AIR FORCE TACTICS, TECHNIQUES,

AND PROCEDURES 3-32.34V3

1 March 2016

CIVIL ENGINEER
EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
PROTECTION

DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE

 2

BY ORDER OF THE
AIR FORCE TTP 3-32.34V3
SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE

1 March 2016

Operations

CIVIL ENGINEER EXPEDITIONARY

FORCE PROTECTION

ACCESSIBILITY: Publications and forms are available on the e-Publishing

website at www.e-publishing.af.mil for downloading or ordering.

RELEASABILITY: There are no releasability restrictions on this publication.

OPR: AFCEC/CXX Certified by: AF/A4C

(Maj Gen Timothy S. Green)

Supersedes: AFH 10-222V3, 1 May 2008 Pages 83

This publication implements civil engineer force protection requirements and

force protection training outlined in AFI 10-210, Prime Base Engineer
Emergency Force (BEEF) Program. It addresses expeditionary force protection
tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) for use by Air Force (AF) civil
engineers to protect mission-critical assets including personnel, facilities and
equipment during deployments. It is applicable to Regular Air Force, Air
National Guard, and AF Reserve engineers. This publication may be
supplemented at any level, but all supplements must be routed to the OPR of this
publication for coordination prior to certification and approval. Refer
recommended changes and questions about this publication to the Office of
Primary Responsibility (OPR) using the AF Form 847, Recommendation for
Change of Publication; route AF Forms 847 from the field through the
appropriate functional chain of command. Ensure that all records created as a
result of processes prescribed in this publication are maintained in accordance
 3

with (IAW) Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 33-363, Management of Records, and
disposed of IAW AF Records Disposition Schedule (RDS) located in the Air
Force Records Information Management System (AFRIMS). The use of the
name or mark of any specific manufacturer, commercial product, commodity, or
service in this publication does not imply endorsement by the AF.

Chapter 1 – Introduction ................................................................................... 6

1.1. Overview ....................................................................................................... 6
1.2. Scope ............................................................................................................. 6
1.3. Force Protection Defined .............................................................................. 6
1.4. Force Protection Doctrine ............................................................................. 7
Table 1.1. Force Protection Threat Levels ........................................................... 7
1.5. Integrated Defense (ID)................................................................................. 8
1.6. Emergency Management (EM) ..................................................................... 8
1.7. Critical Asset Risk Management (CARM) Program ..................................... 9
1.8. Force Protection Effects ................................................................................ 9
1.9. Force Protection Condition (FPCON) System ............................................ 10
Table 1.2. Force Protection Conditions .............................................................. 11
1.10. Terrorist Threat Levels .............................................................................. 11
Table 1.3. Determining Terrorist Threat Levels................................................. 12
1.11. Training ..................................................................................................... 12
Figure 1.1. Antiterrorism Training Concept....................................................... 13
Table 1.4. Antiterrorism Training Levels ........................................................... 13
Chapter 2 – Civil Engineer Role in Force Protection and Antiterrorism ... 15
2.1. Overview ..................................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.1. Berm Construction in Afghanistan .................................................. 15
2.2. Antiterrorism (AT) ...................................................................................... 15
2.3. Risk Management ....................................................................................... 16
Figure 2.2. Antiterrorism Risk Management Process ........................................ 17
2.4. Random Antiterrorism Measures (RAM).................................................... 19
Chapter 3 – Force Protection Planning .......................................................... 21
3.1. Overview ..................................................................................................... 21
 4

Figure 3.1. Force Protection Pre-Site Survey in Iraq ......................................... 21

3.2. Force Protection Plan .................................................................................. 21
3.3. Resource Constraints ................................................................................... 22
3.4. Site Selection............................................................................................... 24
3.5. Site Layout .................................................................................................. 24
3.6. Unified Facilities Criteria ............................................................................ 25
Figure 3.2. Protective Shelters at a FOB in Afghanistan ................................... 26
Figure 3.3. Standoff Distances and Separation for Expeditionary and Temporary
Structures ........................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 4 – Physical Security ......................................................................... 29
4.1. Overview ..................................................................................................... 29
4.2. Aspects of Physical Security ....................................................................... 29
4.3. Perimeter Security ....................................................................................... 29
Figure 4.1. Perimeter Security Measures ........................................................... 30
Figure 4.2. Portable Barrier................................................................................ 32
Figure 4.3. Wedge (Drum) Barrier ..................................................................... 33
Figure 4.4. Retractable Bollards......................................................................... 33
Figure 4.5. Lift Plate Barricade System ............................................................. 33
Figure 4.6. Sliding Gate ..................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.7. Tire Shredder ................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.8. Non-Retractable Bollards ................................................................ 35
Figure 4.9. Steel Hedgehog Barrier.................................................................... 35
Figure 4.10. Expedient Tire Barrier ................................................................... 35
Figure 4.11. Concrete Jersey Barrier.................................................................. 36
Figure 4.12. Sand Bags ...................................................................................... 36
Figure 4.13. Barriers .......................................................................................... 36
Figure 4.14. Perimeter Fences and Barriers ....................................................... 37
Figure 4.15. Grille Installed on Drainage Culvert .............................................. 38
Figure 4.16. Typical Entry Control Facility ....................................................... 39
Figure 4.17. Entry Control Facility Zones ......................................................... 41
Figure 4.18. Jersey Barriers Cabled Together .................................................... 42
Figure 4.19. Barriers Used to Form Serpentine Path ......................................... 43
 5

Figure 4.20. Berms and Ditches ......................................................................... 44

Figure 4.21. Security Lighting and Intrusion Detection System ........................ 45
Figure 4.22. Obscuration Screen on Perimeter Fence ........................................ 46
Figure 4.23. Observation Posts, Guard Towers, and Defensive Fighting
Positions ............................................................................................................. 47
Table 4.1. Barrier Container Sizes and National Stock Numbers ...................... 47
Figure 4.24. Illustration of different Sizes of Barrier Containers ....................... 48
4.4. Internal Security .......................................................................................... 48
Figure 4.25. Internal Security Measures ............................................................ 49
Figure 4.26. Mass Notification System .............................................................. 49
Figure 4.27. Expeditionary Structures................................................................ 50
Figure 4.28. Blast and Fragmentation Hazard Zones ......................................... 51
Figure 4.29. Compacted Soil Revetment ........................................................... 53
Figure 4.30. Fragmentation Retention Film ....................................................... 54
Figure 4.31. Example of Compartmentalization ................................................ 54
Figure 4.32. Pre-Detonation Screening .............................................................. 55
Figure 4.33. Revetments .................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.34. Personnel Protective Shelter .......................................................... 57
Figure 4.35. Expeditionary Power Plant at Camp Victory, Iraq ........................ 58
Figure 4.36. Burying Utility Lines ..................................................................... 59
Figure 4.37. Camouflage Netting Being Applied............................................... 60
Figure 4.38. LOGCAP Power Support at Camp Taji, Iraq ................................ 61
Chapter 5 – Integrated Defense ...................................................................... 62
5.1. Overview ..................................................................................................... 62
5.2. Integrated Defense Concept ........................................................................ 62
Figure 5.1. AF Integrated Defense Concept ....................................................... 63
5.3. Desired ID Effects ....................................................................................... 63
Table 5.1. Threat Deterrence .............................................................................. 64
Table 5.2. Threat Detection................................................................................ 65
Table 5.3. Threat Delay...................................................................................... 66
Attachment 1 – Glossary of References and Supporting Information................ 68
Attachment 2 – Site Selection and Layout Considerations ................................ 79
 6

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Overview. Force Protection (FP) is critical to the Air Force’s ability to
perform its worldwide mission and is a top priority for commanders. It is a
fundamental principle of military operations as a way of ensuring survivability
of forces. Commanders at all levels are responsible for protecting Air Force
people and warfighting resources. However, all Airmen are also responsible for
FP and need to be prepared, trained, and equipped to protect and defend
operations and assets. This publication provides guidance to civil engineers (CE)
on implementing FP measures in the expeditionary environment. Many of the
references listed throughout this publication are For Official Use Only (FOUO)
publications. CE planners maintain copies of these publications and ensure they
are available throughout all phases of expeditionary operations.

1.2. Scope. The information in this AFTTP relates to tactics, techniques, and
procedures (TTPs) used by civil engineers in supporting precepts outlined in Air
Force Doctrine Annex (AFDA) 3-34, Engineer Operations. It also supports
implementation of Air Force Policy Directive (AFPD) 10-2, Readiness, and AFI
10-210, Prime BEEF Program.

1.3. Force Protection Defined. Joint Publication (JP) 1-02, Department of

Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, defines FP as “Preventive
measures taken to mitigate hostile actions against Department of Defense
personnel (to include family members), resources, facilities, and critical
information.” Force protection does not include actions to defeat the enemy or
protect against accidents, weather or disease. By comparison, North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) doctrine explains that the operational environment
“may have no discernable front-line or rear area and an adversary may be
expected to target Allied vulnerabilities anywhere with a wide range of
capabilities.” Consequently, NATO includes all operations and activities as
potential vulnerabilities under FP. The AF definition of FP covers natural and
manmade threats. In Air Force Instruction (AFI) 10-245, Antiterrorism (AT), the
definition includes an “integrated approach that requires actions to both defeat
the enemy and protect against hazards such as accidents, weather, disease, and
natural disasters.” The complete definitions are shown in Attachment 1.
 7

1.4. Force Protection Doctrine. For much of its existence, the Air Force has
been able to rely on the US Army when necessary, for standoff security. In fact,
in 1985 the Chiefs of Staff of the Air Force and Army signed Joint Security
Agreement 8 which specified that the Army would provide ground defense
outside the perimeter of Air Force bases. However, several subsequent joint
exercises, as well as experience in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm,
showed this arrangement was impractical. The formal agreement remained in
effect until 2005, at which time Joint Publication 3-10, Joint Security
Operations in Theater, codified that the Air Force would defend its own air
bases.

1.4.1. Additionally, for most of the Cold War Air Force doctrine was primarily
based on the expectation that expeditionary bases would be located in a rear area
where the threat would be greatly reduced. In reality, during recent conflicts
(especially in Iraq and Afghanistan) many bases were located in urban areas and
the perimeter of the base represented the line of contact with the enemy.

1.4.2. Air Force Doctrine Annex (AFDA) 3-10, Force Protection, states that FP
is achieved through the successful execution of three related but distinct lines of
effort: integrated defense, emergency management, and the critical asset risk
management program (formerly known as the critical infrastructure program
[CIP]). These lines of effort are reviewed in the following paragraphs. The
purpose is to integrate these capabilities and achieve the desired FP effects of
detect, deter, preempt, negate, and mitigate. AFDA 3-10 also states that the
specific and pivotal role of civil engineers is to “design physical security
improvements, provide planning, training, and response capabilities to deal with
FP-related incidents, and provide explosive ordnance disposal capabilities.” It
describes three levels of FP threat (Table 1.1). Keep in mind that these threats
may not occur in any specific sequence or may not even appear to be related.

Table 1.1. Force Protection Threat Levels.

Level I Threats: Include enemy agents, sympathizers, partisans, and terrorists

whose primary missions include espionage, sabotage, and subversion.
Level II Threats: Small-scale tactical forces conducting unconventional or hit
and run attacks; may include significant standoff weapons such as mortars,
 8

rockets, and rocket propelled grenades.

Level III Threats: Large ground operations; airborne, heliborne, and
amphibious operations; air and missile attacks with little warning; operations
having the capability of projecting combat power by air, land, and sea anywhere
into the operational area.

1.5. Integrated Defense (ID). Effective ID helps ensure effective FP. As

mentioned earlier, ID is an AF-wide responsibility and is conducted worldwide,
from mature theaters to austere regions. Regardless of location, forces
conducting ID employ the basic tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) as
those employed at home station during day-to-day operations. As specific
threats to base personnel and resources evolve, ID forces adjust TTPs to counter
the threat. Adjustments to operating procedures are based on the specific threat
to operations; the dynamics of operating in an international environment or the
way ID efforts collaborate with joint, combined, civilian, and host nation forces.
ID is discussed in broader detail in Chapter 5. For additional information on ID
see AFI 31-101, Integrated Defense.

1.6. Emergency Management (EM). The protection of AF personnel and

resources on AF installations is essential to ensure successful AF operations.
The AF EM Program addresses activities across the all-hazards physical threat
environment at Continental United States (CONUS) and Outside Continental
United States (OCONUS) home station or expeditionary locations to support
overall FP. The primary mission of the AF EM Program is to save lives;
minimize the loss or degradation of resources; and continue, sustain, and restore
operational capability in an all-hazards physical threat environment at AF
installations worldwide. The ancillary missions are to support homeland defense
and civil support operations and to provide support to civil and host nation
authorities according to DOD directives and through the appropriate combatant
command (CCMD).

1.6.1. Air Force Incident Management System (AFIMS). EM supports

protection of personnel and resources through integration of installation
preparedness, response, and recovery programs aimed toward reducing the
impact of these events on the installation; prepares for risks that cannot be
eliminated; and prescribes actions required to deal with consequences of actual
events and to recover from those events using AFIMS. See AFI 10-2501, Air
 9

Force Emergency Management (EM) Program Planning and Operations for

more information on the IEM program.

1.7. Critical Asset Risk Management (CARM) Program. Operations in

support of the National Military Strategy are dependent on globally linked
physical and cyber infrastructures (US and foreign, public and private sector).
CARM interconnects infrastructures, while improving capabilities and mission
effectiveness, also decreasing vulnerabilities due to potential human error
failures during natural disasters or intentional attack. The mission of the AF
CARM Program is to enhance risk management decision-making and ensure
that AF critical infrastructure is available to support CCMD and AF mission
requirements in an all-threat and all-hazard environment. This risk management
approach supports AF prioritization of scarce resources, focusing on the greatest
risk based on assessed criticality, vulnerability, threats, and hazards. For
additional information on the critical infrastructure program, see Air Force
Policy Directive (AFPD) 10-24, Air Force Critical Infrastructure Program
(CIP).

1.8. Force Protection Effects. FP effects are designed to prevent attacks on

DOD assets and interests and minimize the effect of attacks. It is unrealistic to
assume every DOD asset can be protected. For this reason, plans and
preparations to recover from an attack are focused on enabling the mission to
continue and restoring confidence within the unit and throughout the local
population. FP efforts conserve the AF’s fighting potential by safeguarding its
forces and mission capability through achievement of predetermined effects. In
all circumstances, commanders tailor resources and capabilities to achieve, at
minimum, the following FP effects:

1.8.1. Deter. Develop measures to discourage adversarial actions by creating the

perception of the existence of a credible threat of unacceptable counteraction.
Potential adversaries must perceive the AF has the capability to conduct and
sustain offensive and defensive operations. Measures civil engineers can take
include placing barriers and roadblocks, strategically locating assets, and
ensuring sufficient standoff to reduce the chances of an attack.

1.8.2. Detect. Develop measures to identify the presence of an object or an event

of possible military interest, whether a threat or hazard. Detection may arise
 10

through civil engineer reconnaissance and observation of the operational area or

through deductions made following an analysis of the operational area.

1.8.3. Preempt. Once evidence indicating an imminent enemy attack is

determined, rapid actions are initiated to respond and establish or gain a position
of advantage to eliminate the threat. Essential to effective preemptive operations
is an accurate estimation of adversary’s capabilities and vulnerabilities. All
available intelligence and counterintelligence resources, including civil engineer
reconnaissance, are used to determine enemy capabilities, intentions, and
probable courses of action. This also includes emergency management planning
and training.

1.8.4. Negate. Measures taken to render a threat or hazard incapable of

interfering with AF operations. This includes the effective employment of
coordinated and synchronized offensive and defensive measures and measures
to counteract hazards. For example, civil engineers designing and constructing
security improvements, protective shelters, fighting positions, obstacles, and
revetments as well as EOD capabilities.

1.8.5. Mitigate. If actions to negate are unsuccessful employ the full range of
active and passive measures such as civil engineers supporting hardening and
sidewall protection to lessen the impact of terrorist events against DOD assets.

1.9. Force Protection Condition (FPCON) System. The FPCON system

standardizes identification and recommended preventive actions and responses
to terrorist threats against US personnel and facilities Table 1.2. FPCON
measures are actions taken to deter and/or prevent terrorists from conducting an
attack. FPCON measures assimilate facilities, equipment, trained personnel, and
procedures into a comprehensive effort designed to provide optimal protection
to personnel and assets and are tailored to a specific site. FPCONs are not to be
confused with threat levels. Threat levels are the result of threat assessments and
are used to assist in determining local FPCONs. The objective is to ensure an
integrated approach to terrorist threats. AFI 10-245 contains FPCON measures
that civil engineers may have to implement during increased FPCON levels.
 11

Table 1.2. Force Protection Conditions.

Normal–A general global threat of possible terrorist activity exists and warrants
a routine security posture. At a minimum, access control will be conducted at all
DOD installations and facilities.
Alpha–Increased general threat of possible terrorist activity against personnel or
facilities, the nature and extent of which are unpredictable, and circumstances do
not justify full implementation of FPCON BRAVO measures. However, it may
be necessary to implement certain measures from higher FPCON measures
resulting from intelligence received or as a deterrent. Measures taken under this
FPCON are capable of being maintained indefinitely.
Bravo–Increased or more predictable threat of terrorist activity exists.
Sustaining BRAVO measures for a prolonged period may affect operational
capability and military-civil relationships with local authorities.
Charlie–This condition applies when an incident occurs or intelligence is
received indicating some form of terrorist action or targeting against personnel
or facilities is likely. Prolonged implementation of CHARLIE measures may
create hardship and affect the activities of the unit and its personnel.
Delta–Applies in the immediate area where a terrorist attack has occurred or
when intelligence has been received that terrorist action against a specific
location or person is imminent. Normally, this FPCON is declared as a localized
condition. FPCON DELTA measures are not intended to be sustained for an
extended duration.

1.10. Terrorist Threat Levels. Terrorist threat levels reflect an intelligence

assessment of threats against US personnel and interests in foreign countries.
The Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) sets the DOD terrorism threat level in a
particular country, region, or locale. It is based on continuous intelligence
analysis of several factors such as a terrorist group’s existence, operational
capability, intentions, activity, and the operational environment. Combatant
commanders (CCDR) also set terrorist threat levels for specific personnel,
family members, units, and installations within their areas of responsibility
(AOR) using definitions established by the DIA. Terrorist threat levels are not to
be confused with FPCONs that affect the local security posture. Threat level
assessments are provided to senior leaders to help determine local FPCONs.
Terrorist threat levels are also not to be confused with threat conditions
associated with the National Homeland Security Advisory System. Table 1.2
 12

describes the different threat levels and combination of factors used to determine
each threat level.

Table 1.3. Determining Terrorist Threat Levels.

Low–No group is detected or the group's activity is non-threatening.

Moderate–Terrorists are present but there are no indications of anti-US activity.
The operating environment favors the host nation/US.
Significant–Anti-U.S. terrorists are present and attack personnel as their
preferred method of operation or a group uses large casualty-producing attacks
as their preferred method but has limited operational activity. The operating
environment is neutral.
High–Anti-U.S. terrorists are operationally active and use large casualty-
producing attacks as their method of operations. There is a substantial DOD
presence and the operating environment favors the terrorist. An incident occurs
or intelligence is received indicating some form of terrorist action or targeting
against personnel or facilities is likely.
Additional sources of information on terrorist threat levels include AFI 10-245.

1.11. Training. Training is essential to establishing effective FP. The key to

effective FP is awareness that is sustained and reinforced from initial entry to
termination of DOD service. More specifically, AT training is integrated into
training for all AF personnel as required and when deemed appropriate by
commanders with AT responsibility. To enable commanders to make the most
effective decisions possible, personnel at all organizational levels receive AT
training. All personnel are aware of basic personal protective measures and
specific threats for the areas they operate in, and receive specialized training for
their duty position. AFI 10-245 specifies minimum AT training requirements
and the current AT training for AF personnel consists of the four levels shown in
Figure 1.1.
 13

Figure 1.1. Antiterrorism Training Concept.

Level I training is available on the DOD Antiterrorism website located at

https://jkodirect.jten.mil. As part of the Annual Total Force Awareness Training,
the Force
Protection (ZZ133079) course is available on the Advanced Distributed
Learning System site at https://golearn.csd.disa.mil/kc/rso/login/adls_login.asp.
Refer to AFI 10-245 to obtain training sources for levels II through IV. Table
1.3 defines the four AT levels of training.

Table 1.4. Antiterrorism Training Levels.

Level I AT Awareness Training

Level I training is provided annually to all AF personnel with requisite
knowledge necessary to remain vigilant for possible terrorist actions and enable
employment of the AT TTP as outlined in AFI 10-245, to include every AF
Service member, civilian employee, and local national or other country national
in a direct-hire status by the DOD, regardless of grade or position. Introduces
terrorism and terrorism operations such as personal protective measures, terrorist
surveillance techniques, improvised explosive devices (IED), and kidnapping
and hostage survival tactics.
Level II Antiterrorism Officer/Antiterrorism Representative Training
Level II training is a resident course designed to prepare officers and Non-
Commissioned Officers who have at least two years AT experience to serve as
Antiterrorism Officer (ATO). Unit level Antiterrorism Representatives (ATRs)
unable to secure in-residence training will complete the AT Level II Refresher
 14

Training (within 180 days) until they are able to attend the AT Level II in-
residence course. For both ATOs and ATRs, Level II refresher training is
completed once every three years to maintain qualification.
Level III Pre-Command AT Training
Level III training provides prospective squadron, group, and wing commanders
and civilian equivalent positions at the O5/O6 level with requisite knowledge to
direct and supervise an AT Program. Group/Wing commanders receive the
training through Group/Wing commander pre-command courses. Follow on
training may be conducted at the installation-level as a refresher or supplement
to briefings offered in commander courses.
Level IV AT Executive Seminar
Level IV seminar provides DOD senior military and civilian executive
leadership with requisite knowledge to enable development of AT program
policies and facilitate oversight of AT programs at the operational and strategic
levels. Wing and group commanders and other command and staff officers in
the grades O-6 through O-8 and civilian equivalent/senior executive service
civilian employees may attend.
 15

Chapter 2

CIVIL ENGINEER ROLE IN FORCE PROTECTION AND

ANTITERRORISM

2.1. Overview. Combating unconventional and asymmetrical threats within

DOD encompasses antiterrorism (AT), terrorism consequence management
(TCM), and intelligence support (IS). The intent is to oppose terrorism
throughout the entire threat spectrum, including terrorist use of chemical,
biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) materials and explosive hazard (EH)
devices. AT is defensive measures taken to reduce vulnerability of individuals
and property to terrorist acts; CT is offensive measures taken to prevent, deter,
and respond to terrorism; TCM is preparation for and response to the
consequences of a terrorist incident/event; and IS is collection and dissemination
of terrorism-related information. AF civil engineers are relied upon to
implement AT and CT measures, such as fence and berm construction shown in
Figure 2.1, particularly in expeditionary environments where the threat level is
high due to ongoing military operations.

Figure 2.1. Berm Construction in Afghanistan.

2.2. Antiterrorism (AT). As stated earlier, AT is not to be used as a

synonymous term with FP. Rather; AT is a sub-element of combating terrorism,
which is a subset of the broader FP concept. The AT program is a collective,
proactive effort focused on detecting and preventing terrorist attacks, preparing
to defend against attacks, and responding to consequences of terrorist incidents.
 16

In the expeditionary environment, three key areas where civil engineers

contribute significantly to AT are: (1) ensuring sufficient standoff between
identified threats and personnel and critical facilities, (2) perimeter security, and
(3) mitigation of blast and fragmentation effects through facility hardening and
other means. Civil engineers contribute to overall AT efforts in several ways,
including ensuring effective standoff, placing barriers, and assisting security
forces to establish a defense in-depth capability (layered defense). These types
of efforts provide additional deterrence and increase time for security forces to
respond in the event of an attack.
Reference JP 3-07.2 and AFI 10-245 for additional details on AT standards and
procedures.

2.3. Risk Management. Risk management is the process of identifying,

assessing, and controlling risks arising from operational factors and making
decisions that balance possible adverse outcomes with mission benefits (Figure
2.2). The decision-making process is called a risk assessment. Risk assessments
provide commanders with a method to assist in making resource allocation
decisions designed to protect personnel and assets from possible threats in a
resource-constrained environment. The risk assessment is based upon three
critical components: threat, criticality, and vulnerability assessments. It is
conducted after completing all other assessments. Any plan that does not start
with these assessments may be too reactive and result in wasted efforts and
resources. The key role of civil engineers in these three components is discussed
later in this chapter. Once vulnerabilities are identified, commanders manage
risk by developing strategies to deter terrorist incidents, employing
countermeasures, and mitigating the effects and developing plans to recover
from terrorist incidents. Civil engineers participating in the development of AT
plans also participate in risk assessments. The information collected during the
risk assessment is critical to developing effective FP plans. For more
information on risk management, refer to AFI 10-245 and AFI 31-101.
 17

Figure 2.2. Antiterrorism Risk Management Process.

2.3.1 Threat Assessment. The threat assessment is the process used to conduct
an analysis and develop an evaluation of a potential threat consistent with the
Integrated Defense Risk Management Process (IDRMP) outlined in AFI 31-101.
It identifies the full range of known or estimated threat capabilities, including
the use or threat of CBRN and EH. It is usually conducted by intelligence
personnel; however Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) is the
AF agency responsible for preparing specific threat assessments. All available
information concerning enemy activities is analyzed to determine if personnel
and/or critical assets might be targeted. The analysis includes factors such as a
terrorist group’s capability, intentions, TTPs, history, probable course of action,
and targeting as well as the security environment within which friendly forces
operate. The DOD Antiterrorism Officer (ATO) Guide (FOUO) contains
guidance on conducting threat assessments. AFI 10-245 also contains limited
threat assessment guidance. Note: Civil engineer squadrons, through the
Emergency Management Working Group, develop and publish an All-Hazards
Threat Assessment as part of the All-Hazards Risk Management Process.

2.3.1.1. Identifying the Threat. Along with security forces, civil engineers
generally have primary responsibility for preparing a design basis threat (DBT),
 18

which describes threats in specific terms. The DBT is established for each
installation to identify and evaluate the types of aggressors (i.e., terrorists,
saboteurs, spies, extremist protestors, criminals, etc.) and the types of weapons,
tools, and explosives likely to be used in an attack or an attempt to compromise
a military asset. It is a critical component for engineering projects and
renovations. The threat identification also includes tactics likely to be used, such
as stationary or moving vehicle bombs, airborne or waterborne contamination,
bomb delivery via mail or supply shipments, forced or covert entry, standoff or
ballistic weapons, visual surveillance, acoustic eavesdropping, and insider
compromise. Identifying the specific threat helps in determining asset
vulnerability. This information can then be used by civil engineers to develop
and implement protective measures to counter the specified threat.

2.3.1.2. Planning for the Threat. The threat level assigned to the country or
region where a unit may be deploying helps to plan protective measures
throughout all phases of deployments, including pre-deployment, initial
beddown, sustainment, and redeployment. Upon notification of deployment, unit
commanders immediately contact their servicing AFOSI detachment and request
a counterintelligence threat assessment. Again, civil engineers are familiar with
FP governing directives and can support operations by serving on the
installation planning team responsible for preparing the DBT. For DBT planning
purposes, Unified Facility Criteria (UFCs) 4-010-01, DOD Minimum
Antiterrorism Standards For Buildings; 4-020-01, DOD Security Engineering
Facility Planning Manual; and 4-010-02, DOD Minimum Antiterrorism Standoff
Distances for Buildings (FOUO), contain detailed information on expeditionary
site layout and protective measures designed to mitigate the effects of attacks on
expeditionary and temporary structures as well as permanent structures.

2.3.2. Criticality Assessment. The criticality assessment identifies the relative

criticality of assets based upon mission criticality, impact on national defense,
replaceability and monetary value. An asset is anything of value, including
people, information, equipment, facilities and infrastructure. Assets can also
extend to more general or intangible items, such as operations, systems, strategic
advantage, morale, and reputation. The primary objectives in the effective asset
criticality assessment are to identify key assets, determine whether critical
functions can be duplicated, and the resources required for duplication and
determine priority of response. The commander appoints a team to conduct the
 19

assessment, taking into consideration all of the factors mentioned above, and
produces a prioritized list of critical assets. Civil engineers are part of the
assessment team and provide significant input into this process, especially since
the assessments also examine reconstitution of infrastructure and base support.
Areas encompassing multiple critical assets are referred to as critical areas. AFI
10-245 and AFI 31-101 provide additional detailed information on conducting
criticality assessments.

2.3.3. Vulnerability Assessment. Terrorists conduct surveillance of US assets

to look for weaknesses in FP measures and security procedures that provide
opportunities to attack targets at their greatest vulnerability. Vulnerabilities are
gaps in protection for key assets. They are identified by considering tactics
associated with certain threats and levels of protection designed to defeat these
tactics. Vulnerabilities may involve inadequacies in intrusion detection systems
(IDSs) and barriers, inadequate standoff distances, and building construction
that cannot resist explosive effects at the established standoff distance. Where
vulnerabilities are identified, protective measures are implemented to counter
them. A vulnerability assessment (VA) is an evaluation of the site to determine
if key assets are provided the appropriate level of protection. When a specific
threat has been identified higher levels of protection are provided; when a
specific threat has not been identified, minimum standards are applied. During
the VA, the terrorist threat, including likely tactics, is analyzed to determine
what assets are vulnerable to attack by what means. Civil engineers are usually
the lead for conducting an annual VA. Local VA team composition depends on
the threat, but generally includes a structural or infrastructure engineer,
emergency management specialist, and EOD specialist. AFI 10-245 contains
guidance on conducting VAs. The Defense Threat Reduction Agency website,
located at http://www.dtra.mil/, also contains helpful information for
conducting VAs.

2.4. Random Antiterrorism Measures (RAMs). RAMs are random, multiple

security measures that consistently change the look of a site's FP posture. RAMs
introduce unpredictability into the site's overall FP program and alter the
external appearance of FP patterns. Randomly selecting and implementing
FPCON measures without a set pattern, either in terms of the measures selected,
time, place, or other variables, frustrates surveillance attempts by terrorists. It
becomes harder for them to predict certain actions or discern patterns or routines
 20

that may reveal vulnerabilities. RAM also provides training and increases FP
awareness for site personnel by varying routine operations. It helps identify
which measures the installation’s infrastructure is more capable of sustaining
and those that unduly stress resources. Other FP measures not normally
associated with FPCONs (e.g., locally developed, site-specific) can also be
employed randomly to supplement the basic FPCON measures already in place.
Civil engineer operations can increase RAM visibility and effectiveness in
confusing enemy surveillance attempts and planning. A list of baseline FPCON
measures can be found in AFI 10-245. These measures are exercised regularly
and associated plans are adjusted to correct any inadequacies.
 21

Chapter 3

FORCE PROTECTION PLANNING

3.1. Overview. FP planning is conducted throughout all phases of contingencies.

Key aspects of FP planning involving civil engineers include site selection and
site layout. Expeditionary sites and bases are positioned where they offer
commanders the best means for projecting and sustaining air power. But also
positioned where the terrain is favorable to engineering, construction, and
environmental considerations. When possible, engineers conduct a pre-site
survey to learn as much as possible about the deployed location or region
(Figure 3.1). The survey can be used to develop relationships, perform
inventories, and take measurements. A pre-site survey assists in determining the
equipment, tools, and materials required to implement protective measures at the
deployed location. Once deployed, some items may be difficult if not impossible
to obtain. To effectively address the requirements of both site selection and site
layout, civil engineers are familiar with UFCs that address FP and AT standards.
This chapter covers civil engineer FP planning, site selection, site layout, and
the criteria established to ensure minimum AT standards are met while
conducting these activities. Guidance on attaining higher levels of protection
when deemed necessary by commanders is also covered.

Figure 3.1. Force Protection Pre-Site Survey in Iraq.

3.2. Force Protection Plan. The FP plan consists of specific anti-threat and
antiterrorism measures developed to protect personnel, facilities, and critical
 22

assets to include, but not limited to, threat assessments, threat levels,
vulnerability assessments, criticality assessments, risk assessments, and FPCON
measures. Important factors in planning force protection in deployed
environments include the availability of existing facilities, the types of structures
in which people live and work, existing natural and manmade features, types and
quantities of indigenous construction materials, available real estate, and layout
of utilities and other base infrastructure.

3.2.1. The commander typically establishes an Antiterrorism Working Group to

develop the base FP plan. Civil engineers on the working group usually focus on
the physical security and integrated defense (ID) aspects of the plan. The plan
includes elements that contribute to ID and the protection of key assets such as
site layout, barrier placement, berm construction, security lighting, backup
power, water source protection, expedient hardening, and terrain modification.

3.2.2. Absolute protection against enemy or terrorist activities is not possible.

Therefore, protective plans and procedures are based on the threat identified by
intelligence personnel. Considering the threat, protective measures strike a
reasonable balance between protection required, mission requirements, available
manpower, and available resources.

3.2.3. The FP Plan itself is not an end state. The plan is a living document
constantly reviewed and revised as threats, resource requirements, and
innovations cause changes in FP tactics. Civil engineers are prepared to offer
observations and innovations that counter and mitigate terrorist threats and
increase force protection.

3.3. Resource Constraints. Resources needed to implement FP plans include,

but not limited to, time, manpower, materials, equipment, and funding.
Resources may be committed to FP at any time during threat, vulnerability, or
criticality assessments. When applicable, resource commitment may be delayed
until all assessments are complete, including risk assessment.

3.3.1. Commanders typically use risk management to allocate resources towards

assets most vulnerable to the identified threat and would have the most
damaging effect on mission. Although FP is inherently a top priority for all
commanders, limited resources under certain circumstances and during some
 23

stages of deployment may cause risks to become unacceptable from a civil

engineer perspective.

3.3.2. Civil engineers are persistent in efforts to obtain required resources to

implement FP measures required to counter identified threats. Most efforts to
obtain FP resources are performed before deploying and reassessed immediately
upon arrival at the deployment location.

3.4. Site Selection. Civil engineers participate in the pre-site survey and learn as
much as possible about the region. Selecting a site suitable to beddown the
expected population, weapon systems, support equipment, and other assets are
considered along with the need for standoff.

3.4.1. Expeditionary and temporary structures are typically composed of metal,

fabric, or wood frames and rigid walls which generally make them impractical
to harden or retrofit. This makes establishing proper standoff distance the
primary approach to FP in the expeditionary environment. Unfortunately, this
also drives the need for selecting large beddown sites.

3.4.2. Sufficient space for dispersal of certain functions and equipment is

planned so that commanders have flexibility to increase beddown population
and standoff distances, if required in response to threats.

3.4.3. Upon arrival to the deployed site, develop a list of equipment, tools, and
materials needed to immediately implement protective measures.

3.5. Site Layout. Site layout is an extremely important process in FP planning.

If site layout is not well thought out, it may be very manpower exhaustive and
costly to rearrange assets once they are in place. Site layout is based largely
upon the known threat to personnel, mission-critical assets, support facilities and
equipment from each likely enemy tactic (i.e., standoff weapons, vehicle bombs,
etc.). Key civil engineer planning aspects include standoff distances, orientation
of facilities, layout of roads, layering of defense tactics, sidewall protection,
facility hardening techniques, dispersal of critical resources,
compartmentalization of assets, and locations of physical barriers, entry control
points (ECP), observation posts, defensive fighting positions and personnel
bunkers. Chapter 4 covers these areas in more detail. Attachment 2 also contains
 24

FP elements to consider during site selection and site layout and can be used as a
quick reference checklist; this list is not all-inclusive. While conducting site
selection and site layout functions, use available geographical information
system (GIS) tools to enhance survivability efforts and ensure minimum AT
standards are met. Every deployment is unique and therefore presents unique
challenges. The following paragraphs highlight some important site layout
planning factors.

3.5.1. Maximize Standoff Distance. Putting maximum distance between

personnel, critical assets and potential threats is generally the easiest, most
economical and most effective FP strategy. Maximizing distance provides
flexibility to attain higher levels of protection to counter threats. Maximum
standoff distances are defined in UFC 4-010-01. Standoff distances differ for
bases and camps with controlled perimeters and those without controlled
perimeters. If a controlled perimeter does not exist, standoff distances usually
are greater. When recommended standoff distances cannot be achieved,
structures are analyzed by an engineer experienced in blast resistant design.
Install recommended hardening to mitigate potential blast effects.

3.5.2. Provide Effective Building Layout. Effective building layout and

orientation can significantly limit terrorist surveillance capabilities and targeting
opportunities. This is particularly important when areas directly outside an
installation are not under the installation's control. Ensure that the main entrance
to a facility/structure does not face the perimeter or other uncontrolled vantage
points with direct lines of sight. Structures can also be oriented in a manner that
may reduce effects from explosive hazards. Chapter 4 covers this subject in
more detail.

3.5.3. Provide Effective Road Layout. Although roads are often designed to
minimize travel time from one place to another, caution is taken when planning
roads. Roads that provide straight line access to key facilities and other critical
assets allow a vehicle to gain the speed necessary to breach protective barriers or
crash through facilities. Roads are generally designed to limit the maximum
speed a vehicle can attain before the driver loses control or draws attention from
security personnel. Designing sharp curves or using barriers to create a
serpentine layout that force drivers to negotiate a series of sharp turns can limit
vehicle approach speed. Vehicle operators attempting to leave the road in order
 25

to gain speed towards a potential target increase the chance of early detection
and response. Roads approaching key facilities are made parallel to the facilities
versus a perpendicular approach. Barriers, trees, and other obstacles can reduce
a driver’s ability to leave roads or to have a direct path to the facility from the
road.

3.6. Unified Facilities Criteria. This section focuses on UFCs which prescribe
FP standards for new, existing, temporary, and expeditionary structures. These
publications can be located at the Whole Building Design Guide website at
http://dod.wbdg.org and may also be downloaded from the US Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE) Protective Design Center (PDC) website at
https://pdc.usace.army.mil.

3.6.1. Standards. Minimum DOD AT standards for new and existing inhabited
facilities and expeditionary and temporary structures are outlined in UFC 4-010-
01. These standards are intended to minimize the possibility of mass casualties
in facilities where no known terrorist activity currently exists. Graphic Training
Aid (GTA) 90-01-011, Joint Forward Operations Base (JFOB) Protection
Handbook, provides standards for expeditionary structures where a terrorist
threat exists. Since it would be cost-prohibitive to design facilities that address
every conceivable threat, the standards are designed to provide an appropriate
level of protection for all personnel at a reasonable cost. Each DOD component
may set more stringent AT building standards to meet the specific threats in its
AOR. Air Forces Central, Air Forces Southern, United States Air Forces in
Europe, and Pacific Air Forces have supplemental instructions regarding FP
construction standards. Contact the theater-level A4C planner for more
information. Refer to UFC 4-020-01 when developing cost estimates for
expeditionary construction and where more stringent local standards apply for
detailed descriptions of the levels of protection.

3.6.2. Levels of Protection. Levels of protection relate to the degree to which

assets (i.e., personnel, facilities, equipment, etc.) are protected based on known
and specified threats such as vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices
(VBIEDs), rockets, artillery and mortars. The primary strategy to achieve an
appropriate level of protection is to maximize available standoff to keep
potential or known threats as far away from personnel, inhabited facilities,
equipment and other critical assets as possible. However, if space is inadequate
 26

to achieve appropriate standoff distances, hardening and blast mitigation

techniques are applied to achieve an acceptable level of protection based on the
asset's criticality and the threat. Primary gathering facilities (i.e., dining
facilities, billeting, recreation facilities, etc.) are hardened, if practicable, or
provided some type of blast and fragmentation protection, including overhead
cover and compartmentalization Unless adequate planning is done to obtain the
needed space to achieve appropriate standoff for expeditionary assets in high-
threat environments, personnel can be highly vulnerable to an attack. This
potential vulnerability drives the need for larger sites. In addition, hardened
structures, such as bunkers and foxholes with overhead cover, can be provided
in the immediate proximity of all areas where personnel live and work (Figure
3.2).

Figure 3.2. Protective Shelters at a FOB in Afghanistan.

Selecting levels of protection for all key and critical assets involves a tradeoff
for acceptable levels of risk. UFC 4-010-01 defines the different standards for
new and existing buildings and expeditionary or temporary structures, and
contains qualitative descriptions of potential damage to buildings and structures
at different levels of protection. Detailed quantitative descriptions of the levels
of protection can be found in UFC 4-020-02FA, Security Engineering: Concept
Design (FOUO).

3.6.3. Standoff Distances. The primary objective of design and site layout
strategy is to keep potential threats as far away from personnel and critical assets
 27

as possible. Due to the type of construction, standoff distances differ for new or
existing buildings and expeditionary or temporary structures.

3.6.3.1. New and Existing Buildings. Standoff distances for new and existing
buildings are defined in Table B-1 and illustrated in Figures B-1 through B-4 of
UFC 4-010-01. The standards were developed for a wide range of
conventionally constructed buildings. Distances listed under the “Minimum
Standoff Distance” column of Table B-1 are provided except where not possible.
The UFC further states that lesser standoff distances may be allowed where
required level of protection can be shown through analysis or can be achieved
through building hardening or other mitigating construction or retrofit. The
applicable explosive weights indicated in the table may be obtained from UFC
4-010-02.

3.6.3.2. Expeditionary and Temporary Structures. Standoff distances for

expeditionary and temporary structures are defined in Table D-1 of UFC 4-010-
01 and illustrated in Figure 3.3 below. These standoff distances were developed
for Small and Medium Shelters and Southeast Asia (SEA) Huts. The applicable
explosive weights indicated in the UFC table are obtained from UFC 4-010-02.
An asterisk “*” in Figure 3.3 indicates the standoff distance varies by
construction and category of construction. An analysis of the structure by an
engineer experienced in blast-resistant design is required. Hardening can be
applied as necessary to mitigate effects of explosives indicated. If the CCDR
determines a higher level of protection than is specified in UFC 4-010-01 is
required, based on a known threat and an analysis of vulnerability and criticality
assessments, refer to UFC 4-020-01 for methods of achieving higher levels of
protection.
 28

Figure 3.3. Standoff Distances and Separation for Expeditionary and

Temporary Structures.
 29

Chapter 4

PHYSICAL SECURITY

4.1. Overview. A key element of FP is physical security. Physical security

programs are designed for prevention and provide the means to counter threats
when preventive measures are ignored or bypassed. DOD 5200.08-R, Physical
Security Program, defines physical security as active and passive measures
designed to prevent unauthorized access to personnel, equipment, installations,
information, and to safeguard them against espionage, sabotage, terrorism,
damage and criminal activity. This chapter provides guidance and considerations
for implementing physical protective measures designed to eliminate threats or
mitigate the effects of an attack against personnel and critical resources. In the
absence of a specific threat, the minimum DOD AT standards in UFC 4-010-01
are applied.

4.2. Aspects of Physical Security. Physical security is built on the foundation

that baseline security and preparedness postures are established based on the
local threat, site-specific vulnerabilities, identification of critical assets, and
employment of available resources. Physical security focuses on physical
measures and procedures designed to safeguard assets from likely aggressors.
As discussed earlier, plans for implementing these physical security measures
begin far in advance of the deployment (including site selection and site layout
planning) and continue throughout all phases of the deployment, including
initial beddown, sustainment, and redeployment. Key physical security tasks
include the implementation of protective measures designed to stop potential
aggressors and mitigate the impact of an attack on personnel and other critical
resources. This requires, among many other things, that security personnel be
capable of detecting and identifying an aggressor as far in advance of an attack
as possible. Civil engineers team with security forces to design and implement
physical security measures that provide this early detection capability. Two
broad areas of physical security include perimeter security and internal security.
This chapter focuses primarily on these two aspects of physical security.

4.3. Perimeter Security. One of the most important FP tasks during the initial
stages of deployment and beddown is establishing perimeter security. Working
with security forces, civil engineers help establish a continuous physical barrier
 30

which clearly defines the physical limits of the site, to prevent unauthorized
access. Figure 4.1 illustrates key aspects of perimeter security. This involves
constructing fences, placing concertina wire, installing perimeter lighting,
constructing berms and ditches, placing barriers, and assisting with the
installation of security cameras. Also key is ensuring backup power source is
available in the event systems requiring power are disrupted by intentional or
unintentional damage. In addition, clear zones beyond the perimeter are kept
free of weeds, rubbish, or other material capable of offering concealment or
assistance to an intruder attempting to penetrate perimeter security. Also, secure
utility ducts, drainage culverts, concrete trenches, and storm drains originating
from outside the perimeter by using screens and grates. Locks can be installed
on manhole covers. Intrusion detection sensors may be used along with
surveillance equipment to provide greater security. The next few paragraphs
discuss how physical security may be employed in the expeditionary
environment.

Figure 4.1. Perimeter Security Measures.

4.3.1. Barriers. One of the most important aspects of establishing effective

physical security is the ability to employ barriers. Barriers are used to maintain
standoff distances, establish boundaries, limit and control pedestrian and
vehicular flow and access, channel movement in certain directions and to certain
points, obstruct line-of-sight views from outside the perimeter, protect key
 31

facilities and mission-critical assets, and compartmentalize areas within primary

gathering buildings. Civil engineers are largely responsible for employing
barriers as part of the physical security element of FP. Refer to UFC 4-022-02,
Selection and Application of Vehicle Barriers, for design, selection and
application of active and passive vehicles barriers.

4.3.1.1. Barrier Plan. Developing and implementing a barrier plan is a critical

FP function for civil engineers. The barrier plan outlines exactly how barriers
will be employed continuously or during periods of heightened alert. A
prioritized list of key facilities and critical assets to be protected forms the basis
for the plan. This list is usually developed during the various assessments:
threat, vulnerability, criticality, and risk assessments. The barrier plan
summarizes the number and types of barriers employed as well as additional
requirements, employment locations, if and where barriers will be prepositioned,
their intended purpose (i.e., traffic control, perimeter security, etc.), and
resources and equipment needed to move or relocate and install the barriers
when needed (i.e., anchors, cables, forklift, trailer, etc.). Civil engineers work
closely with security forces to identify resources needed to adequately protect
key facilities and assets. Some installations may preposition key assets and
employ them upon heightened alert or during periods of increased threat. In the
expeditionary environment, limited resources may not allow for maintaining
barriers in storage or prepositioned status for heightened alert. Barriers may
need to be continuously employed to provide protection in high-threat
environments. This determination is made on site. A dedicated barrier team is
appointed, trained, and exercised regularly.

4.3.1.2. Types of Barriers. There are many barrier designs that can be used for
a variety of purposes (e.g., pedestrians, vehicles, weapons, etc.) and various
types of structures and natural features that may be used as barriers (e.g., trees,
mountains, water, wood, concrete, etc.). Barriers are categorized as either active
(containing moving parts) or passive (non-moving parts). It is important not to
confuse the different types of barriers available with the purpose for which the
barrier is being used or can be used. For example, some barriers may be used to
mitigate the effects of blast and/or fragmentation in the event of an attack and
may sometimes be referred to as blast or fragmentation barriers. These are
passive-type barriers. A variety of passive barriers may be found in the
expeditionary environment (e.g., Bitburg barrier, Jersey barrier, Alaska barrier,
 32

T-barrier, bastions, etc.). Some active barriers commonly found in the

expeditionary environment include portable tire shredders and arm barrier gates.
Barriers can be further characterized as moveable (may require heavy
equipment), fixed (permanently installed), or portable. Portable barriers are
normally used temporarily until either a moveable or fixed barrier system can be
employed. The following paragraphs further explain the types of barriers and the
purposes for which they are commonly used.

4.3.1.2.1. Active Barriers. Active barriers are either electronically controlled or

manually operated to allow or restrict access. Examples include barricades,
retractable bollards, beams, gates, and tire shredders. Active barriers are
normally employed at entry and exit points to the site or at the entrance to a
critical facility with a controlled perimeter. From a safety standpoint, active
vehicle barriers are capable of causing serious injury or death, even when used
for their intended purpose. This can be caused by equipment malfunction,
inadvertent activation, or operator error. If using these types of barriers, make
sure there are signs in place to alert vehicles to their presence (i.e., warning
signs, lights, bright colors, etc.). In addition, these types of barriers include
backup power, emergency cutoff switches, and adequate lighting. Figure 4.2
through Figure 4.7 shows examples of active barriers that can be used in the
expeditionary environment.

Figure 4.2. Portable Barrier.

 33

Figure 4.3. Wedge (Drum) Barrier.

Figure 4.4. Retractable Bollards.

Figure 4.5. Lift Plate Barricade System.

 34

Figure 4.6. Sliding Gate.

Figure 4.7. Tire Shredder.

4.3.1.2.2. Passive Barriers. Passive barriers have no moving parts and are
designed to absorb energy upon impact and transfer that energy into the
foundation. Examples include portable or permanent concrete structures,
concrete bollards, posts, guardrails, ditches, and reinforced fences. Passive
barriers along the perimeter or interior fence line are designed to allow little or
no penetration, especially if the available standoff distance is limited. Passive
barriers are commonly found in the expeditionary environment, particularly if
the contingency operation is of a limited duration. Figure 4.8 through Figure
4.13 shows examples of passive barriers that may be used in the expeditionary
environment. For additional details on different types of barriers, refer to Air
Force Handbook (AFH) 10-222, Volume 14, Guide to Fighting Positions,
Shelters, Obstacles, and Revetments; and the JFOB Protection Handbook. The
JFOB handbook may be accessed on the United States Army Central Army
Registry (CAR) website. To obtain a copy of the handbook from the CAR
website requires a Common Access Card at the following link.
 35

https://rdl.train.army.mil/catalog/go/100.ATSC/0BEF6011-E36F-4F1E-
8965-5DB0931D9010-1300684489163.

Figure 4.8. Non-Retractable Bollards.

Figure 4.9. Steel Hedgehog Barrier.

Figure 4.10. Expedient Tire Barrier.

 36

Figure 4.11. Concrete Jersey Barrier.

Figure 4.12. Sand Bags.

Figure 4.13. Barriers.

4.3.2. Perimeter Fences. Fences are used to define the boundary of a site or
structure, direct and control the flow of traffic, and establish clear zones. They
 37

are also used in conjunction with security lighting, IDSs, closed circuit
television, and other means of integrating security. Chain link fences are
antipersonnel barriers. They are cost-effective, usually readily available, and
provide a moderate degree of protection. Chain link fences are more effective if
reinforced with cable or topped with outriggers and concertina wire, razor wire,
or multiple strands of barbed wire, as shown in Figure 4.14. Since most fences
can be easily penetrated by a moving vehicle, they are not considered vehicle
barriers and can resist impact only if reinforced by barriers capable of absorbing
the impact of moving vehicles. For additional details on security fencing,
reference Military Handbook (MIL-HDBK)-1013/10, Design Guidelines for
Security Fencing, Gates, Barriers, and Guard Facilities; and UFC 4-022-03,
Security Fences and Gates.

Figure 4.14. Perimeter Fences and Barriers.

4.3.3. Utility Openings. Large utility openings, such as drainage pipes, culverts,
vents, and ducts can provide an intruder with a means of entry or exit across a
site’s perimeter without triggering an alarm. These types of openings can also be
used to conceal weapons or plant explosives. For these reasons, the number of
culverts and other drainage pipes crossing a site’s perimeter are minimized. The
DOD defines man-passable openings as having a minimum of 96 square inches
with the least dimension equal to or greater than 6 inches can be protected by
securely fastened, welded bar grilles shown in Figure 4.15. AF criteria specify
that the minimum opening is 6.4” inches. As an alternative, these structures can
be composed of multiple pipes with diameters of 10 inches or less. Multiple
pipes of this diameter may also be placed and secured in the inflow end of a
drainage culvert to prevent intrusion into the area. If grilles or pipes are installed
 38

in culverts or other drainage structures, ensure corrective action is taken to

compensate for the diminished flow capacity and increased maintenance
required. In addition, secure all manhole covers that could be accessed and used
to cross the site’s perimeter. For detailed information on securing these types of
structures, refer to UFC 4-020-03FA, Security Engineering: Final Design
(FOUO) and AFI 31-101. This document is FOUO and can be downloaded from
the USACE’s PDC website at https://pdc.usace.army.mil.

Figure 4.15. Grille Installed on Drainage Culvert.

4.3.4. Entry Control Facility (ECF). The ECF is a physical boundary

controlling vehicle access at the perimeter of the site. Some guidance may also
refer to these boundaries as access control points. The ECF is a security
checkpoint at or outside the secured perimeter of an installation that allows for
sufficient standoff from the perimeter to protected facilities and critical assets.
Security personnel use the ECF to control vehicle access to the site using
various methods such as guard shacks, vehicle barriers, and inspection points
shown in Figure 4.16. Civil engineers team with security forces in determining
the location and layout for ECFs and other structures needed to control vehicle
access to the site. These determinations are based on a threat intelligence
assessment.
 39

Figure 4.16. Typical Entry Control Facility.

Site

4.3.4.1. Location. ECFs are located to provide maximum standoff distance

between the ECF and critical facilities and equipment. Minimum standoff
distances are outlined in UFCs 4-010-01 and 4-010-02. The CCDR may increase
these distances based on the known threat for a particular area. Always refer to
the specific operational order to determine if prescribed standoff distances are
more stringent than those outlined in UFCs.

4.3.4.2. Layout. The main ECF is subdivided into zones and allow enough
queue space to prevent obstructing traffic on main roads by vehicles waiting to
enter the site as shown in Figure 4.17. ECF zones consist of an approach zone,
access zone, response zone, and safety zone. The approach zone is located at the
interface between public roads and the site. Access zones comprise the main
portion of the ECF. This is where guard facilities and vehicle inspection areas
are located. Response zones extend beyond access zones to the final barrier or
entry point. This is usually where security forces sets up an overwatch tower as
a final denial point for vehicles attempting to gain unauthorized entry.
Overwatch towers are hardened firing positions that provide coverage for
vehicle entry, exit, and search areas. The safety zones include all techniques
(fences, barriers, etc.) used to maintain an acceptable standoff distance between
the ECF and critical assets. Vehicles approaching the site are channeled through
a maze of barriers that force drivers to decrease their rate of speed. Vehicles are
 40

channeled into search pits to allow security personnel to search for and detect
explosives. Search pits are separated from local traffic by security fences and
vehicle barriers and located outside the minimum prescribed standoff distance.
Civil engineers work closely with security and intelligence personnel in
designing and siting vehicle search pits. Separate points of access to the site are
established for commercial trucks and delivery vehicles, outside the standoff
distance, where they can be searched prior to gaining access. Detailed guidance
for constructing ECFs can be found in UFC 4-022-01, Security Engineering:
Entry Control Facilities/Access Control Points.
 41

Figure 4.17. Entry Control Facility Zones.

4.3.4.3. ECF Barriers. ECF barriers are designed to maintain control. They
address the counter-mobility aspect of FP (preventing unauthorized vehicles
 42

from entering the site) and are set up to channel vehicles and pedestrians into or
away from certain areas. The ECF is the point at which vehicles are either
cleared or rejected from accessing the site and are strictly controlled. ECF
barriers define boundaries and provide security personnel with a visual
assessment of a driver’s intent as a vehicle passes through certain zones and
reacts to barriers employed to control path, speed, and direction. CE places
barriers along main roads leading to the site from public roads, to establish an
approach zone and throughout the rest of the ECF to maintain control during the
clearing process. Barriers are anchored to the surface and/or cabled together
(Figure 4.18) to provide increased resistance to penetration attempts. To slow
speeds of approaching vehicles, place barriers in a manner that produces a
serpentine path that drivers negotiate to reach the entry point. Desired speeds
can be controlled by placing barriers at certain distances apart. For example, to
allow a maximum speed of 15 mph, place barriers 30 feet apart in an alternating
pattern as depicted in Figure 4.19. Creating 90-degree turns also forces drivers
to reduce speeds. A vehicle leaving these paths draws attention and alerts
security personnel of a possible attempt to evade clearance procedures and gain
unauthorized access to the site.

Figure 4.18. Jersey Barriers Cabled Together.

 43

Figure 4.19. Barriers Used to Form Serpentine Path.

4.3.5. Berms and Ditches. Berms and ditches can be constructed around the site
perimeter to slow or prevent vehicles from penetrating the restricted boundary as
illustrated in Figure 4.20. Triangular ditches and hillside cuts are relatively easy
to construct and are very effective against a wide range of vehicles. Side hill
cuts are variations of the triangular ditch adapted to side hill locations and have
the same advantages and limitations. A trapezoidal ditch requires more
construction time but is more effective in stopping a vehicle. With this type of
construction, a vehicle can be trapped when the front end falls into the ditch and
the undercarriage is hung up on the leading edge of the ditch. For additional
information on constructing berms and ditches, reference AFH 10-222, Volume
14.
 44

Figure 4.20. Berms and Ditches.

4.3.6. Lighting and Sensors. Security lighting allows personnel to observe

areas around the perimeter, at ECPs, and throughout the site during hours of
darkness without exposing themselves. It is best to use lighting that produces a
glare upon individuals approaching a perimeter but does not illuminate and
expose security personnel, guard houses, or observation posts. Avoid glare
lighting if it causes traffic hazards. Different types of terrain and surfaces
required to be illuminated can be analyzed to determine the brightness of
security lighting needed to ensure personnel can observe all areas in and around
the site and as far outside the perimeter as possible. The site commander may
require some areas to be void of lighting during certain times or at all times to
prevent illuminating a potential target. To be more effective, security lighting
may be combined with an intrusion detection system as shown in Figure 4.21.
Numerous types of IDSs are currently being used in the expeditionary
environment (microwave, passive infrared, active infrared, seismic, magnetic,
motion detectors, closed circuit television, etc.). Certain factors determine the
type of system to install, including site location, terrain, weather, manpower
available for monitoring, etc. Regardless of the type of lighting or IDS used,
provide emergency backup power. For more information on security lighting
and IDSs, refer to the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
(IESNA) HB-9, Lighting Handbook: IESNA G-1-03, Guide for Security
 45

Lighting for People, Property, and Public Spaces: and UFC 4-021-02,
Electronic Security Systems and AFI 31-101.

Figure 4.21. Security Lighting and Intrusion Detection System.

4.3.7. Obscuration Screens. Perimeter obscuration screens are used to block

direct lines of sight to sensitive areas or facilities from outside the perimeter in
an effort to reduce targeting opportunities from direct fire weapons. This can be
done in various ways using trees, dense vegetation, chain link fences with slats,
wooden fences, camouflage netting, earth berms, etc. Obscuration screens do not
provide protection against direct fire weapons. Another type of screen, referred
to as a pre-detonation screen, may be used for protection against these types of
weapons. Pre-detonation screens are covered later in this chapter. Install facility
obscuration screens on the side of facilities facing the perimeter of the site to
reduce exposure. Obscuration screens as shown in Figure 4.22 can also be
placed on perimeter fences to block lines of sight into the site. When using
obscuration screens, make sure personnel inside the site or facility are still able
to see outside and observe any suspicious activities.
 46

Figure 4.22. Obscuration Screen on Perimeter Fence.

4.3.8. Observation Posts, Guard Towers, and Defensive Fighting Positions.

Civil engineers work closely with security forces personnel in siting and
constructing hardened structures to be used for observation, overwatch, and
defensive fighting as shown in Figure 4.23. Some of the construction planning
factors to be considered include: location, terrain, height, maximum number of
personnel each structure is required to support, level of hardening, number of
gun ports, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning requirements, plumbing
requirements, lighting, electronic surveillance and communications equipment
requirements, etc. These structures are placed at least 30 feet inside the
perimeter of the site and provide a clear view of the inner and outer clear zones
and perimeter fence line. For details on constructing guard towers, observation
posts, defensive fighting positions, and bunkers, reference the JFOB Protection
Handbook referred to earlier and AFH 10-222, Volume 14. Detailed drawings
and construction information for these types of structures can also be obtained
by contacting the USACE Engineer Research and Development Center at
[email protected] and requesting the Theater Construction Management
System (TCMS) software.
 47

Figure 4.23. Observation Posts, Guard Towers, and Defensive Fighting

Positions.

4.3.9. Barriers. Earth-filled container barriers (also called bastions) are

commonly used in the expeditionary environment to construct various types of
structures and sidewall protection. These containers come in various sizes and
all have national stock numbers assigned; see Table 4.1 and Figure 4.24.

Table 4.1. Barrier Container Sizes and National Stock Numbers.

UNIT HEIGHT WIDTH LENGTH NSN

ft (m) ft (m) ft (m)
Mil 1 4.5ft 3.5ft 32.9ft 95680-99-835-7866 (Beige)
(5442) (1.37m) (1.06m) (10m) 95680-99-001-9396 (Green)
Mil 2 2ft 2ft 4ft 995680-99-68-1764 (Beige)
(2424) (0.61m) (0.61m) (1.22m) 95680-99-001-9397 (Green)
Mil 3 3.25ft 3.25ft 32.9ft 95680-99-001-9392 (Beige)
(3939) (1.0m) (1.0m) (10m) 95680-99-001-9398 (Green)
Mil 4 3.25ft 5ft 32.9ft 95680-99-001-9393 (Beige)
(3960) (1.0m) (1.52m) (10m) 95680-99-001-9399 (Green)
Mil 5 2ft 2ft 10ft 95680-99-001-9394 (Beige)
(2424) (0.61m) (0.61m) (3.05m) 95680-99-001-9400 (Green)
Mil 6 5.6ft 2ft 10ft 95680-99-001-9395 (Beige)
 48

(6624) (1.68m) (0.61m) (3.05m) 95680-99-001-9401 (Green)

Mil 7 7.25ft 7ft 91ft 95680-99-169-0183 (Beige)
(8784) (2.21m) (2.13m) (27.74m) 95680-99-126-3716 (Green)
Mil 8 4.5ft 4ft 32.9ft 95680-99-335-4902 (Beige)
(5448) (1.37m) (1.22m) (10m) 95680-99-517-3281 (Green)
Mil 9 3.25ft 2.5ft 30ft 95680-99-563-5649 (Beige)
(3930) (1.0m) (0.76m) (9.14m) 95680-99-052-0506 (Green)
Mil 10 7.25ft 5ft 100ft 95680-99-391-0852 (Beige)
(8760) (2.21m) (1.52m) (30.50m) 95680-99-770-0326 (Green)
Mil 11 4ft 1ft 4ft 97195-99-867-9131 (Beige)
(4812) (1.22m) 0.30m) (1.22m) 97195-99-668-0875 (Green)
Mil 12 7ft 3.5ft 108ft 95670-99-974-8891 (Beige)
(8442) (2.13m) (1.06m) (33m) 95670-99-153-1977 (Green)
Mil 19 9ft 3.5ft 10.5ft 95670-99-152-1284 (Beige)
(10842) (2.74m) (1.06m) (3.18m) 95670-99-242-9574 (Green)

Figure 4.24. Illustration of Different Sizes of Barrier Containers.

4.4. Internal Security. The focus on internal security, from a CE perspective,

generally involves such tasks as facility hardening, dispersal,
compartmentalization, revetment construction, bunker construction, and
protection of utilities to name a few (Figure 4.25). Existing facilities used in the
expeditionary environment may need to be hardened to provide an acceptable
level of protection from rockets, artillery, and mortars. In addition,
expeditionary structures, bunkers, observation posts, and fighting positions are
constructed to support ID objectives as covered in Chapter 5. The following are
basic concepts and techniques that may be used to provide protection for
existing and expeditionary structures. Refer to the JFOB Protection Handbook
for additional FP construction details and options.
 49

Figure 4.25. Internal Security Measures.

4.4.1. Mass Notification Systems (MNS). MNS provide immediate notification

to personnel during emergencies. The system relays information regarding
FPCONs, imminent threats, attacks in progress, etc., and directs personnel to
take certain response actions (e.g., take cover, evacuate, etc.). Civil engineers,
especially Fire Emergency Services and EM, work closely with security and
communications personnel to install and maintain a MNS with primary and
backup power. Details on MNS can be found in UFC 4-021-01, Design and
O&M: Mass Notification Systems. Although there are many different systems
available, the Giant Voice system is typically used in expeditionary
environments, shown in Figure 4.26.This system is generally not suitable for
notifying personnel working or residing in permanent structures since the voice
messages may be unintelligible. In these instances, civil engineers work with
security and communications personnel to develop alternative ways of providing
mass notification.

Figure 4.26. Mass Notification System.

 50

4.4.2. Facilities. Achieving appropriate levels of protection for facilities most

commonly used in the expeditionary environment, such as Small Shelter
Systems as shown in Figure 4.27 can be very difficult. This is why standoff is
particularly important in expeditionary environments. Personnel may be
abnormally vulnerable to certain threats during the initial stages of a deployment
when the site is still somewhat austere, resources are limited, and access to
permanently constructed facilities has not yet been negotiated. If US forces
occupy existing permanent facilities offered by the host nation, civil engineers
may need to apply the standards outlined in UFC 4-010-01 for new and existing
buildings. Where more stringent local standards apply, or where local
commanders dictate additional measures as a result of specific terrorist threats,
these standards may be supplemented to achieve higher levels of protection. If
increased levels of protection are warranted, detailed descriptions may be found
in UFC 4-020-01. Also refer to AFH 10-2401, Vehicle Bomb Mitigation Guide
(VBMG) (FOUO), for recommendations on increasing protection against vehicle
bombs. Both publications may be accessed on the USACE website at
https://pdc.usace.army.mil. Follow the application instructions to obtain a
userid and password. The following paragraphs present techniques that may be
used in conjunction with standoff distances to mitigate effects of
blast/fragmentation on facilities in the expeditionary environment.

Figure 4.27. Expeditionary Structures.

 51

4.4.2.1. Orientation. Buildings and structures may be oriented in a manner to

help reduce effects of blast on the structure. Tests have shown that structures
oriented with the smaller dimension of the structure facing the direction of an
anticipated blast (e.g., perimeter fence, ECP, etc.) receive less damage than with
the larger dimension facing the direction of an anticipated blast. Also, tests with
vehicle bombs have shown that the primary blast field from the explosion tends
to be outwards from both sides of the vehicle, while the primary fragmentation
field tends to travel more to the front and rear of the vehicle, as shown in Figure
4.28. For more details on vehicle bombs and their effects on all types of
structures, including expeditionary structures, refer to AFH 10-2401. That
handbook also provides safe standoff distances to defeat and mitigate the effects
of vehicle bombs. This information may be used to determine how best to orient
facilities during site setup. If possible, doors and windows are faced in a manner
that does not provide a direct line of sight from outside the perimeter. If this is
not possible, cover the windows and consider using obscuration screening to
block visual access to the facility or structure.

Figure 4.28. Blast and Fragmentation Hazard Zones.

4.4.2.2. Clustering and Dispersal. Making the determination to cluster or

disperse assets can be based on several factors. Because each tactic has both
positive and negative aspects, the planner strikes a careful balance between
efficiency and survivability, with emphasis on survivability. Grouping high-risk
 52

activities and concentrating personnel and critical functions in a cluster may

provide opportunities to maximize standoff distances, reduce the perimeter area,
minimize access points, and create defensible space. Conversely, asset dispersal
is often necessary due to the difficulty of hardening most temporary and
expeditionary structures. Dispersal is a form of passive defense that may be used
to lessen the possibility of numerous critical assets being damaged or destroyed
in a single attack. This effort would be used in addition to other measures such
as standoff distance, revetments, screening, and barriers. Asset dispersal may
have an isolating effect that reduces effectiveness of existing security
provisions, increases complexity of emergency response, and creates more space
to defend. The tradeoff between dispersing assets (past the minimum standoff
distance) and grouping them is analyzed. This is a risk management decision
made by the site commander using results of threat assessments, vulnerability
assessments, criticality assessments, and recommendations from intelligence
personnel, security forces, civil engineers, and other members of the staff.
Regardless of where priority assets are located, CE provides physical protection
based on the threat. Reference AFH 10-222, Volume 1, Civil Engineer Bare
Base Development, for additional information on facility dispersal options.

4.4.2.3. Hardening. Hardening temporary and expeditionary structures can be

difficult or impractical because these structures are designed to be mobile. These
structures offer limited protection from threats when compared to permanent
facilities. Some degree of protection may be achieved by hardening the
structures perimeter. Figure 4.29 is an example of a compacted soil berm used
to protect a structure. Other earth-filled barriers such as concertainer walls and
sandbags may also be employed to protect expeditionary structures.
Fragmentation barriers provide some degree of protection from impacting
primary and secondary debris. These barriers work extremely well for fragment
protection; however, they do not reduce blast damage significantly for
conventional and expeditionary structures. Concrete barriers of sufficient height
may be effective in stopping primary debris. However, barriers may also
become secondary debris hazards (debris from the barrier itself) in the
immediate area of an explosion, causing additional damage to the asset being
protected. AFH 10-222, Volume 14 contains information on specific materials
and techniques that may be used to harden facilities and other assets.
 53

Figure 4.29. Compacted Soil Revetment.

4.4.2.4. Windows. Windows are usually the weakest part of a structure. Glass
fragments caused by blasts may result in significant injuries. Although
expeditionary structures usually do not contain glass windows, host-nation
facilities occupied by US forces may in fact contain glass windows. When
possible, windows can be covered using plywood or other protective material. If
not possible, other methods may be used to reduce hazards from broken glass.
Installation of fragment-retention film (Figure 4.30) is a plastic (polyester) sheet
of film adhered to the glass with special adhesive. This modification helps keep
glass fragments together preventing them from causing severe injury and possibly
death. Heavy drapes or a “catcher bar” (metal bar installed across the window)
may help prevent large piece(s) of glass being held together by the retention film
from flying through the room and causing blunt trauma injury. Engineering
Technical Letter (ETL) 1110-3-501, Windows Retrofit Using Fragment Retention
Film with Catcher Bar System, contains details on retrofitting windows using
fragment retention film. A trained engineer analyzes several factors (i.e., potential
charge weight, standoff distance, size of glass pane, thickness and type of
window glass, attachment of the pane to the window frame, and attachment of the
frame to the structure) to determine if windows can be properly retrofitted.
Protective film in the expeditionary environment is a last resort. As stated earlier,
it is preferable to cover windows with plywood or other protective material.
 54

Figure 4.30. Fragmentation Retention Film.

4.4.2.5. Compartmentalization. Compartmentalization (Figure 4.31) is a

technique used to reduce casualties in highly populated facilities, such as dining
and recreation facilities. It involves a series of interconnected walls designed to
divide large areas into smaller protected areas to limit casualties from impacts of
rockets, artillery, and mortars. Since the primary threat of a fragmenting weapon
is its capability to generate fragmented projectiles, the objective of
compartmentalization is to contain these fragmentation effects. Tests and
analyses have also shown that significant blast hazard do not generally extend
beyond the compartment in which the weapon detonates. In addition to
compartmentalization, fragmentation barriers are constructed around the
facility’s exterior to mitigate blast and fragmentation from near misses. The
minimum height for interior walls and exterior walls is 5 feet and 8 feet,
respectively.

Figure 4.31. Example of Compartmentalization.

4.4.2.6. Pre-detonation Screens. Pre-detonation screens are structures built and

placed in front of assets to cause anti-tank rounds to detonate before reaching its
intended target (Figure 4.32). Pre-detonation screens may consist of wood
 55

fences, chain-link fencing, expanded metal mesh, or heavy woven-fiber fabric.

Wood fences may be constructed of wood slats or plywood panels a minimum
of 3/8-inch (9.4 mm) thick. If made of slats, spacing is no more than 0.25-inch
(6.4 mm) apart. Spaces in metal fabric screens are 2 inches (50 mm) by 2 inches
(50 mm) maximum and fabric a minimum of 9 gauge (3.8 mm). A direct fire
weapon striking a pre-detonation screen either detonates on impact or is dudded.
The residual effects of a pre-detonated round on a building are more severe than
the effects of a dudded round. After pre-detonation, the weapon’s jet and the
spent rocket engine from the rocket-propelled grenade continue past the screen.
The screen is located away from the wall at a standoff distance appropriate to
the wall construction. For most materials, this is a minimum of 40 feet (10 m).
However, it is best to consult UFC 4-020-03FA for details on construction and
standoff distances for pre-detonation screens.

Figure 4.32. Pre-Detonation Screening.

4.4.3. Revetments. Revetments are simply walls used to reduce the effects of
blast or fragmentation on facilities and equipment resulting from near miss
rockets, artillery, and mortars. They are used to protect parked aircraft or other
high-value resources. These structures are also referred to as fragmentation or
blast walls. Revetments may be constructed of different materials and
configured in multiple ways for multiple purposes as shown in Figure 4.33.
Engineers identify revetment requirements through their servicing logistics
function and theater CE staff. Refer to AFH 10-222, Volume 14 for construction
 56

details and an overview of the different types of revetments. The JFOB

Protection Handbook also contains revetment information.

Figure 4.33. Revetments.

4.4.4. Personnel Protective Shelters. In the event of an attack or when attacks

are imminent, personnel quickly evacuate expeditionary-type structures.
Hardened protective shelters (bunkers) with overhead protection (Figure 4.34)
are constructed strategically throughout the site, particularly near primary
gathering buildings and where large numbers of personnel live and work.
Shelters provide protection against direct and indirect weapons fire. Sidewall
barriers may be constructed using sandbags, earth-filled container structures,
earth-filled wire mesh bastions, or concrete walls. Sidewalls need to be thick
enough to resist direct fire weapons or a near miss from an indirect fire weapon.
Covers are made capable of supporting the dead weight from sandbags or earth-
filled containers. Only bunker designs approved by the USACE’s Engineer
Research Development Center are constructed. Pre-detonation screens can also
be placed above the shelter to cause a weapon to detonate upon impact, thereby
reducing the effects upon the bunker. Detailed information on personnel
protective shelters can be found in the JFOB Protection Handbook; AFH 10-
222, Volume 14; the USACE’s website; and the TCMS software.
 57

Figure 4.34. Personnel Protective Shelter.

4.4.5. Utilities. Vulnerability assessments usually assess the potential for

aggressors to damage, destroy, or tamper with site utilities, particularly at those
sites where utility lines cross the site perimeter. In addition to screening, sealing,
and securing utility lines to prevent unauthorized access engineers focus on
providing redundant utility service, eliminating vulnerabilities identified in
relation to the threat, and securing all utility production and distribution systems.

4.4.5.1. Electrical Power. Power plants (Figure 4.35) are one of the most
critical assets in the expeditionary environment. Protect power plant resources
with revetments, barriers, concertina or barbed wire (entanglements),
camouflage, and berming. Depending upon the population and size of the
installation, power plant dispersal (having two or more plants established and
interconnected) may be an option to ensure some degree of power generation
redundancy after an attack. Also, power distribution cables are buried 12-18
inches and spaced at least 6 inches apart. Position mobile electrical power
generators near critical facilities and assets they support and harden them against
attack. For details on power plant installation, see AFH 10-222, Volume 5,
Guide to Contingency Electrical Power System Installation.
 58

Figure 4.35. Expeditionary Power Plant at Camp Victory, Iraq.

4.4.5.2. Water Production and Supply. Water sources, water purification and
distribution equipment, and water supplies are kept under constant surveillance
and tested frequently for contamination. Water transfer pipes may be tapped
under pressure providing aggressors the opportunity to introduce contaminants
into the water supply. Civil engineers work closely with Bioenvironmental
Engineering, Public Health, and Safety personnel to ensure water supplies are
protected from intentional or unintentional contamination. Water sources are
guarded, water production equipment reveted, and water lines buried at the first
opportunity (Figure 4.36). Roving patrols establish surveillance points to alert
personnel to the possibility of tampering. An emergency response plan is
developed in the event the water supply is contaminated. The plan includes a
map indicating the location of all potential water sources, water production
equipment, water storage areas, and alternative approaches to supplying safe
water (e.g., boiling, special treatment, alternative water supply points,
procedures for having bottled water brought in from other sources, etc.). For
further specific guidance on CE responsibilities related to FP of water sources
and establishing and maintaining a potable water production capability refer to
AFMAN 10-246, Food and Water Protection Program; Air Force Pamphlet
(AFPAM) 10-219, Volume 5, Bare Base Conceptual Planning; and AFMAN
48-138_IP, Sanitary Control and Surveillance of Field Water Supplies.
 59

Figure 4.36. Burying Utility Lines.

4.4.6. Camouflage and Concealment. Camouflage and concealment are tactics

used to enhance FP. Use whatever natural or artificial materials are available to
hide, blend, and disguise potential military targets. The key to camouflage is to
alter the appearance of the asset being protected in a manner where it becomes
part of the natural background. Natural cover could include materials such as
trees, brush, grass, leaves, rocks or boulders. When using natural cover for
concealment, be careful not to disturb the look of the natural surroundings. Use
materials commonly found in the area where an asset is to be concealed. Also,
natural cover, such as brush and leaves, need to be changed whenever its
appearance no longer looks natural and begins to change from that of its
surroundings. Artificial cover could include burlap or netting applied to critical
assets as shown in Figure 4.37. Military assets can also be painted in a manner
so that the asset blends in with the surrounding area. Camouflaging and
concealing assets in a desert environment can be challenging. In the end, it is
creativity and ingenuity that lead to effective disguises. Camouflage and
concealment tactics are used after hardening and cover are applied to the assets
to be protected. Refer to AFH 10-222, Volume 10, Civil Engineer Camouflage,
Concealment, and Deception Measures, for more information.
 60

Figure 4.37. Camouflage Netting Being Applied.

4.4.7. Contract Support. Once hostilities subside and initial beddown phase
moves towards sustainment, contract support is available to implement and
sustain base support operations (Figure 4.38). This capability allows military
forces to focus more exclusively on achieving military objectives. The Air Force
Contract Augmentation Program (AFCAP) is a contingency contract vehicle
established as a force multiplier option to augment CE and services capabilities
during worldwide contingency planning and deployment operations. AFCAP
may provide construction support at overseas locations and can support recovery
operations after natural disasters, accidents, or terrorist attacks. The Navy’s
Global Contingency Construction and Global Contingency Services contracts
are designed to provide worldwide construction and engineering services in
response to natural disasters, military conflicts, humanitarian assistance, and a
wide range of military operations unrelated to conflicts. The US Army Materiel
Command (USAMC) support contract, Logistics Contract Augmentation
Program or LOGCAP, provides engineering, construction, and general logistic
services. USAMC is supported by USACE for engineering and construction
contract management and by the Defense Contract Management Agency for
logistic services contract administration. Contact the Major Command Civil
Engineer or Air Force Civil Engineer Center for contract support assistance.
 61

Figure 4.38. LOGCAP Power Support at Camp Taji, Iraq.

 62

Chapter 5

INTEGRATED DEFENSE

5.1. Overview. Integrated Defense (ID) is the integration of active and passive,
offensive and defensive capabilities, to mitigate potential risks and defeat
adversary threats to AF operations. ID employs a number of capabilities in a
variety of ways to produce desired effects in the base defense battle space. This
includes the base boundary, base security zone, and the base perimeter. This
strategy leverages assigned resources against adaptive threats to protect
resources and personnel. This chapter outlines actions civil engineers take to
support effective application of the ID concept.

5.2. Integrated Defense Concept. One of the most vital capabilities a base has
to counter threats, especially in an expeditionary environment, is the ability to
apply an ID concept (Figure 5.1). Civil engineers are trained to be familiar with
the FP terminology that describes the defense battlespace of the base, both
inside and outside the wire. AFH 31-109, Integrated Defense in Expeditionary
Environments, describes the base perimeter as basically the fenced area of the
base. It shows the physical and legal demarcation of the installation, that only
authorized personnel may occupy, and is usually made obvious to the general
public so inadvertent penetration is avoided. The base boundary (BB) is the line
that delineates the surface area of the base for the purpose of facilitating
coordination and deconfliction of operations between adjacent (and usually
friendly) units. It includes key terrain that is secured through active control by
security forces or coordination with host nation forces. The base security zone
(BSZ) is an AF unique term used to describe the area outside the base perimeter
from which base personnel, resources, or aircraft approaching/departing the base
may be vulnerable to standoff threats (e.g. mortars, rockets, and man portable
aerial defense systems).
 63

Figure 5.1. AF Integrated Defense Concept.

5.2.1. Actions and Effects. Essential actions and effects of the ID concept are
those deemed critical to successful planning, programing, and combat support
operations execution. Successful ID effects depend on the prevailing threat, the
operating environment, friendly forces available, rules of engagement, and other
factors that characterize the battlespace. ID is planned and executed based upon
the estimated threat (or combination of threats) and operating environment, and
is approved by the Installation Commander.

5.2.2. Integrated Defense Risk Management Process (IDRMP). The

analytical tool used to achieve ID is the IDRMP, for the Installation Commander
to manage risks based upon the association of the criticality of assigned assets
and infrastructure, a comprehensive analysis of the threat and the respective
vulnerabilities to those assets. ID is employed at all garrisons and expeditionary
locations.

5.3. Desired ID Effects. Conducting ID is accomplished by achieving nine

desired effects. These effects are: anticipate, deter, detect, assess, warn, defeat,
delay, defend, and recover from threats or hostile actions to resources. ID
measures ensure that unauthorized access to resources is denied before their
seizure, loss, damage or destruction. AFI 31-101, defines the desired ID effects
toolkit.
 64

5.3.1. Anticipation. Anticipating the enemy is the critical first step Anticipation
involves determining options, intentions, and actions an adversary might take, to
intelligently prepare the operational environment in order to respond. Civil
engineers employ and implement FP measures during site layout and site
buildup based on the threat identified by the intelligence community; not just
threats in general.

5.3.2. Deterrence. The goal of deterrence is to discourage adversaries from

taking offensive action by making the consequences for their actions clear. In
addition to consistent execution of RAMs, civil engineers support deterrence by
employing obstacles and barriers, hardening facilities, and posting warning signs
shown in Table 5.2 to make adversaries understand that a successful attack is
unlikely.

Table 5.1. Threat Deterrence.

Base Boundary and Base Security Zone

Deter threat activity through active community policing (e.g., Eagle Eyes
Program), boundary and internal circulation control, controlled area marking,
prudent physical security measures.
Installation Perimeters
Deter threats by presenting a strong, professional, perceptively impenetrable
physical boundary free of foliage or objects (e.g., trees) that might allow
surreptitious access.
Installation Entry Control Points
Deter threats by presenting predictably stringent screening TTP and
unpredictable searches of vehicles/persons entering installations.
Physical Security Requirements
Deter threat actions through the use of warning signs, barriers, fencing; make the
threat’s goal too costly and risky.

5.3.3. Detection. Detection can be enhanced by employing TTPs that allow us to

become aware of an enemy's covert attempts. Several ways to enhance detection
include the use of electronic surveillance systems, security lighting, chemical,
biological, radiological, and nuclear detection equipment, and alarm systems.
Also, constructing elevated observation posts provides security personnel with a
 65

clear view of all areas on the site and the surrounding clear zone, see Table 5.2.
In addition, routine checks of critical equipment such as power and water
production equipment, storage and distribution equipment, and the like are
conducted to quickly uncover any evidence of tampering.

Table 5.2. Threat Detection.

Base Boundary and Base Security Zone

Detect threats through the use of lighting, IDS, early warning systems (EWS),
closed-circuit television, etc.
Installation Perimeters
Detect threats’ attempts to exploit perimeters by establishing well-lit,
sufficiently observed physical boundaries. Thorough discussion of detection is
in AFH 31-109.
Installation Entry Control Points
Detect threats by proper ID vetting, vehicle searches, and sentries’ cognizance
for threat surveillance.
Physical Security Requirements
Detect threats in time to respond appropriately through use of lighting, IDS,
EWS, vegetation control (clear zones), physical security checks, host
nation/exterior community networking, robust Eagle Eyes Program integration,
listening posts, observation posts, internal circulation controls, RAMs, etc.

5.3.4. Assessment. As stated in Chapter 2, an assessment of the critical assets,

threat and vulnerability is conducted to calculate the overall risk (risk
assessment) to determine how best to employ defensive measures. These
assessments are conducted by a group of subject matter experts (SME), such as
the local Threat Working Group (TWG). This assessment helps develop
strategies leveraging finite resources against adaptive threats to protect assets.
Otherwise, time and material could be wasted in an effort to provide total
protection for every asset, which is not practical.

5.3.5. Warn. Warn friendly forces of adversary activity primarily through the
IDS and EWS. Additional systems such as mass notification, radio, public
address, commander’s access channels, voice, hand and arm signals, cellular
telephones, instant messenger, short message system texting, etc., also provide
warning.
 66

5.3.6. Defeat. Defeat threats through appropriate, timely, progressive application

of force; using a layered application of barriers, obstacles, technology, physical
security measures and forces (defense-in-depth). Integration of steel cabling or
other barriers; reinforce physical boundaries which aides defeating penetrative
VBIED threats. Additional defeat techniques are discussed in AFH 31-109.

5.3.7. Delay. Forcing a delay in an adversary's actions increases the risks for the
adversary and provides security personnel time to react and respond. Tactical
guidance states that delay cannot be achieved unless there is depth to ID. The
obstacles and elements of security are employed in layers, forcing the adversary
to breach several layers of defense (active and passive) to reach a certain target
as shown in Table 5.3. The concept of defense in depth does not rely on a single
failure point, but rather employs different types of defenses and redundancies to
ensure a nearly impenetrable perimeter. Early identification of a threat increases
the capability to quickly make a determination of intent and neutralize the threat
by applying multiple defensive measures. An example of layered defense would
be the ECF zone concept covered in Chapter 4. The ECF is laid out in zones,
where security personnel perform different functions. As vehicles move through
the zones (approach, access, response, etc.), certain security measures are taken.
An attempt to breach the ECF would be immediately noticeable and would give
security personnel time to detect and react to the attempt and employ a range of
measures to stop the vehicle, using the appropriate level of force up to and
including deadly force if necessary in the response zone. Civil engineers work
closely with intelligence and security personnel to determine how best to
establish a layered defense and employ the techniques covered in Chapter 3 and
Chapter 4.

Table 5.3. Threat Delay.

Base Boundary and Base Security Zone

Delay adversaries using a layers application of barriers, obstacles, technology,
physical security measures, and forces (defense-in-depth).
Installation Perimeters
Delay threats in order to increase likelihood of detection and allow friendly
forces to respond as needed. Delaying techniques are further discussed in AFH
31-109.
 67

Installation Entry Control Points

Delay adversaries until additional friendly forces can be massed to defeat them.
Physical Security Requirements
Delay the threat’s access to facilities, assets, and areas through the use of
fencing, barriers, locks, and hasps.

5.3.8. Defend. Defend assets through threat-and effects-based planning and

analysis that integrate all friendly forces into a single, comprehensive plan.
Integrate all friendly forces into the defense plan and ensure all personnel are
trained and qualified on arming, rules of engagement, use of force, and
expeditionary skills. Perimeter defense is critical to defending the installation by
integrating with other perimeter defense forces.

5.3.9. Recover. After an enemy withdraws or has been defeated recovery from
adversarial events is applied through effective command and control, and
executing the installation emergency management plan 10-2. The installation
commander directs consolidation and reorganization actions to include
reestablishing security and communication; providing first aid and medical
evacuation of wounded; damaged obstacle repair; and redistribution of supplies
and materials.

JOHN B. COOPER, Lt Gen, USAF

DCS/Logistics, Engineering & Force Protection
 68

Attachment 1

GLOSSARY OF REFERENCES AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION

References

AFDA 3-10, Force Protection, 13 August 2014

AFDA 3-34, Engineer Operations, 30 Dec 2014
AFI 10-210, Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force (BEEF) Program, 21
January 2015
AFI 10-245, Antiterrorism (AT), 25 June 2015
AFI 10-2501, Air Force Emergency Management (EM) Program Planning and
Operations, 24 January 2007 (Incorporating Change 3, 29 April 2013)
AFMAN 10-246, Food and Water Protection Program, 27 May 2014
AFMAN 33-363, Management of Records, 1 March 2008
AFMAN 48-138_IP, Sanitary Control and Surveillance of Field Water Supplies,
1 May 2010
AFPAM 10-219, Volume 5, Bare Base Conceptual Planning, 30 March 2012
AFH 10-222, Volume 1, Civil Engineer Bare Base Development, 23 January
2012
AFH 10-222, Volume 5, Guide to Contingency Electrical Power System
Installation, 1 July 2008
AFH 10-222, Volume 10, Civil Engineer Camouflage, Concealment, and
Deception Measures, 18 February 2011
AFH 10-222, Volume 14, Civil Engineer Guide to Fighting Positions, Shelters,
Obstacles, and Revetments, 1 August 2008
AFH 10-2401, Vehicle Bomb Mitigation Guide (VBMG) (FOUO), 1 September
2006
AFH 31-109, Integrated Defense in Expeditionary Environments, 1 May 2013
IESNA HB-9, Lighting Handbook, 1 December 2000
IESNA G-1-03, Guide for Security Lighting for People, Property, and Public
Spaces, 1 March 2003
 69

ETL 1110-3-501, Windows Retrofit Using Fragmentation with Catcher Bar

System, 14 July 1999
MIL-HDBK-1013/10, Design Guidelines for Security Fencing, Gates, Barriers,
and Guard Facilities, 14 May 1993
JP 1-02, DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 8 November 2010
(As Amended Through 15 November 2015)
JP 3-0, Joint Operations, 11 August 2011
JP 3-07.2 (FOUO), Antiterrorism, 14 March 2014
JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, 13 November 2014
Joint Force Operations Base (JFOB) Protection Handbook, Sixth Edition,
October 2011
UFC 4-010-01, DOD Minimum Antiterrorism Standards for Buildings, 9
February 2012, (Change 1, 1 October 2013)
UFC 4-010-02 (FOUO), DOD Minimum Antiterrorism Standoff Distances for
Buildings, 9 February 2012
UFC 4-020-01, DOD Security Engineering Facilities Planning Manual, 11
September 2008
UFC 4-020-02FA, Security Engineering: Concept Design (FOUO), 1 March
2005
UFC 4-020-03FA, Security Engineering Final Design (FOUO), 1 March 2005
UFC 4-021-01, Design and O&M: Mass Notification Systems, 9 April 2008,
(Change 1, January 2010)
UFC 4-021-02, Electronic Security Systems, 1 October 2013
UFC 4-022-01, Security Engineering: Entry Control Facilities/Access Control
Points, 25 May 2005
UFC 4-022-02, Selection and Application of Vehicle Barriers, 8 June 2009
(Change 1, 9 August 2010)
UFC 4-022-03, Security Fences and Gates, 1 October 2013
DOD 5200.08-R, Physical Security Program, 9 April 2007 (Incorporating
Change 1, 27 May 2009)

Prescribed Forms - None

 70

Adopted Forms – None

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AF—Air Force
AFCAP—Air Force Contract Augmentation Program
AFCEC—Air Force Civil Engineer Center
AFDA—Air Force Doctrine Annex
AFH—Air Force Handbook
AFI—Air Force Instruction
AFIMS—Air Force Incident Management System
AFMAN—Air Force Manual
AFOSI—Air Force Office of Special Investigations
AFPAM—Air Force Pamphlet
AFPD—Air Force Policy Directive
AFRIMS—Air Force Records Information Management System
AOR—Area of Responsibility
AT—Antiterrorism
ATO—Antiterrorism Officer
ATR—Antiterrorism Representative
CARM—Critical Asset Risk Management Program
CBRNE—Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and High-Yield
Explosives
CCDR—Combatant Commander
CCMD—Combatant Command
CE—Civil Engineer
CIP—Critical Infrastructure Program
DBT—Design Basis Threat
DIA—Defense Intelligence Agency
DOD—Department of Defense
 71

DODD—Department of Defense Directive

DODI—Department of Defense Instruction
ECF—Entry Control Facility
ECP—Entry Control Point
EM—Emergency Management
ETL—Engineering Technical Letter
EWS—Early Warning System
FOUO—For Official Use Only
FP—Force Protection
FPCON—Force Protection Condition
GIS—Geographic Information Systems
IAW—In Accordance With
ID—Integrated Defense
IDRMP—Integrated Defense Risk Management Process
IDS—Intrusion Detection System
IED—Improvised Explosive Devices
IESNA—Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
JP—Joint Publication
MIL-HDBK—Military Handbook
MNS—Mass Notification System
OPR—Office of Primary Responsibility
OPSEC—Operations Security
PDC—Protective Design Center
Prime BEEF—Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force
RAM—Random Antiterrorism Measures
RDS—Records Disposition Schedule
SEA Hut—Southeast Asia Hut
TCMS—Theater Construction Management System
TR—Technical Report
TTP—Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures
 72

UFC—Unified Facilities Criteria

US—United States
USACE—United States Army Corps of Engineers
USAMC—United States Army Materiel Command
VA—Vulnerability Assessment
VBIED—Vehicle-borne Improvised Explosive Device

Terms

Access Control—Any combination of barriers, gates, electronic security

devices, and/or guards used to deny entry to unauthorized personnel or vehicles.
Antiterrorism—Defensive measures used to reduce the vulnerability of
individuals and property to terrorist acts, to include rapid containment by local
military and civilian forces. Also called AT. See also counterterrorism;
terrorism. (JP 3-07.2)
Area of Responsibility—The geographical area associated with a Combatant
Command within which a geographic combatant commander has authority to
plan and conduct operations. Also called the AOR. (JP 1-02)
Billeting—Any building or portion of a building, regardless of population
density, in which 11 or more unaccompanied DOD personnel are routinely
housed, including Temporary Lodging Facilities and military family housing
permanently converted to unaccompanied housing. Billeting also applies to
expeditionary and temporary structures with similar population densities and
functions.
Building Hardening—Enhanced conventional construction that mitigates threat
hazards where standoff distance is limited. Building hardening may also be
considered to include the prohibition of certain building materials and
construction techniques.
Combatant Commander—A commander of one of the unified or specified
combatant commands established by the President. Also called CCDR.
Combating Terrorism (CbT)—Combating terrorism within the DOD
encompasses all actions, including AT, counterterrorism, terrorism consequence
management (preparation for and response to the consequences of a terrorist
incident or event) and terrorism intelligence support (collection and
 73

dissemination of terrorism-related information), taken to oppose terrorism

throughout the entire threat spectrum, including terrorist use of CBRNE. (AFI
10-245)
Controlled Perimeter—A physical boundary at which vehicle access is
controlled at the perimeter of an installation, an area within an installation, or
another area with restricted access. A physical boundary will be considered as a
sufficient means to channel vehicles to the access control points. At a minimum,
access control at a controlled perimeter requires the demonstrated capability to
search for and detect explosives. Where the controlled perimeter includes a
shoreline and there is no defined perimeter beyond the shoreline, the boundary
will be at the mean high water mark.
Counterintelligence—Information gathered and activities conducted to protect
against espionage, other intelligence activities, sabotage, or assassinations
conducted by or on behalf of foreign governments or elements thereof, foreign
organizations, foreign persons, or international terrorist activities. Also called
CI. See also counterespionage; security. (JP 1-02)
Criticality Assessment—An assessment of the effect of temporary or
permanent loss of key assets or infrastructures on the installation or a unit‘s
ability to perform its mission. The assessment also examines costs of recovery
and reconstitution including time, funds, capability and infrastructure support.
(AFI 10-245)
Design Basis Threat (DBT)—The threat against which buildings and other
structures must be protected and upon which the protective system’s design is
based. It is the baseline type and size of threat that buildings or other structures
are designed to withstand. The DBT includes the aggressor’s tactics and the
associated tools, weapons, and explosives employed in these tactics.
Deterrence—The prevention of action by the existence of a credible threat of
unacceptable counteraction and/or belief that the cost of action outweighs the
perceived benefits. (JP 3-0, Joint Operations). The prevention from action by
fear of the consequences. Deterrence is a state of mind brought about by the
existence of a credible threat of unacceptable counteraction. (AFI 10-245)
Entry Control Facility—The entry point for all personnel, visitors, and
vehicles to the site or installation. Also referred to as the ECP or access control
point.
 74

Expeditionary Structures—Structures intended to be inhabited for no more

than one year. This group typically includes tents, Small and Medium Shelter
Systems, Expandable Shelter Containers, International Organization of
Standards, and Container Express containers.
Force Protection (FP)—Preventive measures taken to prevent or mitigate
hostile actions against DOD personnel (to include family members), resources,
facilities and critical information. Also called FP. See also force; force
protection condition; protection. (JP 1-02). Note: Because terminology is
always evolving, the Air Force believes a more precise definition is: [An
integrated application of offensive and defensive actions that deter, detect,
preempt, mitigate or negate threats against Air Force air and space operations
and assets, based upon an acceptable level of risk.] (AFDA 3-10) {Italicized
definition in brackets applies only to the Air Force and is offered for clarity.}
Force Protection Conditions (FPCONs)—A Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of
Staff-approved standard for identification of and recommended responses to
terrorist threats against US personnel and facilities. Also called FPCON. See
also antiterrorism; force protection. (JP 3-07.2). A DOD-approved system
standardizing the Department’s identification, recommended preventive actions
and responses to terrorist threats against U.S. personnel and facilities. This
system is the principal means for a commander to apply an operational decision
on how to protect against terrorism. It facilitates inter-Service coordination and
support for AT activities. (AFI 10-245)
Giant Voice System—A system typically installed as a base-wide system to
provide a siren signal and pre-recorded and live voice messages. It is most
useful for providing mass notification for personnel in outdoor areas,
expeditionary structures, and temporary buildings. It is generally not suitable for
mass notification to personnel in permanent structures because of the difficulty
in achieving acceptable intelligibility of voice messages.
Improvised Explosive Device (IED)—A device placed or fabricated in an
improvised manner incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or
incendiary chemicals designed to destroy, incapacitate, harass, or distract. It
may incorporate military stores, but is normally devised from nonmilitary
components. Also called IED. (JP 1-02)
Inhabited Building—Buildings or portions of buildings routinely occupied by
11 or more DOD personnel and with a population density of greater than one
person per 40 gross square meters (430 gross square feet). This density generally
 75

excludes industrial, maintenance, and storage facilities, except for more densely
populated portions of those buildings, such as administrative areas. The
inhabited building designation also applies to expeditionary and temporary
structures with similar population densities. (UFC 4-010-01)
Integrated Defense—The integration of multidisciplinary active and passive,
offensive and defensive capabilities, employed to mitigate potential risks and
defeat adversary threats to AF operations. (AFI 31-101)
Intelligence—1.) The product resulting from the collection, processing,
integration, evaluation, analysis and interpretation of available information
concerning foreign countries or areas. 2). The information and knowledge about
an adversary obtained through observation, investigation, analysis, or
understanding. (AFI 10-245 & AFI 31-101)
Internal Security—Measures used to protect personnel or assets located on the
interior of the base.
Level of Protection—The degree to which an asset is protected against injury or
damage. This would include personnel and equipment. Levels of protection can
be defined as low, medium, or high. For a low level of protection, the structure
would be near collapse, a medium level of protection would result in a damaged
but repairable structure, and a high level of protection would cause superficial
damage to the structure. Selecting the level of protection means trading-off an
acceptable level of risk.
Mass Notification System—A system that provides real-time information to all
building occupants or personnel in the immediate vicinity of the building during
emergency situations.
Obscuration Screen—A physical structure or some other element used to block
the line of sight to a potential target.
Passive Defense—Measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize
the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the
initiative. See also active defense. (JP 1-02)
Perimeter Security—Elements that form the first line of defense for an
installation. Elements include standoff, physical barriers, access control, entry
control points, security lighting, hardened fighting positions and overwatch
towers, intrusion detection and surveillance systems, and security forces.
Physical Security—That part of security concerned with physical measures
designed to safeguard personnel; to prevent unauthorized access to equipment,
 76

installations, material, and documents; and to safeguard them against espionage,

sabotage, damage, and theft. (JP 3-0)
Pre-detonation Screen—A structure designed to protect a critical asset by
causing a weapon to detonate prior to hitting the primary target, causing its
effect to dissipate in the distance between the screen and the target.
Primary Gathering Building—Inhabited buildings routinely occupied by 50 or
more DOD personnel. This designation applies to the entire portion of a building
that meets the population density requirements for an inhabited building. For
example, an inhabited portion of the building that has an area within it with 50
or more personnel is a primary gathering building for the entire inhabited
portion of the building. The primary gathering building designation also applies
to expeditionary and temporary structures with similar populations and
population densities and to family housing with 13 or more family units per
building, regardless of population or population density.
Random Antiterrorism Measures—Random, multiple security measures that
consistently change the look of a site's force protection posture and introduce
uncertainty into the site's overall force protection program. These measures
make it difficult for terrorists to predict actions or discern patterns or routines.
Risk Management—The process of identifying, assessing, and controlling risks
arising from operational factors and making decisions that balance risk costs
with mission benefits. Also called RM. See also risk. (JP 3-0)
Standoff Distance—A distance maintained between a building or portion
thereof and the potential location for an explosive detonation.
Temporary Structures—Structures erected with an expected occupancy of
three years or less. Typically includes wood frame and rigid wall construction
and such things as Southeast Asia (SEA) Huts, hardback tents, International
Organization for Standardization, and Container Express containers, pre-
engineered buildings, trailers, stress-tensioned shelters, Expandable Shelter
Containers, and Aircraft Hangars (ACH).
Terrorism—The unlawful use of violence or threat of violence, often motivated
by religious, political, or other ideological beliefs, to instill fear and coerce
governments or societies in pursuit of goals that are usually political. See also
antiterrorism; combating terrorism; counterterrorism; force protection
condition. (JP 3-07.2). The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of
unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate
 77

governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political,

religious, or ideological. (AFI 10-245)
Terrorist—An individual who commits an act or acts of violence or threatens
violence in pursuit of political, religious, or ideological objectives. (AFI 10-245)
Terrorism Threat Level (TTL)—An intelligence threat assessment of the level
of terrorist threat faced by U.S. personnel and interests. The assessment is based
on a continuous intelligence analysis of a minimum of four elements: terrorist
group operational capability, intentions, activity and operational environment.
There are four threat levels: LOW, MODERATE, SIGNIFICANT and HIGH.
Threat levels must not be confused with FPCONs. Threat-level assessments are
provided to senior leaders to assist them in determining the appropriate local
FPCON. (AFI 10-245)
Terrorist Group—Any number of terrorists who assemble together, have a
unifying relationship, or are organized for the purpose of committing an act or
acts of violence or threatens violence in pursuit of their political, religious, or
ideological objectives. (AFI 10-245)
Terrorist Threat Level—A DOD intelligence threat assessment of the level of
terrorist threat faced by US personnel and interests in a foreign country; the
levels are expressed as LOW, MODERATE, SIGNIFICANT, and HIGH. (JP
3-07.2)
Threat Assessment—In antiterrorism, examining the capabilities, intentions,
and activities, past and present, of terrorist organizations as well as the security
environment within which friendly forces operate to determine the level of
threat. Also called TA. (JP 3-07.2)
Vulnerability—1. The susceptibility of a nation or military force to any action
by any means through which its war potential or combat effectiveness may be
reduced or its will to fight diminished. (JP 1-02) In AT, a situation or
circumstance which, if left unchanged, may result in the loss of life or damage to
mission-essential resources. It includes the characteristics of an installation,
system, asset, application, or its dependencies that could cause it to suffer a
degradation or loss (incapacity to perform its designated function) as a result of
having been subjected to a certain level of threat or hazard. (AFI 10-245)
Vulnerability Assessment—A DOD, command, or unit-level evaluation
(assessment) to determine the vulnerability of an installation, unit, exercise, port,
ship, residence, facility, or other site to a terrorist attack. Identifies areas of
 78

improvement to withstand, mitigate, or deter acts of violence or terrorism. Also

called VA. (JP 3-07.2)
 79

Attachment 2

SITE SELECTION AND LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS

A2.1. Site Selection. It may not be possible to select sites that meet all
requirements needed to implement effective force protection measures;
nevertheless, a list of considerations can be developed and used during the site
selection process. Keep the following force protection considerations in mind
when selecting beddown sites:

A2.1.1. Consider the threat throughout the entire site selection process.

A2.1.2. Consider minimum AT standards established by DOD and whether the

site supports or inhibits efforts to attain and maintain AT standards.

A2.1.3. Consider force protection standards established by the CCDR and

whether the site supports or inhibits efforts to attain and maintain these
standards.

A2.1.4. Select a site that provides the opportunity to maximize standoff

distances.

A2.1.5. Select beddown areas that are away from public roads and uncontrolled
areas.

A2.1.6. Avoid areas where terrain features provide adversaries with too many
vantage points.

A2.1.7. Avoid areas that do not provide sufficient standoff distances.

A2.1.8. Consider future need for additional space to support a population

increase.

A2.1.9. Consider future need to increase standoff distances as a result of

increased threat levels.
 80

A2.1.10. Consider space needed for protective construction (i.e., bunkers,

overwatch towers, defensive fighting positions, revetments, sidewall protection,
blast and fragmentation barriers, vehicle barriers, perimeter barriers, etc.).

A2.1.11. Consider the need to establish a defense-in-depth posture for integrated

base defense.

A2.1.12. Consider adjacent land use and direct lines of sight or access to the site.

A2.1.13. Consider the need to modify terrain outside the established perimeter to
provide clear zones and eliminate potential hiding places.

A2.1.14. Consider support needed from the local area (i.e., utilities, sanitation,
indigenous materials, equipment, etc.) and how this impacts force protection
efforts.

A2.1.15. Consider site elevation to deny advantage for potential aggressors (i.e.,
lines of sight, targeting opportunities, etc.).

A2.1.16. Consider retrofits of existing facilities to meet minimum local AT

standards.

A2.1.17. Evaluate potential use of existing roads to enhance FP efforts.

A2.1.18. Consider the need to establish separate ECPs for delivery vehicles.

A2.1.19. Consider the need for vehicle queue space and search pits.

A2.1.20. Consider the need to disperse key facilities and critical assets.

A2.1.21. Select a site that lends itself to establishing an effective controlled

perimeter.

A2.1.22. Consider the need to bury utility lines.

A2.1.23. Consider the need to orient facilities to avoid direct line of sight from
the perimeter.
 81

A2.1.24. Consider the need to position high-value facilities and assets near the
center of the site.

A2.2. Site Layout. Key elements to consider during site layout include standoff
distances, layered security, number and location of ECPs, redundant utilities,
protection of all key assets, ammunition storage, hazardous material and
hazardous waste storage, and protective shelters throughout the site. Maintain
maps that indicate, in detail, where every asset will be placed and where all
protective construction (i.e., revetments, bunkers, etc.) will take place. Also
consider the following elements during site layout.

A2.2.1. Use the threat assessment when determining how best to site facilities in
relation to existing roads and the controlled perimeter.

A2.2.2. Consider minimum AT standards established by DOD when siting

facilities and critical assets.

A2.2.3. Consider force protection standards established by CCDRs when siting

facilities and critical assets.

A2.2.4. Maximize standoff distance between the controlled perimeter and

inhabited buildings and other key assets.

A2.2.5. Limit ECPs to an absolute minimum, and establish a separate entry

control points for trucks and delivery vehicles at an appreciable standoff
distance from inhabited facilities and other key assets.

A2.2.6. Consider terrain, elevation, and available space when siting the ECF.
Include space for approach zones, access zones, and response zones, queue
space; parking space, and space for vehicle search pits. Use AFH 10-2401 and
UFC 4-022-01 as guidance for ECF layout.

A.2.2.7. Clear dense vegetation around the perimeter that may be used by
adversaries to camouflage or conceal themselves while conducting surveillance,
attempting to gain access to the site, or targeting priority assets.
 82

A2.2.8. Avoid straight-line roads or roads that are perpendicular to critical

facilities or assets.

A2.2.9. Construct berms and ditches to enhance perimeter security.

A2.2.10. Avoid siting structures and critical equipment in areas where terrain
offers vantage points from which adversaries might target facilities and other
critical assets.

A2.2.11. Site key facilities and critical assets towards the center of the site to
attain maximum standoff distance from the perimeter.

A2.2.12. Provide redundant utility systems and bury all utility lines.

A2.2.13. If the threat warrants, disperse facilities and key assets to reduce the
possibility of collateral damage to multiple assets from a single attack.

A2.2.14. If key assets can be better protected if clustered and FP resources are
available to increase their level of protection, consider this option.

A2.2.15. Orient facilities in a manner that reduces a direct line of sight from
outside the perimeter and in a manner that limits the amount of damage from a
blast (the end of a facility faces the area of the potential blast versus the sides
facing the area of the potential blast).

A2.2.16. Compartmentalize primary gathering facilities to limit damage and

injuries from fragmenting weapons in the event of an attack.

A2.2.17. Determine appropriate areas to site revetments and other protective

structures (blast/fragmentation walls) (e.g., critical assets and key primary
gathering facilities, etc.).

A2.2.18. Site facilities that receive bulk deliveries and other structures more
vulnerable to an attack (e.g., industrial areas, hazardous waste/hazardous storage
areas, refuse collection areas, etc.) in areas away from the main inhabited
portion of the site. These areas still need to be secured.
 83

A2.2.19. Assist security personnel in constructing layers of defense to support

the ID effort.

A2.2.20. Ensure parking areas are constructed to provide the minimum standoff
distance from facilities as determined by DOD standards or the CCDR.

A2.2.21. Select areas for siting trash containers at least 10m/33ft away from
facilities and other key assets.

A2.2.22. Site personnel bunkers strategically throughout the site (particularly in

highly populated areas) to provide shelter in the event of an attack.

A2.2.23. Site MNS components in areas so that voice notification may be heard
throughout the entire site.

A2.2.24. Outline a plan to apply hardening, camouflage, and concealment to all

key facilities and critical assets once sited.

A2.2.25. Outline a plan to construct obscuration screens and pre-detonation

screens, and install window film application to lessen the severity of damage to
key facilities/assets in the event of an attack.