

Solution:
3 3
A vector perpendicular to a and b is a b 5 3
6 2
( 5)( 2) (3)(6)
(6)(3) ( 2)(3)
(3)(3) (3)( 5)
8
24 .
24

Explore: Write down a few vectors that are perpendicular to both a and b.

Question: If a // b, then what is a b ?

Answer: From the definition of the vector product, a b a b sin nˆ ,

a b sin(0 ) nˆ ,if a and b are in the same direction

a b
a b sin(180 ) nˆ ,if a and b are in opposite directions
0 the zero vector, not the scalar 0 .

Example 6.2.3
1 2
Show that a 2 and b 4 are parallel.
1 2
Solution:

Method 1: Method 2:

1 2 ( 2)(2) (1)( 4) 0 2 1
2 4 (1)(2) (1)(2) 0 . b 4 2 2 2a.
1 2 (1)( 4) ( 2)(2) 0 2 1
Since b is a scalar multiple of a,
Since a and b are non-zero vectors, a is parallel to b. a and b are parallel vectors.

Reflect: In the solution to Example 6.2.3, which method would you choose? Explain.

Vectors I Page 26 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

6.3 Relationship between Area and Vector Product

C D C

θ θ
A B A B

Consider the above triangle and parallelogram. The area for the respective figures can be obtained
from the following result.

Result 6.3.1

1
1. Area of triangle ABC AB AC .
2
2. Area of parallogram ABCD AB AD .

Note: Refer to Appendix I for proof.

Example 6.3.2

The position vectors of A and B are i 2 j k and i 3k respectively. It is given that

BC 2i 2 j 4k.

Find the area of triangle ABC.

A
Solution:
1 1 0
BA OA OB 2 0 2 .
B C
1 3 2
1
Therefore area of triangle ABC BA BC
2
0 2
1
2 2
2
2 4
1
2 1 2 3 units 2 .
1

Vectors I Page 27 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Example 6.3.3
The points A and B have coordinates (5, 0, 5) and (10, –5, 15) respectively. The point D is such that
OADB is a parallelogram and the point C divides AD in the ratio 2 : 3. Find the exact areas of
(i) the parallelogram OADB, and
(ii) the quadrilateral OCDB. B(10, –5, 15) D
Solution: 3
(i) Area of parallelogram OADB OA OB C
2
5 10 O A(5, 0, 5)
0 5 A
5 15
1 2
25 0 1
1 3
1
25 1 25 3 units 2 .
1

1
(ii) Area of triangle OAC OA AC
2
1 2
OA AD
2 2 3
1 2
OA OB ( OB AD)
2 5
1
OA OB
5
1
25 3 (from Part (i))
5
=5 3 units 2 .

Hence area of quadrilateral OCDB

= area of parallelogram OADB – area of triangle OAC
= 25 3 5 3 = 20 3 units 2.

Question: If ABCD is ANY quadrilateral (i.e. not necessarily a parallelogram), can you use the
formula AB AD to find the area?

Answer: No. If the formula can be used for any quadrilateral, this would mean that any
quadrilateral with adjacent sides AB and AD has the same area as the parallelogram with
this pair of adjacent sides, which is not true.

Vectors I Page 28 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

§7 Resolving a Vector into Two Perpendicular Components

a
7.1 Perpendicular components of a Vector

Given two non-zero vectors a and b, the vector a can be

expressed as the vector addition of two vectors such that
one vector is parallel to b, and
the other vector is perpendicular to b.

The process of finding the projection vector of a onto b and the corresponding perpendicular vector
component is called resolving vector a into its two perpendicular components with respect to b.

7.2 Projection Vector and Length of Projection

We shall first discuss the vector component of a that is parallel to b. This vector component is
known as the projection vector of a onto b. The magnitude (or length) of this vector is called the
length of projection of a onto b.

The following result can be used to find the projection vector and the length of projection of a onto
b.

Result 7.2.1 (Projection of a Vector onto another Vector)

For any two non-zero vectors a and b,

(a) length of projection of a onto b = a bˆ , and

(b) projection vector of a onto b = a bˆ bˆ .

Note: Refer to Appendix II for proof.

Example 7.2.2
Given that a 2i j 2k and b 2i 2 j k, find the length of projection and the projection
vector of
(a) a onto b;
(b) b onto a.

Solution:
2
b 1
(a) bˆ 2 .
b 3
1
2 2
1 4 4
Length of projection of a onto b a bˆ 1 2 .
3 3 3
2 1

Vectors I Page 29 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

2 2
4 1 4
Projection vector of a onto b a bˆ bˆ 2 2 .
3 3 9
1 1

2
a 1
(b) aˆ 1 .
a 3
2
2 2
1 4 4
Length of projection of b onto a b aˆ 2 1 .
3 3 3
1 2
2 2
4 1 4
Projection vector of b onto a b aˆ aˆ 1 1 .
3 3 9
2 2

Check: Is the projection vector of a onto b equal to the projection vector of b onto a? Why or
why not?

Answer: No. The projection vector of a onto b is a vector parallel to b, while the projection vector
of b onto a is a vector parallel to a. If a and b are not parallel, then the two projection
vectors certainly cannot be equal.

It is henceforth important to specify clearly in our presentation which vector is the one
being projected, and which is the one that is being projected ON.

7.3 Perpendicular Component of Vector Projection

The vector component of a perpendicular to b, and its length, can be found by using the following
result.

Result 7.3.1 (Vector Component of a Vector Perpendicular to another Vector)

For any two non-zero vectors a and b,

(a) length of vector component of a perpendicular to b a bˆ .

(b) vector component of a perpendicular to b a a bˆ bˆ .

Note: Refer to Appendix III for proof.

Vectors I Page 30 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

The following diagram illustrates Results 7.2.1 and 7.3.1 when vector a is resolved into its two
perpendicular vector components with respect to b.
a

Note the direction of the vector component

Example 7.3.2
Given that a 2i j 2k and b 2i 2 j k, calculate
(a) a bˆ , (b) a a bˆ bˆ ,

(c) a bˆ , (d) a a bˆ bˆ ,

(e) a bˆ bˆ a a bˆ bˆ .

Solution:
2 2
b 1 4
Recall from Example 7.2.2(a) that bˆ 2 and a bˆ bˆ 2 .
b 3 9
1 1

2 2 5 2 2 10
1 1 4 1
(a) a bˆ 1 2 6 . (b) a a bˆ bˆ 1 2 1 .
3 3 9 9
2 1 2 2 1 22

5 10
1 1 1 585 1
(c) a bˆ 6 65. (d) a a bˆ bˆ 1 65.
3 3 9 9 3
2 22

2 10
4 1
(e) a bˆ bˆ a a bˆ bˆ 2 1 0.
9 9
1 22

Questions: Consider Example 7.3.2.

1. What is the vector component of a perpendicular to b? Answer: (b)
2. What is the length of vector component of a perpendicular to b? Answer: (c) or (d)
3. Explain why the approach to find the length of vector component of a perpendicular to b in
Part (c) may be preferred over that of Part (d).
4. Explain the significance of Part (e).
Answer: The two resolved vector components of a are perpendicular to each other.

Vectors I Page 31 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Check: Since both a bˆ and a a bˆ bˆ refer to the length of vector component of a

perpendicular to b, can we say that a bˆ is the vector component of a perpendicular to b?

Why or why not?

Answer: No.
The vector a bˆ is perpendicular to both a and b
b (see diagram on the right). vector component of
a perpendicular to b
You may also wish to compare a
Example 7.3.2, Parts (a) and (b).

Example 7.3.3

With respect to an origin O, the points A and B have position vectors i 3j 4k and 5i 2 j 3k
respectively. F is the foot of perpendicular of point B on the line that passes through A and is
parallel to the vector d 2i j 4k.
(i) Find the exact length of AF.
(ii) Find the exact length of BF. B
(iii) Find the vectors AF and FB .

Solution:
5 1 4
(i) AB 2 3 1 .
3 4 1 A F

4 2
1 11 11
Length of AF AB dˆ 1 1 .
2 2
1 2
4 2
21 21
1 4

4 2 5
1 1 257 5397
(ii) BF AB dˆ 1 1 14 .
21 21 21 21
1 4 6
2 2 5397
Alternatively, you may use Pythagoras’ Theorem, i.e. BF AB AF ... .
21

2 2
11 ˆ 11 1 11
(iii) AF d 1 1 .
21 21 21 21
4 4
4 22 / 21 62 21
FB AB AF 1 11/ 21 32 21 .
1 44 / 21 23 21

Vectors I Page 32 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Summary of Scalar and Vector Products

Difference between scalar and vector products:

Scalar Product, a b Vector Product, a b

a b = a b cos a b = a b sin nˆ

gives a scalar. gives a vector.

Main usage: Main usage:

To find angle between 2 direction vectors To find a vector perpendicular to 2 given
(also between 2 lines and between 2 planes, vectors.
to be discussed later). To find area of triangle and parallelogram.
To find length and vector of projection. To find the perpendicular component of a
vector with respect to another vector.

For 3-D vectors, For 3-D vectors,

a1 b1 a1 b1 a2b3 a3b2
a2 b2 a1b1 a2b2 a3b3 . a2 b2 a3b1 a1b3 .
a3 b3 a3 b3 a1b2 a2b1

a b=0 a 0, b = 0, or a b a b=0 a 0, b = 0, or a // b

Commutative: a b b a NOT commutative: a b b a

In fact, a b b a .

Need to know: Need to know:

- a a a
2
- a a 0
(applies to all parallel vectors)
- If a b , then a b 0 - The vector a b is perpendicular to both
(a and b are non-zero vectors)
a and b .

Vectors I Page 33 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Appendix I: Proof for Result 6.3.1

(A) Area of triangle as a cross product

C
Recall that the area of triangle can be found
using the following formula: h
1 1
Area h( AB) ( AB)( AC )sin , θ
2 2 A B
where θ is the angle between AB and AC.

We can also use vectors to find the area of triangle as follows:

1
Area ( AB)( AC ) sin
2
1
AB AC sin nˆ (where nˆ is a unit vector to a and b)
2
1
AB AC (since 0 180 sin 0).
2

Note: Applying the above formula to vectors representing any two sides of the triangle will also
give you the same area.

(B) Area of parallelogram as a cross product

Observe that the area of a parallelogram ABCD is twice that of the area of triangle ABD.

Thus area of parallelogram AB AD . D C

Alternatively, h
θ
Area h AB A B
AD sin AB
AB AD sin nˆ (where nˆ is a unit vector to a and b)

= AB AD (since 0 180 sin 0).

Vectors I Page 34 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Appendix II: Proof for Result 7.2.1

Projection of a Vector onto another Vector

We shall consider two cases:

(i) a and b make an acute angle between them,
(ii) a and b make an obtuse angle between them.

Case (i): Suppose we shine a light perpendicularly towards the vector

b as shown in the diagram on the right. Then the vector a
casts a “shadow” vector c onto b. The vector c is called the a
projection vector of a onto b.

We consider the right-angled triangle to find the length of projection of

a b c bb
vector a onto vector b. From c a cos , and that cos ,
| a || b |
a b a b b
c a cos a a a bˆ .
| a || b | b b

Hence the length of projection of a onto b is given by a bˆ . As the projection vector of a onto b is a
vector in the same direction as b with magnitude c ,

projection vector of a onto b, c c bˆ a bˆ bˆ .

Case (ii): From the diagram below, the length of projection is now given by
c a cos 180
a cos
a b
a
| a || b |
a b a
b
b
a c b
b
a bˆ .

Note that now the projection vector of a onto b is in the opposite direction of b. Hence

projection vector of a onto b, c c bˆ

a bˆ bˆ

a bˆ bˆ .

Vectors I Page 35 of 36
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

Appendix III: Proof for Result 7.3.1

Perpendicular Component of Vector Projection

Recall that the projection vector of a vector a onto b is the

“shadow” vector c cast when a light is shone perpendicularly
towards b.

The vector d as shown in the above diagram (starting from the a d

end point of the vector c and ending at the end point of the
vector a) is a vector that is perpendicular to b (and equivalently
c) and satisfies the vector sum
b
a = c + d. c

We call d the vector component of a perpendicular to b.

Suppose we wish to find d , the length of the vector component of a perpendicular to b. Using
trigonometric ratios, we have
d a sin .

Now, since a b a b sin nˆ ,

a b a b sin nˆ
a b sin nˆ (since is non-reflex sin 0)
a b sin (since nˆ is a unit vector)

a b a b
Hence sin , and therefore d a
a b a b
a b
b
b
a
b

a b.

The vector component d can be obtained by vector addition as follows:

a c d a a bˆ bˆ d d a a bˆ bˆ .

Vectors I Page 36 of 36