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06 Number Theory and RSA

This document discusses number theory concepts and algorithms including: - Euclid's algorithm for efficiently calculating the greatest common divisor of two numbers. - The RSA cryptosystem which uses the difficulty of factoring large numbers to generate public/private key pairs for secure communication. - Fast exponentiation techniques for efficiently computing large exponents required in RSA encryption/decryption.

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Ezequiel Melendez
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© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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115 views20 pages

06 Number Theory and RSA

This document discusses number theory concepts and algorithms including: - Euclid's algorithm for efficiently calculating the greatest common divisor of two numbers. - The RSA cryptosystem which uses the difficulty of factoring large numbers to generate public/private key pairs for secure communication. - Fast exponentiation techniques for efficiently computing large exponents required in RSA encryption/decryption.

Uploaded by

Ezequiel Melendez
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Number-Theoretic Algorithms

What are the factors of 326,818,261,539,809,441,763,169? There is no known efficient algorithm. What is the greatest common divisor of 835,751,544,820 and 391,047,152,188? Euclids algorithm solves this efficiently. These two facts are the basis for the RSA public-key cryptosystem.

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Basic Number Theory


Divisibility
3|12 3 divides 12, 12 is a multiple of 3

Factors
Factors (non-trivial divisors) of 20 are 2,4,5,10

Primes
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 1 is not prime There are infinitely many primes.

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Unique Factorization
Divisibility by a prime
If p is prime and p | ab, then p | a or p | b.

Unique factorization
Every integer has a unique factorization as a product of primes. 5280 = 25 31 51 111

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Division Theorem
For any integer a and any positive integer n, there are unique integers q and r, such that 0 r < n and a = qn+r. Quotient q and remainder r Notation: r = a mod n

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Greatest Common Divisors


Any two integers, not both 0, have a greatest common divisor (gcd). gcd(24,30)=6 a, b are relatively prime if gcd(a,b)=1.

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Euclids Algorithm
For any nonnegative integer a and any positive integer b,
gcd(a,b) = gcd (b, a mod b)

Euclids algorithm (ca. 300 B.C.)


EUCLID(a,b) { if (b = 0) then return a else return EUCLID(b, a mod b) }
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Example
EUCLID(120, 23) = EUCLID(23, 5) = EUCLID(5, 3) = EUCLID(3, 2) = EUCLID(2, 1) = EUCLID(1, 0) =1 So 120 and 23 are relatively prime.
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Extended Euclids Algorithm


Theorem 31.2: gcd(a,b) is the smallest positive integer in the set {ax+by : x,y } Euclids Algorithm can calculate x and y such that ax+by = gcd(a,b).

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Example
120 / 23 = 5 r 5
So 5 = 120-523

23 / 5 = 4 r 3
So 3 = 23-45 = 234(120-523) = -4120+2123

5/3=1r2
So 2 = 5-13 = (120-523)-1(-4120+2123) = 5120-2623

3/2=1r1
So 1 = 3-12 = (-4120+2123)-1(5120-2623) = -9120+4723
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Modular Arithmetic
We do all arithmetic modulo n. Powers of 3
1,3,9,27,81,243,

Powers of 3 modulo 7
1,3,2,6,4,5,1,3,2,6,4,5,

Fermats Theorem:
If p is prime and 1 a < p, then ap-1 = 1 (mod p) .

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Multiplicative Inverses
If a is relatively prime to n, then there exists x such that ax = 1 (mod n). x is the multiplicative inverse of a (mod n). We can find x using the Extended Euclids Algorithm.
ax+ny=1 implies that ax = 1 (mod n)

Example
The multiplicative inverse of 23 (mod 120) is 47, since 1 = -9120 + 4723.
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Public Key Cryptography


Goal: Allow users to communicate securely even if they dont share a secret key. Each user publishes a public key and also keeps a private key secret. Anyone can encrypt a message using Alices public key, but only she can decrypt it, using her private key. Also, Alice can sign a message by encrypting it with her private key.
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The RSA Cryptosystem


Randomly choose two large primes p and q.
p = 835,751,544,821 q = 391,047,152,189 (Really p and q should be about 150 digits long.)

Let n = pq.
n = 326,818,261,539,809,441,763,169

Idea: Factoring n is hard! Compute (n) = (p-1)(q-1).


(n) = 326,818,261,538,582,643,066,160 ((n) gives the number of integers less than n that are relatively prime to n.)
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RSA Cryptosystem, continued


Choose e relatively prime to (n).
e=3

Use Extended Euclids Algorithm to compute d, the multiplicative inverse of e (mod (n)).
d = 217,878,841,025,721,762,044,107

(e,n) is the RSA public key. (d,n) is the RSA private key. Encryption: E(M) = Me mod n. Decryption: D(C) = Cd mod n.
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Fast Exponentiation
Since d is huge, Cd mod n cannot be computed navely. We can do it in 2log d multiplications: fun exp(C, d, n) = if d = 0 then 1 else if even(d) then exp(C*C mod n, d/2, n) else C*exp(C, d-1, n) mod n

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Correctness of RSA
Encrypting and decrypting M gives D(E(M)) = E(D(M)) = Med (mod n). By the choice of e and d, we have ed = 1 + k(p-1)(q-1), for some k. Calculating mod p, if M 0 (mod p), then Med = M(Mp-1)k(q-1) = M(1)k(q-1) = M (mod p) using Fermats Theorem. And, of course, if M = 0 (mod p), then again Med = M (mod p).
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Correctness of RSA, Continued


A similar calculation shows that Med = M (mod q). Hence we have p | Med M and q | Med M Because gcd(p,q)=1, this implies that pq | Med - M So Med = M (mod n).

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Example
n = 326,818,261,539,809,441,763,169 e=3 d = 217,878,841,025,721,762,044,107 M = 12,345,678,901,234,567,890 Encryption: E(M) = Me mod n E(M) = 268,102,434,874,902,796,719,062 Decryption: D(C) = Cd mod n D(E(M)) = 12,345,678,901,234,567,890
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Finding Big Primes


Prime Number Theorem: the number of primes less than or equal to n is about n/ln n. Hence a random 512-bit number is prime with probability about 1/ln 2512 1/355. So random search will work well, if we can test for primality. Randomized tests: For example, if an-1 1 (mod n), then n cannot be prime. Agrawal, Kayal and Saxena found a polynomial-time algorithm in 2002!
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Factoring Big Integers


Many very sophisticated algorithms have been developed. But all take exponential time. Today, factoring an arbitrary 300-digit integer remains infeasible (apparently).

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