Research Methodology -

Data Analysis

Prof Dr Nordin Yahaya

School of Civil Engineering
Portal of Research Methodology and
Methods
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research vs
Qualitative Research
 What is Quantitative Research?
• Quantitative research is expressed in numbers, figures and
graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and
assumptions.
• It is more structured than qualitative ones. It specifies
what is measured and how it is measured to uncover
unique patterns, such as motivation, behaviour, cognition,
and emotion.
• Common quantitative data collection methods include
experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and
surveys with various forms of closed-ended questions –
online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk
surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews,
longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and
systematic observations.
• The primary goal of quantitative research is to support or
refute a hypothesis about a certain event and examine the
results from the studied sample and apply it to a wider
population or a bigger data group.
• Quantitative research uses a method that relies on the
systematically collected data and analysed and its results
are conclusive.
What is Quantitative Research
used for?
• Quantitative research is generally used for
three purposes.
• Firstly, it’s used to measure differences
between groups. For example, the popularity
of different clothing colours or brands.
• Secondly, it’s used to assess relationships
between variables. For example, the
relationship between weather temperature
and voter turnout.
• And third, it’s used to test hypotheses in a
scientifically rigorous way. For example, a
hypothesis about the impact of a certain
vaccine.
• Since quantitative data analysis is all about
analysing numbers, it involves statistics.
 Surveys
These include a list of
multiple-choice close-
01
ended questions
distributed to a sample, be
it online, over the phone, Experiments
or in person.
These include

02 situations where
variables are
manipulated and
controlled to
establish clear cause
and effect
Observations relationships.
This includes observing the
subjects within their natural
environment where variables
cannot be controlled.
03
Example
You survey 200 students at a university and ask them questions such as “On a scale of 1 to 10, how satisfied are
they with the wi-fi facility”?
You can then perform statistical analysis with the data obtained and draw concrete and productive conclusions.
Checklist for Surveys
• A: Planning – thinking through ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘how’ and ‘what’.
• ☑ Who you plan to speak about (population) – and gather data from (sample)
• ☑ How you will reach your sample
• ☑ What aspects of your research question that can be answered through a questionnaire.
• ☑ When to get the data. Contingencies – that is, having a back-up plan if response rates are low.
• ☑ Where to get the Ethics/ethics approval

• B: Developing your questionnaire.

• ☑ Operationalized your concepts
• ☑ Explored existing survey instruments
• ☑ Drafted questions
• ☑ Considered whether your question are ambiguous, confronting, offensive, or pretentious
• ☑ Appropriately ordered your questions
• ☑ Written instructions and prepare layout
• ☑ Written a cover letter/ introductory statement

• C: Piloting
• ☑ Done a run-through
• ☑ Reflected on the piloting process
• ☑ Sought feedback

• D: Modifying
• ☑ Made appropriate modifications
• ☑ Trialled your stats package

• E: Implementing
• ☑ Distribute your questionnaires
• ☑ Sent reminder letters/emails – send these out if response rates are low

• F: Managing and analysing

• ☑ Organized/collected data
• ☑ Analysed your data. Most survey data will be analysed statistically, but you will need to engage in thematic analysis for any open-ended questions
Checklist for Observation
• A: Planning – thinking through ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘how’ and ‘what’. Have you
considered:
• ☑ The type of observation study you will do – do your goals and context lend themselves to an observation study that is
candid or covert; participant/nonparticipant; structured/unstructured – and of what duration?
• ☑ Population and sample/ respondent/ participants – who you plan to speak about (population) – and gather data from
(sample)
• ☑ Access to the group/ situation/ activities you wish to observe
• ☑ How you plan to control your biases & Strategies for ensuring credibility
• ☑ The tools you w ill use, i.e.) an observation schedule or if unstructured, any relevant themes to explore
• ☑ Details – what timeframe will you be working towards?
• ☑ Ethics/ethics approval

• B: Implementing. Have you:

• ☑ Eased into the observation situation
• ☑ Prepared yourself to accept a range of sensory input – use all your senses, and possibly your intuition, to gather data
• ☑ Looked for saturation – try to ensure your observations no longer yield new knowledge before ending the process

• C: Recording. Have you:

• ☑ Recorded your observation. If using schedules, they should be filled in while observations occur.

• D: Reviewing. Have you:

• ☑ Reviewed the process and noted any difficulties encountered
• ☑ Reviewed your observation records & Confirmed – checked with an insider, ask another observer to compare notes.

• E: Refining.
• ☑ Kept reviewing and refining – observation takes practice; keep refining until you are comfortable with the process
and the data collected
• ☑ Made modifications – based on your own review of the process; any confirmation strategies you have attempted;
and the quality of the data generated

• F: Managing and analysing.

• ☑ Organized/collated your data
• ☑ Analysed your data.
Experimental ▪ Experimental research method studies causes and
Methods effects. Researcher manipulates the independent
variable to measure the effect on the dependent
variable and relationships between variables.
▪ It can manipulate one variable and keep the other
variables constant and check how the changes
affect the result.
▪ This research method is often used when
investigating systems’ performances.
▪ A true experiment has three key features:
▪ The researcher manipulates an independent
variable (IV) in order to investigate whether
there is a change in a second variable, known
as the dependent variable (DV)
▪ All other variables, which might influence the
results, are either controlled, held constant or
eliminated. Unwanted variables are called
confounding variables
▪ Participants (Ps) are allocated to the
experimental conditions randomly
Laboratory Experiments
▪ These are conducted in a special
environment where variables can be
carefully controlled.
▪ Provides the highest level of control
over variables and are widely used in
research
▪ The engineering or science
laboratories are among the places
where some sophisticated technical
equipments/computer systems can be
used, and accurate measurements
made.
▪ For non-engineering research (e.g.in
psychology) , participants are usually
aware that they are taking part in an
experiment although they may not
know the true aims/goals of the study.

10
 Field Experiments
▪ Field experiments are experimental
investigations carried out in the
natural environment of those being
studied
▪ The field experiment is used in
situations where it is considered
particularly important for research
to take account of the natural
environment.
▪ Advantages
▪ Improved ecological validity
▪ Reduction of demand
characteristics
▪ Weaknesses
▪ Establishing controls
▪ Generalizing to other situations
▪ Cost
▪ Use of technical equipment

11
 Parametric Study Objective 3:
Infill modification and
Material / Composition modified putty Graphene
potential improvement
Properties modified grout
No filler With filler on repair
and
behaviour
Composition modified putty:
Compression Very low modulus; High modulus; High modulus, Only grout without filler show
moderate strength; moderate moderate remarkable improvement in strength
very ductile strength; brittle strength; brittle for tensile, flexural, lap-shear
Tensile Very low modulus; High modulus; High modulus;
high strength; low strength; low strength;
brittle brittle brittle

Flexural Very low modulus; Very high Very high

Graphene modified putty: Flexural
very high strength; modulus; low modulus; low
properties slightly improved
very flexible strength; rigid strength; rigid

Lap-shear High strength; Low strength; Low strength;

partial de-bonding complete complete de-
debonding bonding
 Research Methodology
1. Identification and assessment significant risks

Data Collection

Interview with
experts
Literature
review Impact
Risk
Risk
Identify all type of Risk
risks in PPP projects
Literature Frequency
review
Matrix
Risk

• Obtain rank of each

ANP • Questionnaire
• Pairwise
significant risk • Make network structure comparisons matrix
• Insert weigh of each risk • Obtain weight of
directly in Super Decision each risk significant
risk
FANP Fuzzy
Data Analysis 13
 Results
R
R
Risks Matrix
R
R
risk
R R

Identified 83 risk through Identified 42

literature review significant risks

4
Frequency

1
1 2 3 4 5
Impact
Frequency-Impact Matrix for 83 Risk Factors
14
 Results
Significant risks

Design and
construction
Operating Social Macroeconomic

D11: Third party delays

D12: Construction completion delay D31: Shortfall in D51: Changes in D81: Interest rates
D13: Availability of material / labor service quality demand for output D82: Influential
D14: Failure of commissioning test D32: Operating cost D52: Public opposition economic events
overrun to project D83: Poor financial
D15: Failure to meet performance
criteria D33: Low operating market
productivity D84: Inflation
D16: Design default
D34: Residual transfer
D17: Construction cost overrun
value
D18: Unproven engineering
D35: Higher
techniques
maintenance cost
D19: site availability
D36: Operating
D110: Geotechnical conditions revenues below
expectation

15
 Results
Significant risks

Contractual and legal

Political Organization Project Natural

D21: Changes in law &

legislation
D22: Industrial D41: Expropriation
regulatory change D61: Inadequate D91: Environment
D42: Changes in experience in PPP/PFI D71: Availability of
D23: Excessive contract ownership project finance D92: Force majeure
variation D62: Lack of
D43: Poor public coordination D72: Sponsor D93: Weather
D24: Delay in resolving decision-making suitability risk
contractual dispute process
D25: Changes in tax D44: Unstable
regulation government
D26: Poor contract D45: Strong political
management opposition D46:
Customs and import
restrictions

16
 Research Methodology
2. Identification and evaluated risk allocation criteria
and barriers

Literature
Barriers Questionnai
review Identify re
risk
allocation
Criteria and Criteria Comparison
Barriers matrix ANP network
Interview

Barriers Network structure

weight

Rank Criteria
weight
Obtain rank of each
Criteria and Barriers

17
 Results

Risk assessment
network

Construction
completion
delay

Availability of
Construction
material /
cost overrun
labor

18
 Results
Rank of each risk group
C1: Construction group 0.4014
C2: Legal group
C3: Operating group
C4: Political group
C5: Social group
0.1916
C6: Organization group 0.157
C7: Project group
C8:Macroeconomic group 0.0861
0.0713
C9: Natural group 0.0366 0.0319 0.0187 0.0098

C1 C2 C3 C4 C7 C6 C5 C8 C9

Top 5 risks Risk score

Construction completion delay 0.1802
Construction cost overrun 0.1263
Delay in resolving contractual dispute 0.0817
Shortfall in service quality 0.0560
Operating revenues below expectation 0.0446

19
 Results
Network structure for criteria and barriers

20
 Results

Priorities of barriers Priority of criteria

0.1527
0.1842
0.1274
0.1099 0.1088
0.1395 0.1338
0.1245 0.0815
0.1122 0.07690.0741
0.1035 0.0684 0.0616
0.03710.0337
0.0594
0.0509
0.0434
0.0203 0.0160.0156 0.0153
0.0306
0.0183

E31 E21 E13 E32 E11 E24 E23 E12 E22 E15 E14 C14: Bear the risk at the lowest price
C17: Control the chance of risk
E31: Different sets of information about project risk C32: Risk attitude
E21: Lack of efficient risk allocation mechanisms C21: Obtain reasonable
E13: Lack of understanding of the benefits of optimal allocation C23: Level of governmental support
E32: Poor risk management communication C16: Resources of risk control
E11: Aversion to risk by project participants C22: Obtain intangible assess
E24: Staging involvement of project participants C11: Identification of risk
E23: Static risk allocation C18: Minimize loss if risk occurs
E12: Imbalance and abuse of power C31: Assume the direct
E22: Contract complexity C13: Evaluation of risk
E15: Competitive attitude C110: Expertise of control risk
E14: Lack of trust among project participants C19: Sustain the consequence
C12: Foreseeing risk
C15: Capability of control risk
21
 Research Methodology
3. Identify shared risks

ANP
Criteria • Questionnaire • Check consistency
• Pairwise • Obtain score of each
• Make network risk based on public
Risks comparisons structure – private and shared
matrix • Insert data in
Barriers super decision
Fuzzy Limit super
matrix

R R R

Identify Private
R Shared
shared
risks Public
R R

22
 Research Methodology

Acceptability
• Determine index • Perception on the MATLAB
weight of each Contribution of Risks to
risk (A) • Acceptable risk Increase Project Cost,
ANP Rating thresholds (B) Time and Decrease
• Make function
Quality (C)
for risk
allocation (D)
Mean index

A
Determine the
KP
Shared B Public percentage of
risks risk allocation
Public
C GA between
D partners
MATLAB

23
 Conclusion

Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3 Objective 4

• Identified 83 • Identified 15 • Identified 15 • Selected the

risk risk allocation shared risk best package
• Identified 42 criteria • Identified 14 for
significant risk • Identified 11 risks percentage
risk allocation allocated to of 15 shared
barriers private risk
sector
• Identified 13
TOP 5 RISK risks
(1) Construction completion allocated to
delay, (2) Delay in public
resolving contractual dispute, Top barrier
(3) Construction cost overrun, ▪ Different sets of
(4) Shortfall in service quality, information about project
(5) Operating revenues below risk
expectation
Top criteria
Bear the risk at the lowest
price

24
Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research is expressed in words and non-
numeric data.
• It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or
experiences to discover and gain deep insights into
individual thoughts, experiences, opinions, trends
and dive deep into the problem at hand. This type
of research enables you to gather in-depth insights
on topics that are not well understood.
• A qualitative research analyst collects non-numeric
data from multiple sources ranging from entirely
unstructured to partly structured data. Common
methods include interviews with open-ended
questions, observations described in words, and
literature reviews that explore concepts and
theories, focus group discussions and direct
behavioural observations.
Quantitative vs.Qualitative Data - YouTube
What is Qualitative Research
Used for?
• Qualitative researchers study things in their
natural setting, attempting to make sense of or
interpret phenomenon in terms of the meanings
people bring to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).
• Qualitative research is a form of inquiry that
analyzes information conveyed through language
and behaviour in natural settings.
• It is used to capture expressive information not
conveyed in quantitative data about beliefs,
values, feelings, and motivations that underlie
behaviours.
 Some of the common quantitative data collection methods are:

Focus Literature
Interviews Groups Ethnography Review
These include This involves This method entails This includes a
asking respondents discussion amongst being a part of an survey of the works
open-ended a group of people organization or of published
questions verbally. regarding a specific community for a long authors
. topic to gather period to closely
opinions for future observe its culture and
research. mannerisms

Example:
You conduct interviews of 100 employees of a company, asking them open-ended questions like
“Are they satisfied with their job” and “What they think is the most positive aspect of their job”?
Etc.
The answers can help you follow up with further questions and clarifications.
How to Choose the Right
Statistical Method to Use
• Data type
• Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio?
• Data shape
• Normal Distribution? Skewed?
• Research questions
• Specific research questions
• Hypothesis
 When to use Qualitative vs.
Quantitative Research
• For most research requirements,
you can choose quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed approaches.
• The research method you choose
depends upon:
• whether you are undertaking
inductive or deductive research,
• what your research questions are,
• whether you are doing descriptive,
experimental, or correlational
research, and
• the factors into consideration,
namely, money, time, data availability,
and access to respondents.
Data Analysis
Portal of Research Methodology and
Methods
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
 Data Analysis
• Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical
and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and “.. various analytic
recap, and evaluate data. procedures provide a way
• While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical of drawing inductive
procedures, many times analysis becomes an ongoing iterative
process where data is continuously collected and analyzed almost inferences from data and
simultaneously. distinguishing the signal
• The form of the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative (the phenomenon of
approach taken (field study, ethnography content analysis, oral interest) from the noise
history, biography, unobtrusive research) and the form of the data
(field notes, documents, audiotape, videotape). (statistical fluctuations)
present in the data”..
• Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead
Shamoo and Resnik (2003)
casual readers (Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence the
public perception of research.

An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate

and appropriate analysis of research findings. Integrity issues are
just as relevant to analysis of non-statistical data as well.

https://ori.hhs.gov/education/products/n_illinois_u/datamanagement/ 32
Quantitative Data Analysis

Descriptive
Technique

Inferential
Technique
 Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics describe a sample.
Use descriptive statistics to summarize and
graph the data for a group that you
choose. This process allows you to
understand that specific set of
observations.
• You simply take a group that you’re
interested in, record data about the group
members, and then use summary statistics
and graphs to present the group
properties.
Why they matter:
• With descriptive statistics, there is no 1. Provide a macro and micro
uncertainty because you are describing view of the data
only the people or items that you actually 2. Help identify errors and
measure. You’re not trying to infer
properties about a larger population. anomalies in the data
3. Inform which inferential
• Mode of analysis: Mean (average), median statistics you will use
(midpoint), mode (most common),
Standard deviation, skewness
Inferential Statistics
• Inferential statistics takes data from a sample and makes inferences
about the larger population from which the sample was drawn.
• Because the goal of inferential statistics is to draw conclusions from a
sample and generalize them to a population, we need to have
confidence that our sample accurately reflects the population.
Common uses:
• This requirement affects our process. At a broad level, we must do
the following:
1. Predictions about
• Define the population we are studying. differences
• Draw a representative sample from that population. between two or
• Use analyses that incorporate the sampling error. more groups.
• You can use the following methods to collect a representative 2. Predictions about
sample: relationship
• Simple random sampling between two or
• Stratified sampling
more variables
• Cluster sampling
• Systematic sampling

• Use random sampling to allow for the sample represents the

population. This process is a primary method for obtaining samples
that mirrors the population on average. Random sampling produces
statistics, such as the mean, that do not tend to be too high or too
low.
Inferential Statistical Methods
• T-test
• “T- test (hypothesis testing), is a key to testing the two
sets of random variables within the data set, if a certain
argument or conclusion is true for the data set. It allows
for comparing the data against various hypotheses and
assumptions.

• Analysis of Variance (Anova)

• The ANOVA test allows a comparison of multi groups
(more than two groups) at the same time to determine
whether a relationship exists between them.

• Correlation
• To assess the relationship between variables. E.g. if
Variable A goes up, does Variable B go up or down?

• Regression
• To assess the causal relationship between variables. E.g.
Does Variable A’s movement…cause Variable B’s
movement? Or do they just happen to move together
naturally?
 Data management
This involves familiarizing yourself with

Look for statistical appropriate software; systematically

logging in and screening your data:

significance entering the data into a program; and

finally, ‘cleaning’ your data.

This is generally captured through a ‘p-value’, which

assesses the probability that your findings are more
than coincidence. The lower the p-value, the more
06 01
confident researchers can be that findings are
genuine. Understanding
variable types
Select the right Different data types demand
discrete treatment, so it has
statistical test
This relies on knowing the nature of your
05 02 important to be able to distinguish
variables by both cause and effect
(dependent or independent), and
variables; their scale of measurement; their measurement scales (nominal,
their distribution shape; and the types of ordinal, interval, and ratio).
question you want to ask.

Run appropriate 04 03 Run descriptive

inferential statistics statistics
This allows researchers to assess their ability to These are used to summarize the basic
draw conclusions that extend beyond the features of a data set through measures
immediate data. For example, if a sample of central tendency (mean, mode, and
represents the population; if there are median), dispersion (range, quartiles,
differences between two or more groups; if there variance, and standard deviation), and
are changes over time; or if there is a distribution (skewness and kurtosis).
relationship between two or more variables
Qualitative Data Analysis
Approaches to Qualitative Data
Analysis
• Deductive Approach
• The deductive approach involves analysing
qualitative data based on a structure that is
predetermined by the researcher.
• A researcher can use the questions as a
guide for analysing the data.
• This approach is quick and easy and can be
used when a researcher has a fair idea about
the likely responses that he/she is going to
receive from the sample population.
• Inductive Approach
• The inductive approach, on the contrary, is
not based on a predetermined structure or
set ground rules/framework.
• It is a more time-consuming and thorough
approach to qualitative data analysis.
• An inductive approach is often used when a
researcher has very little or no idea of the
research phenomenon.
 Qualitative data is more challenging to analyze than quantitative data due
to text, pictures, or videos instead of numbers. Some examples are:

CONTENT ANALYSIS
THEMATIC ANALYSIS
This involves tracking the position,
occurrence, and meaning of words This involves carefully examining the
or phrases. data to identify the key themes and
patterns.

DISCOURSE GROUNDED
ANALYSIS THEORY
This includes exploring the Grounded theory refers to a set of
working of communication systematic inductive methods for
within social contexts. conducting qualitative research
aimed toward theory development.

NARRATIVE IMPERATIVE
ANALYSIS PHENOMENAL
Narrative analysis to understand how ANALYSIS (IPA)
research participants construct story and
narrative from their own personal This is a qualitative approach which aims
experience, through journals, letters, to provide detailed examinations of
conversations, autobiographies, personal lived experience. It produces
transcripts of in-depth interviews, focus an account of lived experience in its own
groups, or other types of narrative terms rather than one prescribed by
qualitative research. pre-existing theoretical preconception.
.
 5 Steps to Qualitative Data Analysis

1 2 3 4 5
DATA COLLECTION DATA PROCESS DATA ANALYSIS VALIDATE DATA REPORT

Step 1: Arrange your Step 2: Organize all your Step 3: Set a Code to Step 4: Validate your Step 5: Concluding the
Data Data the Data Collected Data Analysis Process

First, transcribe the Based on the research Code the qualitative Accuracy of your It is important to finally
data collected. objectives, reorganise data by categorizing research design or conclude your data,
Arranging data by the data based on the and assigning methods. Reliability, which means
converting all the data questions asked. properties and patterns which is the extent to systematically
(visual & audio to the collected data. which the methods presenting your data, a
recording, field notes, After assigning codes to produce accurate data report that can be
jotted notes etc) into a your data, you can then consistently. readily used. The report
text format. begin to build on the should state the
patterns to gain in- method that you used
depth insight into the to conduct the research
data that will help make studies, the positives,
informed decisions. and negatives and study
limitations.
Steps in Systematic Data
Analysis
1. Formulate the research question – Like any research process, a clear, unambiguous research question
will help set the direction for your study, i.e. what type of health promotions campaigns have been most
effective in reducing smoking rates of Australian teenagers or Does school leadership makes a difference
to educational standards?
2. Develop and use an explicit, reproducible methodology – Key to systematic reviews are that bias is
minimized and that methods are transparent and reproducible.
3. Develop and use clear inclusion/ exclusion criteria – The array of literature out there is vast.
Determining clear selection criteria for inclusion is essential.
4. Develop and use an explicit search strategy – It is important to identify all studies that meet the
eligibility criteria set in #3. The search for studies need to be extensive should be extensive and draw on
multiple databases.
5. Critically assess the validity of the findings in included studies – This is likely to involve critical
appraisal guides and quality checklists that cover participant recruitment, data collection methods, and
modes of analysis. Assessment is often conducted by two or more reviewers who know both the topic
area and commonly used methods.
6. Analysis of findings across the studies – This can involve analysis, comparison, and synthesis of results
using methodological criteria. This is often the case for qualitative studies. Quantitative studies generally
attempt to use statistical methods to explore differences between studies and combine their effects (see
meta analysis below). If divergences are found, the source of the divergence is analysed.
7. Synthesis and interpretation of results – synthesized results need to be interpreted in light of both the
limitations of the review and the studies it contains. An example here might be the inclusion of only
studies reported in English. This level of transparency allows readers to assess the review credibility and
applicability of findings.​
Considerations/issues in data
analysis
There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to data analysis. These
include:
• Having the necessary skills to analyze
• Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis
• Drawing unbiased inference
• Inappropriate subgroup analysis
• Following acceptable norms for disciplines
• Determining statistical significance
• Lack of clearly defined, objective and accurate outcome measurements
• Manner of presenting data
• Environmental/contextual issues
• Data recording method
• Partitioning ‘text’ when analyzing qualitative data
• Reliability and Validity
• Extent of analysis
Questions for Keeping the Bigger
Picture in Focus
• Questions related to your own expectations
• ☑ What do I expect to find, i.e. will my hypothesis bear out?
• ☑ What don’t I expect to find, and how can I look for it?
• ☑ Can my findings be interpreted in alternative ways? What are the implications?
• Questions related to research question, aims and objectives
• ☑ How should I treat my data in order to best address my research questions?
• ☑ How do my findings relate to my research questions, aims, and objectives?
• Questions related to theory
• ☑ Are my findings confirming my theories? How? Why? Why not?
• ☑ Does my theory inform/help to explain my findings? In what ways?
• ☑ Can my unexpected findings link with alternative theories?
• Questions related to methods
• ☑ Have my methods of data collection and/or analysis coloured my results? If so, in what
ways?
• ☑ How might my methodological shortcomings be affecting my findings?
References:
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Erlbaum Associates, Inc
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163-88
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content, scaling, and data analytic options. Ann Behav Med, 26(2): 76-103.
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• Shamoo, A.E. (1989). Principles of Research Data Audit. Gordon and Breach, New York.
• Shepard, R.J. (2002). Ethics in exercise science research. Sports Med, 32 (3): 169-183.
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