UNIT V

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND TRANSDUCERS

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENT

Definition:
The static characteristics are defined for the instruments which measure the quantities
which do not vary with time.
Types:
The various static characteristics are
1.Accuracy 2. Precision
3.Error 4.Sensitivity
5.Resolution 6.Threshold
7.Reproducibility 8.Zero drift
9.Stability 10.Linearity
I. Accuracy:-
It is a measure of the closeness with which an instrument measures the true value of
the quantity.
Accuracy is expressed in different ways
II. Precision
It is the measure of the consistency (or) repeatability of a series measurements.
Although does not necessarily imply accuracy. The precision of a given by
̅
𝑿𝒊 −𝑿
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏 − | 𝑿𝒊
|
Xi-Value of ith measurement
X-Average value of n measurements.
The precision is composed of two characteristics, they are
1. Conformity:-
The conformity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for precision. similarly,
precision is necessary but not the sufficient condition for accuracy .
2. Significant figures:-
The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant
figures, in which reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual
information about the magnitude and measurement precision of the quantity.
III. Error:-

The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the
quantity to be measured is called an error
E=At-Am
At - Truevalue of the quantity
Am- Measured value of the quantity.

𝑨𝒕 − 𝑨𝒎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒕

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 IV. Sensitivity:-
It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the o/p of the instrument to a change
in the value of the quantity to be measured.
∆𝑞𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑜/𝑝
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
∆𝑞𝑖 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑖/𝑝
V. Resolution
It is the smallest change in measured quantity that will produce change in
instrument reading.
VI. Threshold (minimum value)
If the input quantity is slowly varied from zero onwards. The o/p does not change
until some minimum value of the input is exceeded. This minimum value of the input
is called threshold.
VII. Linearity:-
The instrument requires the property of linearity that is the output various
linearity decoding to the input. The linearity is defined as ability to reproduce the
input characteristics symmetrically and linearly.

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

∴ 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
VIII. Zero drift
Drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an extended period
during which the value of the input variable does not changes. Zero drift is defined as
the deviation in the instrument o/p with time, from its zero value when the variable to
be measured is constant.

Stray electric field, Mechanical vibration

Affect drift stray magnetic field, wear and tear
Temp change
Contamination of metal, change in atomic structure
IX. Reproducibility:-
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.

The repeatability is defined as o/p variation of scale reading and is random in nature.

Dynamic characteristics: The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which
are changes rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’. The various

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dynamic characteristics are: i) Speed of response ii) Measuring lag iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system
responds to changes in the measured quantity.
Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement
system to changes in the measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:
a) Retardation type: In this case the response of the measurement system begins
immediately after the change in measured quantity has occurred.
b) Time delay lag: In this case the response of the measurement system begins
after a dead time after the application of the input.
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time & the value indicated by the measurement system if no static
error is assumed.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ERRORS

The static error is defined earlier as the difference between the true value of the variable
and the value indicated by the instrument.
The static error arise due to
(i)Gross errors
(ii)Systematic errors
(iii)Random errors
(i) Gross error:-
 The gross errors mainly occur due to careless or lack of experience of a human
being. There cover human mistakes in reading, recordings and calculating results.
 These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments. These errors
cannot be treated mathematically. These error also called personal errors
Minimization of gross error
 Taking great care while taking the reading, recording the reading and calculating
the result.
 Without depending on only one reading. At least 3 or more readings must be
taken and preferably by different persons. The reading must be taken preferably under
the conditions in which the instruments are switched on and off.
(ii) Systematic errors:-
 The systematic errors are mainly resulting due to the shortcomings of the
instruments and the characteristics of the material used in the instrument such as
defective or worn parts, ageing affects, environmental effects etc.,
 A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a
systematic error,
These are 3 types of systematic error

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 (a) Instrumental errors
(b) Environmental errors
(c)Observational errors.

(a)Instrumental errors:-
This is due to following 3 reasons
1. Short coming of instrument
This is due to mechanical structure of the instruments. Ex-friction of bearing of various
moving parts, irregular, spring tensions, reduction in tension due to improper handling.
These errors can be avoided by
 Selection of a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure for the
measurement
 Recognizing the effect of such errors and the proper correction factors.
 Calibration the instrument carefully against a standard.
2. Misuse of instrument
 If good instrument is used in abnormal way gives misleading results. Poor initial
adjustments, improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance etc. are the example
of misusing a good instrument.
 It is not produce permanent damage to the instrument but definitely cause
serious errors.
3 .Loading effects
 Loading effects due to improper way of using the instrument cause the serious
errors.
 Ex:- connecting a well calibrated voltmeter across the two points of high
resistance circuit.
 The same voltmeter connected in a low resistance circuit gives accurate reading.
Thus the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument
intelligently and correctly.
(b)Environmental Errors:-
 It is due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument.
 The various factors resulting these environmental errors are temperature
changes, pressure changes, thermal e.m.f., stray capacitance, cross capacitance, effect
of external field, ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
The various methods used to reduce this error
 Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the
manufacturer or the instrument.
 Using the arrangement which will help the surrounding condition constant. This
includes the use of air conditioning, temperature control enclosures etc.
 Reducing the effect of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically sealing
the components in the instruments.
 The effects of external fields can be minimized by using magnetic or electro static
shields or screens.
 Using the equipment which is immune to such environmental effects.
(c)Observational Errors:
 It is produced by observer these are many sources of observational errors such
as parallax error while reading a mater wrong scale selection, the hobbits of individual
observer etc.
This error can be eliminated by use the instrument with
 Mirrors
 Knife edged pointers, etc.

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  The instruments with digital display are available which can largely eliminate
such observational errors.
 The systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic errors. The static
errors are caused by the limitations of the measuring device, while the dynamic errors
are caused by the instrument not responding fest enough to follow the changes in the
variable to be measured.

4 Random errors:-
 Some errors still result through the systematic and instrumental errors are
reduced or at least accounted for. The cause of these errors is unknown as random
errors.
 It cannot calculated ordinary process
 These errors are generally due to the accumulation of large number of the small
effects. These errors are generally small.
 These errors are of real concern only when the high degree of accuracy is
required.
 These errors can be analyzed statically and treated mathematically.
These errors cannot be corrected by any method of calibration. Reduction of this error
is by increasing the number of observations and the best approximation of the
reading.

PERMANENT MAGNETIC MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS (PMMC)

The permanent magnet moving coil instruments are most accurate type for d.c
measurement. The action of these instruments is based on the motoring principle.
Principle:
When a current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field produced by
permanent magnet, the coil experiences a force and moves. As the coil moving and the
magnetis permanent, the instrument is called permanent magnet moving coil
instrument. This basic principle is called D’Arsonval principle.
Diagram:

The amount of force experienced by the coil is proportional to the current passing
through the coil. The moving coil is either rectangular or circular in shape. It has
number of turns of fine wire. The coil is suspended so that it is free to turn about its
vertical axis. The coil is placed in uniform, horizontal and radial magnetic field of a

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permanent magnet in the shape of a horse-shoe. The iron core is spherical if coil is
circular and is cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. Due to iron core, the deflecting torque
increases, increasing the sensitivity of the instrument.
The controlling torque is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs.
The damping torque is provided by eddy current damping. It is obtained by
movement of the aluminium former, moving in the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet.
The pointer is carried by the spindle and it moves over a graduated scale. The
pointer has light weight so that it can deflect rapidly. The mirror is placed below the
pointer to get the accurate reading by removing the parallax. The weight of the
instrument is normally counter balanced by the weights situated diametrically opposite
and rigidly connected to it.

The scale markings of the basic d.c PMMC instruments are usually linearly
spaced as the deflecting torque and hence the pointer deflection are directly proportional
to the current passing through the coil.
In a practical PMMC instrument, a Y shaped member is attached to the fixed end
of the front control springs. An eccentric pin through the instrument case engages the
Y shaped member so that the zero position of the pointer can be adjusted from outside.
Torque Equation:
The equation for the developed torque is obtained from the basic law of the
electromagnetic torque. The deflecting torque is given by
Td  NBAI
Td = deflecting torque in N-m
B = lux density in air gap, Wb/m2
N = number of turns of the coil
A = effective coil area m2
I = Current in the moving coil, amperes
Td  GI
G  NBA =Constant
The controlling torque is provided by the springs and is proportional to the angular
deflection of the pointer.
Tc  K

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 Where Tc=controlling torque
K=spring constant, Nm/rad or Nm/deg
 =angular deflection
For the final steady state position
Td  Tc
GI  K
G
  I
K

The pointer deflection can therefore be used to measure current.

As the direction of the current through to the coil changes, the direction of the
deflection of the pointer also changes. Hence such instruments are well suited for the
d.c measurements.
In the micro ammeter milliammeterupto about 20ma, the entire current to be
measured is passed through the coil. The springs carry current to the coil. Thus current
carrying capacity of the springs, limits the current which can be safely carried.
For high currents the moving coil is shunted by sufficient resistance. While the
voltmeters having high ranges use a moving coil together with suffcient series resistance
to limit the instrument current. Most d.c. voltmeter are designed to produce full scale
deflection with a current of 20,10,5 or 1mA.
Advantages:
 It has uniform scale
 With a powerful magnet, its torque to weight ratio is very high. So operating
current is small
 The sensitivity is high
 It has high accuracy
 The eddy current induced in the metallic former over which coil is wound, provide
effective damping.
 Extension of instrument range is possible.
 Instrument is free from hysteresis loss.
Disadvantages:
 Suitable for d.c measurements only.
 Ageing of permanent magnet and the control springs introduces the error.
 The cost is high due to delicate construction and accurate machining.
 The friction due to jewel-pivot suspension.

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

The moving iron instruments are classified as
 Moving iron attraction type instruments and
 Moving iron repulsion type instruments
Moving iron attraction type instruments:

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 The basic working principle of these instruments is very simple that a soft iron
piece if brought near the magnet gets attracted by the magnet.
It consists of a fixed coil C and moving iron piece D. The coil is flat and has a
narrow slot like opening. The moving iron is a flat disc which is eccentrically mounted
on the spindle. The spindle is supported between the jewel bearings. The spindle carries
a pointer which moves over a graduated scale. The number of turns of the fixed coil are
dependent on the range of the range of the instrument. For passing large current
through the coil only few turns are required.

The controlling torque is provided by the springs but gravity control may also be
used for vertically mounted panel type instruments.
The damping torque is provided by the air friction. A light aluminium piston is
attached to the moving system. It moves in a fixed chamber. The chamber is closed at
one end. It can also be provided with the help of vane attached to the moving system.
The operating magnetic field in moving iron instruments is very weak. Hence eddy
current damping is not used since it requires a permanent magnet which would affect
or distort the operating field.
Moving Iron Repulsion Type Instrument:
These instruments have two vanes inside the coil, the one is fixed and other is
movable. When the current flows in the coil, both the vanes are magnetised with like
polarities induced on the same side. Hence due to the repulsion of like polarities, there
is a force of repulsion between the two vanes causing the movement of the moving vane.
The repulsion type instruments are the most commonly used instruments.
The two different designs repulsion type instruments
 Radial vane type and
 Co-axial vane type
Radial vane Repulsion Type Instruments:
Out of the other moving iron mechanisms, this is the most sensitive and has most
linear scale.

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 The two vanes are radial strips of iron. The fixed vane is attached to the coil. The
movable vane is attached to the spindle and suspended in the induction field of the coil.
The needle of the instrument is attached to this vane.
Even though the current through the coil is alternating, there is always repulsion
between the like poles of the fixed and the movable vane. Hence the deflection of the
pointer is always in the same direction.
The deflection is effectively proportional to the actual current and hence the scale
is calibrated directly to read amperes or volts. The calibration is accurate only for the
frequency for which it is designed because the impedance is different for difference
frequencies.
Concentric Vane Repulsion Type Instruments:
The instrument has two concentric vanes. One is attached to the coil frame rigidly
while the other can rotate coaxially inside the stationary vane.

Both the vanes are magnetised to the same polarity due to the current in the coil.
Thus the movable vane rotates under the repulsive force. As the movable vane is
attached to the pivoted shaft, the repulsion results in a rotation of the shaft.
The pointer deflection is proportional to the current coil. The concentric vane type
instrument is moderately sensitive and the deflection is proportional to the square of
the current through the coil.

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 Thus the instrument is said to have square law response. Thus the scale of the
instrument is non-uniform in nature. Thus whatever may be the direction of the current
in the coil, the deflection in the moving iron instruments is in the same direction.
Torque equation of Moving Iron Instruments:
The deflection torque is given by
1 dL
Td  I 2
2 d
I = initial current
L = instrument inductance
 = deflection
dI = Increase in current
d = change in deflection
dL = Change in inductance

While the controlling torque is given by,

Tc  K
K= spring constant
1 2 dL
K  I
2 d
1 I 2 dL

2 K d
Thus the deflection is proportional to the square of the current through the coil. And
the instrument gives square law response.
Advantage:
 The instrument can be used for both a.c and d.c measurements.
 As the torque to weight ratio is high, errors due to the friction are very less.
 A single type of moving element can cover the wide range hence these instruments
are cheaper than other type of instruments.
 There are no current carrying parts in the moving system hence these meters are
extremely rugged and reliable.
Disadvantage:
 The scale of the moving iron instruments are not uniform and is cramped at the
lower end. Hence accurate readings are not possible at this end.
 There are serious errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes and stray magnetic
fields.

WATTMETER
Electrodynamometer instrument
Electrodynamometer Wattmeter are used for the measurement of power consumption
Construction:
It consists of two types of coils. One coil is fixed and another coil is moving. The fixed coil is
connected in series to the circuit whose power consumption is to be calculated. Therefore this fixed
coil is often called Current Coil (CC).

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Moving coil is connected across the supply voltage. Due to this current proportional to supply
voltage flows through the moving coil. To limit the current through this coil, a resistor is connected
in series with the moving coil. Moving coil is called Pressure Coil (PC).

Working:
Due to the current in the flow in both coils, mechanical force exists between them. The result is
that the moving coil, moves the pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to rest at a position where
deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque.
Reversing the current, reverses the field due to fixed coil as well as the current in the moving coil
so that the direction of the deflection torque remains unchanged. Therefore, such instruments can be
used for the measurement of AC as well as DC power.

 Deflection torque
Interaction between fixed coil and moving coil
For DC
Td α I1 I2 dM/dθ
For AC
Td α I1 I2 cosϕ dM/dθ
Where I1- current in fixed coil, I2 – current in moving coil
M- mutual inductance between fixed and moving coil
cosϕ -Power factor

 Control torque
Spring
Tc α θ

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  Damping torque
Air Friction damping
 At equilibrium
Td =Tc
θ α I1I2

Advantages
Advantages:
The scale of the meter is uniform (because deflecting torque is proportional to the true power in
both DC as well as AC and the instrument is spring controlled.)
High degree of accuracy can be obtained by careful design; hence these are used for calibration
purposes.

Disadvantages:
The error due to the inductance of the pressure coil at low power factor is very serious (unless
special features are incorporated to reduce its effect)
In dynamometer type wattmeter, stray field may affect the reading of the instrument. To reduce
it, magnetic shielding is provided by enclosing the instrument in an iron case.

ENERGY METER- Induction type instrument

The meter which is used for measuring the energy utilises by the electric load is known
as the energy meter. The energy is the total power consumed and utilised by the load at
a particular interval of time. It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for
measuring the power consumption. The meter is less expensive and accurate.

The energy meter has four main parts. They are the

1. Driving System
2. Moving System

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 3. Braking System
4. Registering System
1. Driving System – The electromagnet is the main component of the driving system. It
is the temporary magnet which is excited by the current flow through their coil. The core
of the electromagnet is made up of silicon steel lamination. The driving system has two
electromagnets. The upper one is called the shunt electromagnet, and the lower one is
called series electromagnet.

2. Moving System – The moving system is the aluminium disc mounted on the shaft of
the alloy. The disc is placed in the air gap of the two electromagnets. The eddy current
is induced in the disc because of the change of the magnetic field. This eddy current is
cut by the magnetic flux. The interaction of the flux and the disc induces the deflecting
torque.

When the devices consume power, the aluminium disc starts rotating, and after some
number of rotations, the disc displays the unit used by the load. The number of rotations
of the disc is counted at particular interval of time. The disc measured the power
consumption in kilowatt hours.

3. Braking system – The permanent magnet is used for reducing the rotation of the
aluminium disc. The aluminium disc induces the eddy current because of their rotation.
The eddy current cut the magnetic flux of the permanent magnet and hence produces
the braking torque.

This braking torque opposes the movement of the disc, thus reduces their speed. The
permanent magnet is adjustable due to which the braking torque is also adjusted by
shifting the magnet to the other radial position.

4. Registration (Counting Mechanism) – The main function of the registration or

counting mechanism is to record the number of rotations of the aluminium disc. Their
rotation is directly proportional to the energy consumed by the loads in the kilowatt
hour.

The rotation of the disc is transmitted to the pointers of the different dial for recording
the different readings. The reading in kWh is obtained by multiply the number of
rotations of the disc with the meter constant.

Working of the Energy Meter

The energy meter has the aluminium disc whose rotation determines the power
consumption of the load. The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt
electromagnet. The shunt magnet has the pressure coil, and the series magnet has the
current coil.

The pressure coil creates the magnetic field because of the supply voltage, and the
current coil produces it because of the current.

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The field induces by the voltage coil is lagging by 90º on the magnetic field of the current
coil because of which eddy current induced in the disc. The interaction of the eddy
current and the magnetic field causes torque, which exerts a force on the disc. Thus,
the disc starts rotating.

The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of the coil. The permanent
magnet controls Their rotation. The permanent magnet opposes the movement of the
disc and equalises it on the power consumption. The cyclometer counts the rotation of
the disc.

TRANSDUCERS:
It is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to another, often in a
different form. In otherwords, is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity or a physical
condition into electrical signal. The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency.
A transducer uses many effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal
from one form to other is called transduction.

A transducer is also called pick up. The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to
an electrical output, as shown in the

A transducer will have basically two main components as
Sensing Element: The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to by this part
of the transistor.
Transduction Element: The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction element.
This element is responsible for converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional electrical
signal. There may be cases when the

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS:
 Based on the physical phenomenon, e.g. LVDT
o Primary transducer
o Secondary transducer
 Based on the power type
o Active transducer
o Passive transducer
 Based on the type of output
o Analog transducer, e.g. Strain Gauge, LVDT, Thermocouple & Thermistor
o Digital transducer
 Based on the electrical phenomenon
o Resistive transducer
o Capacitive transducer
o Inductive transducer
o Photoelectric transducer
o Photovoltaic transducer
 Based on the non-electrical phenomenon

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 o Linear displacement
o Rotary displacement
 Based on the transduction phenomenon
o Transducer
o Inverse transducer.

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT):

Construction:
 The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into
electrical signals is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).
 LVDT is a differential transformer consisting of a single primary winding P and
two secondary windings S1 and S2
 The Secondary windings S1 and S2 have equal number of turns and are
identically placed on either side of the primary winding.
 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.
Working:
 Primary winding is connected to an ac source of voltage varying from 5 to 25V
and of frequency ranging from 50Hz to 20 kHz.
 Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it produces
an alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating voltages.
 The output voltage of secondary winding S1 is ES1 and that of secondary winding
S2 is ES2. In order to convert the output voltage from S1 and S2 Into a single
voltage signal, the two secondaries and S2 are connected in series opposition as
shown in figure.
 Therefore the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages.
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑆1 − 𝐸𝑆2

\
(a) Construction
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position,
 Thus at null position ESl = ES2. Since the output voltage of the transducer is the
difference of the two voltages, the output voltage E0 is zero at null position.
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑆1 − 𝐸𝑆2 = 0

15
Now if the core is moved to the left of the NULL position,
 More flux links with winding S1 and less with winding S2.
 Hence output voltage is, thus,
 E0 = ESl – ES2 and the output voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.
Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position,
 The flux linking with winding S2 becomes larger than that linking with winding
S1.
 Hence output voltage ES2 of the secondary winding is more than ESl, the
output voltage of secondary winding S1 The magnitude of output voltage is
thus,

E0 = ES2 – ESl and is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage.

 Figure shows the variation of the output voltage against displacement for
various position of the core.
 The curve is practically linear to small displacements.

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  Beyond this range, the curve starts to deviate.
 The residual voltage may be either due to magnetic unbalance or due to
electrical unbalance.
 Stray magnetic fields may also be the cause for residual voltage, which may
be overcome by using a magnetic shield slotted longitudinally and fitted over
the transducer

Advantages of LVDT:
 The output of LVDT is practically linear for displacements upto 5 mm.
 LVDT has infinite resolution.
 LVDT has high sensitivity.
 The LVDT gives a high output.
 LVDT can be used on high frequenciesupto 20 kHz.
 Absence of sliding contact makes LVDT a more reliable device.
 LVDT has very low hysteresis.
 It is rugged in construction and so it can tolerate shock and vibration without
any adverse effect.
 It is simple in construction

Disadvantages of LVDT:
 Large displacements are required for differential output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
 Sometimes, the transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
 The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals or a
demodulator network must be used if a dc output is required.
 The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and
electrically by the frequency of applied voltage. The frequency of the carrier
should be at least ten times the highest frequency component to be measured.
 Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.

Applications:
LVDTs are used to measure
 Displacement
 Force
 Weight
 Pressure
 Position
Thermoelectric transducer
THERMOCOUPLE
Basic Principle:
 The principle used in thermocouples is called the "Principle of
thermoelectricity" which was discovered by Seebeck.
 The principle states that "when two conductors of two different metals A and B
are joined together at one end to form a junction is heated to a higher temperature
with respect to the free ends, a voltage is developed at the free ends and if these
two conductors of metals at the free ends are connected, then the emf set up will
establish a flow of current".

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  The magnitude of the net emf will depend upon the magnitude between the
temperatures of the two junctions and the materials used for the conductors.

Thermocouple arrangement for measuring temperature:

Description:
 The main parts of a thermocouple arrangement used to measure temperature are
as follows:
 The thermocouple hot junction JH which will be introduced into the place where
temperature is to be measured.
 The thermocouple cold junction Jc which is maintained at a constant reference
temperature.
 A voltage measuring instrument (which is usually a millivolt meter) is connected
to the free ends of the thermocouple.
Operation:
 The thermocouple's hot junction JH is introduced into the place where the
temperature is to be measured.

Thermocouple-Temperature measurement

 The reference temperature is to be controlled at a constant temperature of 0°C,

 Since the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is set up at the
free ends and since the free ends are connected to a millivolt meter, the emf set
up will establish a flow of current which can be directly measured using the
millivolt meter.
 Since the reference junction is kept at 0°C, the emf measured is a function of the
temperature of the hot measuring junction. The millivolt meter is calibrated
suitably so that its reading becomes an indication of the temperature.
Advantages:
1. These instruments are suitable for very high frequencies upto about 50 MHz. No
other instrument can measure current and voltage

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 2. They indicate the rms values directly.
3. They are not affected by stray magnetic fields.
4. They have good sensitivity.
5. These instruments are very useful as transfer instruments for calibration of DC
instruments by potentiometer and a standard cell.
Disadvantages
1. The over load capacity is very limited.
2. Considerable power losses due to the poor efficiency of thermal conversion.
3. Low accuracy of measurement.
4. The millivolt meters used with thermo elements must be necessarily more
sensitive and delicate than those used with shunts, and therefore, require careful
handling.

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD).

 The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This
property is utilized for the measurement of temperature.
 The resistance thermometer is an instrument which uses the change in the
electrical resistance of the conductor to determine the temperature.
 The characteristics of the sensing element determines the sensitivity and
operating temperature range of the instrument.
 Resistance thermometer is also called resistance temperature detector (RTD).
The requirements for the resistance materials used in RTD's are
(i) The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should
be as large as possible.
(ii) The material should have a high value of resistivity so that minimum volume
of material is used for the construction.
(iii) The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable relationship
with temperature.
Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used to measure
temperature. Figure shows an industrial platinum resistance thermometer. The
resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher temperatures than for
other metals. As a noble metal, it shows limited susceptibility to contamination.
The RTD does not generate its own voltage; so a voltage source is required to be
incorporated into the measuring circuit.
Wheatstone bridges are usually employed for measurement of variations in resistance,
owing to changes in temperature, arising in RTD's. The bridges are usually calibrated
for indicating the temperature that caused the variation in resistance than the
resistance variation itself.
The RTD is applicable for measurements of small temperature differences as well as for
wide range of temperature. The main drawback of an RDT lies in its large size and
sophisticated instrumentation.

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Advantages of resistance thermometer
1. The measurement is very accurate.
2. Indicators, recorders or controllers can also be operated.
3. The temperature sensitive resistive element can be easily installed and replaced.
4. They are best suited for remote indication.
5. Resistance thermometers can work over a wide range of temperature from - 200°C
to f 650°C.
6. No necessity for temperature compensation.
7. Stability of performance over long periods of time.
Disadvantages of resistance thermometer
1. High cost.
2. Need for bridge circuit and power source.
3. Possibility of self heating.
4. Large bulb size, compared to a thermocouple.

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
 A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across
certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by
the application of a mechanical force.
 This potential is produced by the displacement of charges.
 The effect is reversible i.e. if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis
of the crystal, it will change the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming
it. This phenomenon is known as piezoelectric effect.
 The word piezo is a Greek word meaning force or pressure. Elements
exhibiting piezoelectric qualities are called electro-resistive elements.
Materials for piezoelectric transducers
Common piezoelectric materials include
a) rochelle salt,
b) ammonium di-hydrogen phosphate (ADP),
c) quartz and ceramics made with barium titanate,
d) dipotassium tartrate,
e) potassium dihydrogen phosphate and
f) lithiumsulphate and these used in real applications.

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The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformations of the
material in many different modes. The modes can be
(i) thickness expansion
(ii) transverse expansion
(iii) thickness shear
(iv) face shear
 A piezoelectric element used for converting mechanical motion to electrical
signals may be thought as charge generator and a capacitor.
 Mechanical deformation generates a charge and this charge appears as a voltage
across the electrodes.
 The output voltage E0 = Q/C.
 An externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port,
applies pressure to the top of the crystal.
 This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of applied
pressure.
Applications:
1. Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an accelerometer,
where the output is in the order of (1-30) mV per gravity of acceleration.
2. The device is usually designed for use as a pre-tensional bolt so that both
tensional and compression force measurements can be made.
3. Can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacementin terms of voltage.
Advantages
1. Very high frequency response.
2. Self generating, so no need of external source.
3. Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring range.
4. Barium titanate and quartz can be made in any desired shape and form. It also
has a large dielectric constant. The crystal axis is selectable by orienting the
direction of orientation.
Disadvantages
1. It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.
2. Since the device operates with the small electric charge, they need high
impedance cable for electrical interface.
3. The output may vary according to the temperature variation of the crystal.
4. The relative humidity rises above 85% or falls below 35%, its output will be
affected. If so, it has to be coated with wax or polymer material.

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 STRAIN GAUGE

Bonded Resistance wire strain gauge:

 A fine wire element about 25 µm or less in diameter is looped back and forth on
a carrier (base) or mounting plate which is usually cemented to the member
undergoing stress.
 The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carries which may be a thin sheet of paper,
bakelite or teflon.
 The spreading of the wire permits uniform distribution of stress. The carrier is
then bonded or cemented to the member being studied.

Unbounded resistance wire strain gauge:

 An unbounded strain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in
an insulating medium, such as air.
 The diameter of the wire used is about 25 µm.
 The wires are kept under tension so that there is no sag and no free vibration.
 Unbounded strain gauges are usually connected in a bridge circuit.
 The bridge is balanced with no load applied as shown in figure.

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 When an external load is applied, the resistance of the strain gauge changes,
causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit resulting in an output voltage.
 This voltage is proportional to the strain. A displacement of the order of 50 µm
can be detected with these strain gauges.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS(LDR)

• The photoconductive cell (PC) or photodetector is a two-terminal device which is

used as a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).
• It is made of a thin layer of semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide
(CdS), lead sulphide (PbS), or cadmium selenide (CdSe).
• The photoconducting device with the widest applications is the CdS cell, because
it has high dissipation capability, with excellent sensitivity in the visible spectrum
and low resistance when stimulated by light.
• The main drawback of CdS cell is its slower speed of response. PbS has the fastest
speed of response.
• The illumination characteristics of photoconductive detectors are shown in
Figure. It exhibits the peculiar property that its resistance decreases in the
presence of light and increases in the absence of light.
• The cell simply acts as a conductor whose resistance changes when illuminated.
In absolute darkness, the resistance is as high as 2 MW and in strong light, the
resistance is less than 10 W.

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 • The semiconductor layer is enclosed in a sealed housing. A glass window in the
housing permits light to fall on the active material of the cell. Here, the
resistance of the photoconductive detector, in series with R, limits the amount
of current I in the circuit. The ammeter A is used to measure the current I.
• When no light falls on the cell, its resistance is very high and the current I is
low. Hence, the voltage drop Vo across R is relatively low.
• When the cell is illuminated, its resistance becomes very low. Hence, current I
increases and voltage Vo increases.
• Thus, this simple circuit arrangement with slight modification can be used in
control circuits to control the current.

Applications of LDR

• The detector is used either as an ON/OFF device to detect the presence or

absence of a light source which is used for automatic street lighting or some
intermediate resistance value can be used as a trigger level to control relays and
motors. Further, it is used to measure a fixed amount of illumination and to
record a modulating light intensity.
• It is used in twilight switching circuits. When the day light has faded to a given
level, the corresponding resistance of the detector causes another circuit to
switch ON the required lights.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

 The CRO is the most versatile tool for the development of electronic circuit
and systems.
 The CRO allows the amplitude of electrical signals whether they are
voltage, current or power, to be displayed as a function of time

Block Diagram of Oscilloscope

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The major block circuits of general purpose CRO is as follows:
1. CRT
2. Vertical Amplifier
3. Delay line
4. Horizontal amplifier
5. Time base generator
6. Trigger circuit
7. Power supply
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of the CRO. The CRT generates the electron
beam, accelerates the beam, deflects the beam and also has a screen where beam
becomes visible as a spot.

The main parts of the CRT are:

a) Electron gun assembly
b) Deflection system
c) Fluorescent screen
d) Glass tube or envelope
e) Base.

Fig: CATHODE RAY TUBE

a) Electron gun assembly:
 The electron gun section of the cathode ray tube provides a sharply
focused electron beam directed towards the fluorescent-coated screen.

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  This section starts from thermally heated cathode, emitting the electron.
 The momentum of the electrons determines the intensity or brightness, of
the light emitted from the fluorescent screen due to the electron
bombardment.
 The light emitted is usually of the green colour. Because the electrons are
negatively charged
 The variable positive voltage on the second anode is used to adjust the
focus or sharpness of the bright beam spot.
 The high positive potential is also given to the pre-accelerating anodes and
accelerating anodes, which results into the required acceleration of the
electron.
 Both focusing and accelerating anodes are cylindrical in shape
 The pre-accelerating and accelerating anodes are connected to a common
positive high voltage which varies between 2kv to 10kv.
 The focusing anode is anode is connected to a lower positive voltage of
about 400V to 500V.

b) Deflection system:-
 When the electron beam is accelerated it passes through the deflection
system with which beam can be positioned anywhere on the screen.
 The deflection system of the cathode-ray-tube consists of two pairs of
parallel plates referred to as the vertical and horizontal deflection plates.
 One of the plates in each set is connected to ground (0v). To the other plate
of each set, the external deflection voltage is applied through an internal
adjustable gain amplifier stage.
 A positive voltage applied to the Y input terminal (Zy) causes the beam to
deflect vertically upward due to the attraction forces, while a negative
voltage applied to the Y input terminal will cause the electron beam to
deflect vertically downward, due to the repulsion forces.
 Similarly a positive voltage applied to X-input horizontal (Vx) will cause
the electron beam to deflect horizontally towards the right, while a negative
voltage applied to the X-input terminal will cause the electron beam to
deflect horizontally towards the left of the screen.

c) Fluorescent screen:

 The screen is coated with fluorescent material called phosphor which

emits light when bombarded by electrons.
 There are various phosphors available which differ in colour, persistence
and efficiency.
 One of the common phosphor is wile mite, which is Zinc, orthosilicate,
ZnO+Sio2 with traces of manganese.
 Similarly the phosphor screen is provided with an aluminum layer called
aluminizing the cathode ray tube.

d) Glass Tube:-
 All the components of CRT are enclosed in an evacuated glass tube called
envelop. This allows the emitted electron to move about freely from one
end of the tube to other end.
e) Base:

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  The base is provided to the CRT through which the connections are made
to the various parts

2. Vertical Amplifier

 The vertical amplifiers consist of several stages, with fixed gain or

sensitivity.
 The first element of the pre amplifier is the input stage, often consisting of
FET source follower.
 This FET input stage is followed by a BJT emitter follower to match the
medium impedance of FET output with the low impedance input of the
phase inverter.
 This phase inverter provides 2 anti-phase output signals which are
required to operate the push pull output amplifier.
 The push pull output stage delivers equal signal voltages of opposite
polarity to the vertical plates of the CRT.
3. Delay Line
It is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical section
4. Horizontal amplifier
Thehorizontal amplifier basically serves two purposes
a) When the oscilloscope is being used in the ordinary mode of operation to
display a signal applied to the vertical input, the horizontal amplifier will
amplify the sweep generator output
b) When the oscilloscope is being used in the X-Y mode, the signal applied to
the horizontal input terminal will be amplified by the horizontal amplifier
Sweep Frequency Generators
 The development of solid state variable capacitance diode (vary Cap diode) helps
in building sweep frequency generators.
 These are extensively used than any other electronic devices. These varicap
diodes provide the method of electronically tuning an oscillator.
 The sweep generator is very much similar to the simple signal generator. In a
simple signal generator, an oscillator is tuned to fixed single frequency.
 As name indicates, a sweep voltage generator provides voltage, known as control
voltage, to the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).

5. Time base generator

It is used to generate the saw tooth voltage required to deflect the beam in the horizontal
section

6. Trigger Circuit
This is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulses so that the input signal
and the sweep frequency can be synchronized.
7. Power Supply
 There are 2 power supplies, a negative HV and Positive LV supply.
 Two voltages are generated in the CRO
 The positive LV is +300 to 400V; The negative HV is -100 to -1500

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