21CS43:

MICROCONTROLLER AND
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
MODULE 4
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Syllabus- Module 4
Embedded System Components: Core of an Embedded System
Embedded Vs General computing system Types of processor/controller,
History of embedded systems Memory
Classification of Embedded systems Sensors,
Major applications areas of embedded systems Actuators
Purpose of embedded systems. LED, 7 segment LED display
Stepper motor, Keyboard, Push button switch,
Communication Interface (onboard and
external types),
Embedded firmware,
Other system components.
What is an Embedded System?
• An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical
system designed to perform a specific function and is a
combination of both hardware and firmware (software).
• Every embedded system is unique and the hardware as
well as the firmware is highly specialised to the application
domain.

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Embedded Systems vs. General
Computing Systems
• The computing revolution began with the general purpose
computing requirements. Later it was realised that the
general computing requirements are not sufficient for the
embedded computing requirements.
• The embedded computing requirements demand
‘something special’ in terms of response to stimuli,
meeting the computational deadlines, power efficiency,
limited memory capability, etc.

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General Purpose Computing System Embedded System
A system which is a combination of a generic hardware A system which is a combination of special purpose
and a General Purpose Operating System for executing a hardware and embedded OS for executing a specific set of
variety of applications applications
Contains a General Purpose Operating System (GPOS) May or may not contain an operating system for
functioning
Applications are alterable (programmable) by the user (It The firmware of the embedded system is pre-programmed
is possible for the end user to re-install the operating and it is non-alterable by the end-user (There may be
system, and also add or remove user applications) exceptions for system supporting OS kernel image flashing
through special hardware settings)
Performance is the key deciding factor in the selection of Application-specific requirements (like performance,
the system. Always, ‘Faster is Better’ power requirements, memory usage, etc.) are the key
deciding factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating power Highly tailored to take advantage of the power saving
requirements, options for different levels of power modes supported by the hardware and the operating
management system
Response requirements are not time-critical For certain category of embedded systems like mission
critical systems, the response time requirement is highly
critical
Need not be deterministic in execution behaviour Execution behaviour is deterministic for certain types of
embedded systems like ‘Hard Real Time’ systems

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History of Embedded Systems
• Embedded systems were in existence even before the IT revolution.
• Built around the old vacuum tube and transistor technologies.
• Advances in semiconductor and nanotechnology and IT revolution gave way to the
development of miniature embedded systems.
• The first recognised modern embedded system is the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC)
developed by the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory for the lunar expedition.
• It had 36K words of fixed memory and 2K words of erasable memory.
• The clock frequency of was 1.024 MHz and it was derived from a 2.048 MHz crystal
clock.
• The first mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance
computer for the Minuteman-I missile in 1961.
• It was built using discrete transistor logic and a hard-disk for main memory.
• The first integrated circuit was produced in September 1958 and computers using them
began to appear in 1963.

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Classification of Embedded Systems
• Some of the criteria used in the classification of embedded
systems are:
1. Based on generation
2. Complexity and performance requirements
3. Based on deterministic behaviour
4. Based on triggering

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Classification Based on Generation
• First Generation
• Second Generation
• Third Generation
• Fourth Generation
• Next Generation

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Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• First Generation
• Early embedded systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors
like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit microcontrollers.
• Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed in assembly
code.
• E.g.: Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units, etc.

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Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Second Generation
• Embedded systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8-bit
or 16-bit microcontrollers.
• Instruction set were much more complex and powerful than the
first generation.
• Some of the second generation embedded systems contained
embedded operating systems for their operation.
• E.g.: Data acquisition systems, SCADA systems, etc.

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Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Third Generation
• Embedded systems built around 32-bit microprocessors and 16-bit
microcontrollers.
• Application and domain specific processors/controllers like Digital
Signal Processors (DSP) and Application Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs) came into picture.
• The instruction set of processors became more complex and powerful
and the concept of instruction pipelining also evolved.
• Dedicated embedded real time and general purpose operating systems
entered into the embedded market.
• Embedded systems spread its ground to areas like robotics, media,
industrial process control, networking, etc.

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Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Fourth Generation
• The advent of System on Chips (SoC), reconfigurable processors
and multicore processors are bringing high performance, tight
integration and miniaturisation into the embedded device
market.
• The SoC technique implements a total system on a chip by
implementing different functionalities with a processor core on
an integrated circuit.
• They make use of high performance real time embedded
operating systems for their functioning.
• E.g.: Smart phone devices, Mobile Internet Devices (MIDs), etc.

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Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Next Generation
• The processor and embedded market is highly dynamic and
demanding.
• The next generation embedded systems are expected to meet
growing demands in the market.

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Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems
• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Large-Scale Embedded Systems

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Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems
• Simple in application needs and the performance requirements
are not time critical.
• E.g.: An electronic toy
• Usually built around low performance and low cost 8-bit or 16-bit
microprocessors/microcontrollers.
• May or may not contain an operating system for its functioning.

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Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Slightly complex in hardware and firmware (software)
requirements.
• Usually built around medium performance, low cost 16-bit or 32-
bit microprocessors/microcontrollers or digital signal processors.
• Usually contain an embedded operating system (either general
purpose or real time operating system) for functioning.

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Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Large-Scale Embedded Systems
• Highly complex in hardware and firmware (software) requirements.
• They are employed in mission critical applications demanding high
performance.
• Usually built around high performance 32-bit or 64-bit RISC
processors/controllers or Reconfigurable System on Chip (RSoC) or multi-
core processors and programmable logic devices.
• May contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware
accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from the main
processor of the system.
• Decoding/encoding of media, cryptographic function implementation, etc.
are examples of processing requirements which can be implemented using a
co-processor/hardware accelerator.
• Usually contain a high performance real time operating system (RTOS) for
task scheduling, prioritization and management.
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Classification Based on Deterministic
Behaviour
• Applicable for ‘Real Time’ systems.
• The application/task execution behaviour can be either
deterministic or non-deterministic.
• Based on the execution behaviour, real time embedded systems are
classified into Hard Real Time and Soft Real Time systems.

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Classification Based on Triggering
• Embedded systems which are ‘Reactive’ in nature (like process
control systems in industrial control applications) can be classified
based on the trigger.
• Reactive systems can be either event-triggered or time-triggered.

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Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems
1. Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
2. Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine,
refrigerators, microwave oven, etc.
3. Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners,
sprinklers, intruder detection alarms, closed circuit television
(CCTV) cameras, fire alarms, etc.
4. Automotive industry: Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), engine
control, ignition systems, automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset
multimedia applications, etc.

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Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems (continued)
6. Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
7. Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs,
firewalls, etc.
8. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines, etc.
9. Measurements & Instrumentation: Digital multimeters, digital
CROs, logic analyzers, PLC systems, etc.
10. Banking & Retail: Automated teller machines (ATM) and currency
counters, point of sales (POS), etc.
11. Card readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.

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Purpose of Embedded Systems
• Each embedded system is designed to serve the purpose of any one
or a combination of the following tasks:
1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation
2. Data Communication
3. Data (Signal) Processing
4. Monitoring
5. Control
6. Application Specific User Interface

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Purpose of Embedded Systems
(continued)
• Data Collection/Storage/Representation
• Embedded systems designed for the purpose of
data collection performs acquisition of data from
the external world.
• Data collection is usually done for storage,
analysis, manipulation and transmission.
• The term "data" refers all kinds of information,
viz. text, voice, image, video, electrical signals and • A digital camera is a typical
example of an embedded system
any other measurable quantities. with data
collection/storage/representation
• Data can be either analog (continuous) or digital of data.
(discrete). • Images are captured and the
captured image may be stored
• The collected data may be stored or transmitted within the memory of the camera.
• The captured image can also be
or it may be processed or it may be deleted presented to the user through a
instantly after giving a meaningful representation. graphic LCD unit.

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Purpose of Embedded Systems
(continued)
• Data Communication
• Embedded data communication systems are
deployed in applications ranging from complex
satellite communication systems to simple
home networking systems.
• The transmission is achieved either by a wire-
Fig: A wireless network router for
line medium or by a wireless medium. data communication
• The data collecting embedded terminal itself • Network hubs, routers, switches,
etc. are typical examples of
dedicated data transmission
can incorporate data communication units like embedded systems.
wireless modules (Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi, • They act as mediators in data
communication and provide
EDGE, GPRS, etc.) or wire-line modules (RS- various features like data security,
monitoring etc.
232C, USB, TCP/IP, PS2, etc.).
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Purpose of Embedded Systems
(continued)
• Data (Signal) Processing
• The data (voice, image, video, electrical signals
and other measurable quantities) collected by
embedded systems may be used for various
kinds of data processing.
• Embedded systems with signal processing
functionalities are employed in applications
• A digital hearing aid is a typical
demanding signal processing like speech example of an embedded system
employing data processing.
coding, synthesis, audio video codec, • Digital hearing aid improves the
hearing capacity of hearing
transmission applications, etc. impaired persons.

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Purpose of Embedded Systems
(continued)
• Monitoring
• Almost embedded products coming under the medical
domain are used for monitoring.
• A very good example is the electro cardiogram (ECG)
machine for monitoring the heartbeat of a patient.
• The machine is intended to do the monitoring of the heartbeat.
• It cannot impose control over the heartbeat.
• The sensors used in ECG are the different electrodes connected
to the patient's body.
Fig: A patient monitoring system for
• Some other examples of embedded systems with monitoring heartbeat
monitoring function are measuring instruments like
digital CRO, digital multimeters, logic analyzers, etc.
used in Control & Instrumentation applications.

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Purpose of Embedded Systems
(continued)
• Control
• Embedded systems with control functionalities
impose control over some variables according to
the changes in input variables.
• A system with control functionality contains both
sensors and actuators.
• Sensors are connected to the input port for
capturing the changes in environmental variable • An Air Conditioner System used to
control the room temperature to
or measuring variable. a specified limit is a typical
example for embedded system for
• The actuators connected to the output port are control purpose.
controlled according to the changes in input • An air conditioner contains a
room temperature-sensing
variable to put an impact on the controlling element (sensor) which may be a
thermistor and a handheld unit
variable to bring the controlled variable to the for setting up (feeding) the
specified range. desired temperature.

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Purpose of Embedded Systems
(continued)
• Application Specific User Interface
• These are embedded systems with
application-specific user interfaces like
buttons, switches, keypad, lights, bells, display
units, etc.
• Mobile phone is an example for this.
• In mobile phone the user interface is provided
through the keypad, graphic LCD module, • A mobile phone is an example for
embedded system with an
system speaker, vibration alert, etc. application-specific user
interfaces.

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