Campus

STUDY GUIDE
Educational Foundations 2 (2nd Edition):

Philosophy of Education and
Sociology of Education
FMS4781/FMS3622/FMP3622/FMU3622/FMS4622
Item No: 1230
Centre for Open, Distance & eLearning

Materials Development and Instructional Design Department
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Acknowledgements
The Centre for Open, Distance & eLearning Materials Development and Instructional Design
Department wishes to thank those below for their contribution to this study guide:
Dr G.N Likando, Dr C.H. Brunette and Author
Prof. E. M. Amukugo
Prof. E.M. Amukugo Content Editor
Dr A. Isaacs Language Editor
Instructional Designer
Contents
About this study guide 1
How this study guide is structured’ .................................................................................. 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to Educational Foundations 2: Philosophy and Sociology of Education ......... 3
Educational Foundations 2: Philosophy and Sociology of Education is this course for
you? .................................................................................................................................. 3
Time frame ....................................................................................................................... 3
Study skills ....................................................................................................................... 3
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 5
Assignments ..................................................................................................................... 5
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 5
Getting around this study guide 6

Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 6
Unit 1 7
Philosophy of Education as a Discipline .......................................................................... 7
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 7
1. The meaning of philosophy: ............................................................................. 8
1.1 What do we regard as philosophy? ......................................................................... 8
1.2 The Western concept of philosophy. ........................................................................... 9
1.3 The Eastern concept of philosophy ............................................................................ 11
1.4 The African concept of philosophy ........................................................................... 12
1.5 Trends in African philosophy today. ......................................................................... 14
1.6 Some African philosophers and their philosophies. .............................................. 16
1.7 Branches of philosophy ............................................................................................. 20
1.8 The role of philosophy .......................................................................................... 22
1.9 Philosophy is speculative ........................................................................................... 23
2. Understanding philosophy of Education: .......................................................... 23
2.1 Philosophical Foundations of Education ................................................................... 23
2.2 Philosophy of education as a discipline of knowledge ......................................... 24
2.3 The Role of Philosophy of Education ................................................................... 25
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 26
References ...................................................................................................................... 27
Unit 2 29
Theories of Education ..................................................................................................... 29
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 29
1. Idealism ............................................................................................................. 29
2. Realism ............................................................................................................. 30
3. Pragmatism ....................................................................................................... 31
3.1 Philosophical founders of pragmatism ...................................................................... 31
4. Perennialism ................................................................................................... 31
5. Essentialism ...................................................................................................... 32
6. Thomism......................................................................................................... 33
7. Progressivism ................................................................................................. 33
8. Existentialism .................................................................................................... 34
9. Humanism ...................................................................................................... 34
10. Postmodernism ................................................................................................ 35
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 35
References ...................................................................................................................... 35
Unit 3 36
Theory of Oppressive Action ......................................................................................... 36
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 36
1. The general impact of colonial education. ........................................................ 36
2. Types of colonialism. ........................................................................................ 37
3. Pedagogy of the Oppressed ............................................................................ 39
3.1 Justification for the pedagogy of the oppressed......................................................... 39
4. The theory of anti-dialogical action and its characteristics. ............................. 40
5. Solutions and relevance to education ................................................................ 41
6. The theory of dialogical action and its characteristics ...................................... 44
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 45
References ...................................................................................................................... 46
Unit 4 47
Sociology of Education as a Discipline .......................................................................... 47
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 47
1. The subject ‘Sociology of Education’............................................................... 49
3. Sociology of Education as an independent sub-discipline of education ........... 51
4. The function of Sociology of Education ........................................................ 54
5. Other study theme(s) of Sociology of Education .............................................. 55
5.1 Primary socialisation ................................................................................................. 56
5.2 Secondary socialisation ............................................................................................. 56
5.3 Tertiary socialisation ................................................................................................. 57
5.4 Informal education ..................................................................................................... 57
5.5 Formal education ....................................................................................................... 57
5.6 Schooling ................................................................................................................... 57
6. The social functions of Education..................................................................... 59
6.1 Aims of Education ..................................................................................................... 59
6.2 Character Education................................................................................................... 60
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 63
References ...................................................................................................................... 65
Unit 5 66
The educational significance of the school..................................................................... 66
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 66
1. The encounter of teacher and child in the school situation ............................... 67
1.1 The task of the school during this educational encounter .......................................... 67
2. The school as a social structure ........................................................................ 69
3. The school as a community............................................................................... 70
3.1 Community’s demands on a school ........................................................................... 70
3.2 The child as school-community member ................................................................... 71
3.3 The adults (parents and teachers) as school-community members ............................ 71
4. The social nature of teaching ............................................................................ 74
5. The effective use of social interaction structures in the lesson situation .......... 75
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 77
References ...................................................................................................................... 78
Unit 6 79
A ‘Sociology of Education’ perspective on the family .................................................. 79
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 79
1. The family as the first and primary educational institution .............................. 80
2. Educational activities and styles of parents ...................................................... 82
2.1 Parent’s activities ....................................................................................................... 82
2.2 Undesirable educational styles................................................................................... 83
2.3 Acceptable educational style ..................................................................................... 84
3. The family as an educative environment .......................................................... 85
4. The vulnerable character of the present-day family ......................................... 88
5. The vulnerable family: effects on education ..................................................... 90
6. Involvement of families (parents) in education ................................................ 90
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 92
References ...................................................................................................................... 92
Unit 7 93
Educational limitations in achieving adulthood: the anti-child society.......................... 93
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 93
1. Causes for the development of an anti-child society ........................................ 94
2. Symptoms of an anti-child culture ................................................................. 95
2.1 Effects on children’s behaviour ................................................................................. 96
2.2 Effects on parents’ and teachers’ behaviour ............................................................ 100
3. The physical and psychological onslaught on the child .................................. 101
3.1 Physical onslaught ................................................................................................... 101
3.2 Psychological onslaught .......................................................................................... 102
4. Namibia’s most vulnerable children ............................................................ 103
Namibia’s most vulnerable children (UNICEF report) ................................................. 103
4.1 Eight Millennium development goals (MDGs) ....................................................... 104
4.2 What is vulnerability? .............................................................................................. 105
4.3 How can education put a stop to vulnerability of learners? ..................................... 106
4.4 Psychosocial development ....................................................................................... 106
5. The influence of the HIV/Aids pandemic on education ................................. 107
6. Access to education and training .................................................................... 109
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 110
References .................................................................................................................... 110
Unit 8 112
The Social Framework of Namibian Schools ............................................................... 112
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 112
1. Children’s Rights and Responsibilities ........................................................ 113
1.1 The Convention of the Rights of the Child. ............................................................. 113
2. Children’s Rights as Protected by Member States of the United Nations. ..... 115
3. Rights of Children as Protected by the School ............................................... 120
4. Children’s Responsibilities ............................................................................. 121
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 122
References .................................................................................................................... 123
Unit 9 124
Code of Conduct for Schools ....................................................................................... 124
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 124
1. The Namibian Educational Code of Conduct for Schools .............................. 125
1.1 Code of Conduct for Learners ................................................................................. 125
2. Principles, legislation and regulations guiding teaching in Namibia .............. 127
2.1 Constitution.............................................................................................................. 127
2.2 Education Act 16 0f 2001 ........................................................................................ 127
2.3 Education Policies ................................................................................................... 127
3. Code of Conduct for Teaching Services ......................................................... 128
3.1 Purposes of Code of Conduct for Teaching Services .............................................. 128
3.2 Objectives of Code of Conduct for Teaching Services ............................................ 128
4. Rights and Responsibilities of Teachers ......................................................... 133
5. Rights and Responsibilities of School Principals ........................................ 134
6. Responsibilities of parents with respect to the code of conduct. .................... 134
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 135
References .................................................................................................................... 135
About this study guide

FMS4781/FMS3622/FMP3622/FMU3622/FMS4622 has been
produced by the Centre for Open, Distance & eLearning. All study
guides produced by the Centre for Open, Distance & eLearning are
structured in the same way, as outlined below.
How this study guide is

structured’
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
1
About this study guide Philosophy of Education as a Discipline
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
 Answers to Assignment and/or assessment, as applicable
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this study guide; these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing Sociology of Education, we would appreciate it if you
would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
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 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
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Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

course.
2
Course overview
Welcome to Sociology of
Education: Philosophy and
The course aims at developing your critical thinking of the philosophical
and sociological underpinnings of education and their impact on teaching
and learning.
Sociology of Education:
Philosophy and Sociology of
Education is this course for you?
There are no pre-requisites for this course.
Time frame
This is a semester course (14 weeks).
How long?
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
3
Philosophy of Education as a Discipline
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or

domestic responsibilities .
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing, these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
4
Need help?
For routine enquiries please contact the Student Support Department at
+264 61 206 3416.
For further assistance you can go to your nearest Regional UNAM

Help Centre.
Assignments
Please see the tutorial letter for instructions on the submission of
assignments.
Assignments
Assessments
Course materials may have activities and/or self-assessment exercises to
check your own understanding of the material, but there are also tutor-
marked assignments/tests which you have to submit. Please see the
tutorial letter for more details.
Assessments
5
Getting around this study guide
Margin icons
While working through this study guide you will notice the frequent use
of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text,
a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this study guide.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Additional Answers to Assessment

reading Assessments
Assignment Audio Case study Discussion
Exit Learning Feedback Group Activity Help

Outcomes
Prescribed Recommended
Note it!/Warning Outcomes Reading website
References Reflection Study skills Summary
Terminology Tip Video
6
Unit 1
Philosophy of Education as a
Discipline
Introduction
In this unit you will study and examine the meaning of philosophy and
philosophy of education. Philosophy will further help you to appreciate the
philosophical bases of education or the principles that form the basis of
education. More importantly, you will begin to comprehend the use and
role of philosophy and philosophy of education in education in general and
in education in particular. You will be further encouraged to form your
own opinions on philosophy and philosophy of education respectively.
Your own formation of these two concepts will help you think and
understand their application in education.
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:
 explain the meaning of philosophy as a discipline or branch of

knowledge;
 explain the meaning of philosophy of education as a field of study;
Outcomes  state the role of philosophy in education;
 list and discuss the types of philosophy and how they relate to
education;
 explain the different meanings of the term education
 describe the aptness of both philosophy and philosophy of education;

and
 analyse the inaptness of both philosophy and philosophy of

education.
Hamm, C.M. (1995) Philosophical Issues in Education. An Introduction.

New York : The Falmer Press.
Prescribed reading
7
1. The meaning of philosophy:

Philosophy can be defined as the quest for an understanding of the world
(physical universe) and of the human being’s place in it. The term can
also be described as the human being’s endeavour to engage in a constant
search for ‘correct’ answers to the roots and causes of all that exists
1.1 What do we regard as philosophy?

What is philosophy and what does it entails? To answer this question, it
will be helpful to look at the origin and evolution of the word ‘philosophy’
from the Greek perspective to the current debate about what constitutes
philosophy. The word, ‘philosophy’ is derived from two ancient Greek
words; philo which means love and sophia which means wisdom. When
the two words are combined, the term which is derived from them is
‘philosophia’, which literally means lover of wisdom or knowledge. The
Greek word logos designated a certain kind of thinking about the world, a
kind of logical analysis that placed things in the context of reason and
explained them with the pure force of thought. Such an intellectual
exercise led one to wisdom (sophia) and those who dedicated themselves
to Logos were thought of as lovers of wisdom or knowledge.
Omoregbe (1985) explains philosophy in broader terms as follows:
Human experience is the source of reflective activity known as philosophy.

This experience could be either man’s own experience of himself
(subjectivity) or his experience of the world around him (objectivity). Man
has a strong natural desire to know, he is by nature curious. Yet his
knowledge is so limited that he does not know even himself. He does not
know why he exists and he has no answers to his own basic questions about
himself. What is his origin? What is his ultimate destiny? Why is he here?
What happens when he is forced out of this life? Has his life any ultimate
meaning? These questions have led to deep reflection all over the world.
To reflect on such questions in search of explanations or answers is to
philosophize. (p.4).
Meanwhile according to their definition Njoroge and Bennaars (1986)

argue:
Philosophy as a subject is a world which is full of apprehension, fretfulness

and struggle. It is a world of speculation and wisdom. Philosophers show
care, concern even anxiety about man and the world he lives in.
Philosophers struggle to explain the world in order to survive in it as human
beings. Philosophers are concerned with the gist and significance of life.
(p.8)
8
From the early usage, the concept ‘philosophy’ has passed into common
usage and different people have used it to mean different things. In the
popular sense it means to characterize a person’s or a group of persons’
attitude or world-view, which is actually the sum total of assumptions,
beliefs, attitudes and prejudices which are partly inherited and acquired in
the process of living. Meanwhile in the traditional African society, the term
philosophy is also used for the profound sayings of the elders, words that
are witty and pregnant with meanings. Such words of elders are words of
wisdom and find expression in proverbs, idiomatic expressions, riddles,
incantations, or in oracular and witty sayings. On the other hand
philosophy is an attempt to discover and clarify the underlying principles
and values upon which the human being bases his or her life and to
investigate the essential meaning, which he or she attaches to his or her
encounter with his or her environment, and indeed his or her encounter
with life itself. Omorebge (1998) defines a philosopher as one who devotes
a great deal of time reflecting on fundamental questions about human life
or the physical universe.
Philosophy as a discipline is parasitic, because it is capable of borrowing

from other disciplines as long as the different types of human activity and
experience persist. In this vein, we talk of philosophy of education when
dealing with and addressing educational problems. In brief, philosophy is
concerned with the process of analyzing concepts like existence,
knowledge, belief, certainty, cause, action, perception and emotion.
But, as Wainaina and Amukugo (1988, p.8) observed: “the task of dealing
with philosophical questions has been well developed in the Western
world. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, three Greeks who lived well over 2000
years ago, stand out as the fathers of Western philosophy. Their work is
the base upon which the structure of philosophy as a subject is built. Let us
now briefly look at the Western concept of philosophy.
1.2 The Western concept of philosophy.

Although over the years it has been generally believed that the Western
concept of philosophy was developed and derived from ancient Greece,
Onyewuenyi (1994) maintains that philosophy was a latecomer to Greece
after it had travelled from Egypt to Asia Minor and later to Italy. He asserts
that some citizens of ancient Greece did not accept the teaching of Socrates
and Plato as Greek philosophy and persecuted them for teaching foreign
doctrines. Over the years many thinkers emerged from Europe, Asia and
America and gave philosophy a new touch and image. Greeks, like many
nations on the globe were aware of changes from summer to winter, from
hot to cold, from light to dark and even from life to death, which led them
to demand an explanation through the sheer power of human. It was
wonderment and curiosity about natural phenomena which led Greeks to
philosophize in quest for understanding and explanation of certain
occurrences. The ancient giant philosophers included Socrates (470-399),
Plato (428-348) and Aristotle (385-322). Socrates spent much of his time
in the streets of Athens in quest for truth. He offended many powerful and
pompous Athenians and was brought to court for trial and the enraged jury
condemned him to death and despite attempts by his bribed friends to
9
escape; he refused to do so, drank the hemlock and became the martyrdom
for the truth.
Plato became the most important of Socrates’ disciples and also one of the
most powerful thinkers in history. He is also the founder of the first
university, the Academy, where students read the Socratic dialogues,
which he had written. Plato also developed the classic formulation of
idealist philosophical principles, which emphasize that in terms of
metaphysics, only the mental or the spiritual is real, while in terms of
epistemology knowing is the rethinking of latent ideas and in axiology,
values are absolute and eternal.
Aristotle became Plato’s best student and reflects the teleological

metaphysics, which states that every act is performed for some purpose
which is defined as the good of that act. He is also the proponent of realism,
which stresses objective knowledge and values. After the death of Aristotle
Greek civilization entered a period of cultural decline. With the demise of
Alexander the Great, many Greek philosophers were absorbed into the
newly emerging Roman Empire. Stoicism was one of the philosophies
which was transported to Rome, after being founded by Zeno of Cyprus
(334 – 262 B.C.), who used to preach to his students from a portico or stoa.
This philosophy concerned itself with the human conduct. During the
period when stoicism was exercising its greatest influence, a new social
and religious form of thought, Christianity was coming to the fore. This
new order tended to be atavistic and resistant to political domination. The
most prominent philosophical religious competitor with Christianity
during the third century was a mystical form of Platonism known as Neo-
Platonism (after Plato), espoused by Plotinus (204 – 270). According to
him, absolute truth cannot be found in this world.
In A.D. 313, Roman Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity

and it became the official religion of his realm. The most important
philosopher in this Christian Platonic tradition was Augustine of Hippo
(354 – 430), whose philosophy was concerned with the problem of good
and evil. At the death of Augustine, Western philosophy fell into a state
of deterioration for 400 years. After that period, philosophy blossomed
again in the work of John Scotus Erigena (810 – 877) of Ireland, whose
goal was the understanding of the totality of reality which he called nature.
After the impasse, the Renaissance or Enlightenment dawned, of which the

truly magnificent philosopher of this period was Rene Descartes (1596 –
1650). It was a period of intellectual awakening, a time when man began
to use his rational faculties and pulled himself out of the medieval pits of
mysticism and shoved aside the state and church authorities of the day. It
was a great movement which led to the discoveries from which many
benefit today. Beliefs in natural law and universal order sprung up and gave
a scientific approach to political and social issues. Thinkers expressed their
thoughts in writing and read the thoughts of others. The brilliant lights of
Enlightenment included the likes of Francis Beacon (1561 – 1626), Jean
Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1788), David Hume (1711 – 1776) John Locke
10
(1632 – 1704) and John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873) to mention just a few.
Apart from the majority of the mentioned British and French philosophers,
emerged German philosophers like Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1830) and others. From America
came the likes of Charles Pierce (1839 – 1914), a pragmatist, followed by
John Dewey (1859-1952) to mention just a few.
Later in the century new philosophers sprung up, such as Jean Paul Sartre
(1905-1980) and the existentialist theory which stresses that existence
precedes essence and believes that knowing is to make personal choices.
Other philosophies like empiricism, essentialism, reconstructivism,
pragmatism, utilitarianism to mention just a few appeared on the scene.
1.3 The Eastern concept of philosophy

Philosophy is not limited to any one culture or continent. Eastern
philosophy is generally taken to include the major religious and
philosophical systems of India known as Hinduism, along with Buddhist
and Jain philosophy and the Far East including Confucian and Taoist
thoughts. Although it is commonly believed that Eastern philosophy refers
very broadly to the various religious movements and salvation in Iran,
India, China and Japan instead of knowledge as contrast with Western
philosophy, it is not true as the latter has philosophical thought emanating
from Christianity, Judaism and Islam. For example Buddhism sees the path
to overcoming suffering in terms of understanding the fundamental truths
of life. Indian philosophy is the oldest recorded philosophy that it can no
longer be traced to a particular individual. It is based on books of
knowledge written back as far as four thousand years ago. Notable
philosophers in this category of Eastern philosophy and their philosophies
are:
Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC) of India was a contemporary of

Pythagoras (582-507 BC) of Greece. His teachings of Buddha emphasized
the following:
 the holding of right attitude at all times free from prejudice, illusion,
superstition, doubts, fears and animosities;
 the control of speech so that it is always true, simple, gentle and entirely
honest;
 the right conduct and honest, just and enlightened relationship with
other living things;
 the practice of harmlessness and to live without hurting others, either
by killing or injuring physically, or the causing of sorrow, either
mentally or emotionally;
 perseverance in noble action and the overcoming of all of the illusional
life;
 the directing of the mind towards the understanding of the supreme
wisdom and right meditation and practice of the inner experience.
Confucius (551- 479 B.C.) of China was also Buddha’s and Pythagoras’s
contemporary. His doctrines were as follow: the wisdom of the past
11
sustains the virtue of the present and the virtue of the present ensures the
well-being of the future. Like Socrates, Confucius affirmed that if it is
possible to cure the disease of irrationality with which men are afflicted,
the permanence of all desirable conditions is assured. He maintained that
in all things the wise must rule and the unlearned obey. He also desired to
universalize educational opportunity so that ignorance would become a
matter of choice rather than necessity. He did not engage or indulge either
in arrogance or in self-sufficiency. He believed in concentrating the mind
upon the good way and held firm upon virtue. He believed that in low
office, one must be faithful, in high office one must be just, in all
transactions one must be honest, and throughout one’s life, one must value
one’s honour above all gain. Confucius’s political philosophy is also rooted
in his belief that a ruler should learn self-discipline, should govern his
subjects by his own example and should treat them with love and concern.
His social philosophy revolves around the concept of Ren, ‘compassion or
loving others and his golden rule is, ‘What you do not wish for yourself,
do not do to others.’ Moral education is important to Confucius because it
is the means by which one can rectify and restore meaning to language and
values to society.
1.4 The African concept of philosophy

Unlike in the West, it is difficult to find contemporaries of philosophers
like Plato (428 -348 B.C.) and Aristotle (385 -322 B.C.) who lived in
Africa as such people’s philosophies were not effectively recorded. It
should be understood therefore that the only way to get information of
philosophical nature from traditional communities is to let them relate or
narrate their own experiences. It is from these narratives that one can sift
words of wisdom. The issue of paradigms for a science or philosophy to be
accepted as such seems ambiguous in the case of indigenous philosophy as
is traditional and hasn’t gone through scientific procedures.
Above that philosophy consists of different schools and this is inevitable,

as one school never can win over another, only gain wider, but never
universal acceptance.
However, around the 12th Century (A.D.), few decades before Ranulf
Higden, (a Benedictine monk claimed that Africa had one eyed people),
the University of Timbuktu in Mali flourished with 25 000 students from
all corners of the African continent and beyond, in search of excellence in
knowledge, wisdom and moral conduct. The University curriculum had
four degrees or levels: the primary level which emphasized the mastery of
the Arabic language, effective communication and writing skills. In
addition, students were further introduced to other sciences. The secondary
level is where students learnt grammar, jurisprudence, physics, astronomy,
chemistry and ethics. The third stage was the superior level, where students
were exposed to research work under a professor. The fourth and last stage
was the circle of knowledge level where scholars and students would
discuss crucial issues. On graduation day, students were given turbans
which symbolized divine light, wisdom, knowledge and excellent moral
12
conduct. Turbans further represented the demarcation line between

knowledge and ignorance. Philosophy in North Africa has a rich and varied
history dating from pre-dynastic Egypt and continuing through the birth of
both Christianity and Islam. Central to the ancients was the conception of
ma’at which referred to justice, truth, right, harmony, reciprocity and order.
In the Christian tradition Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 CE) was a

cornerstone of Christian philosophy and theology. His best book, The City
of God, wrote in Hippo (now Annaba, Algeria) challenged a number of
ideas of his age. In the Islamic tradition, Ibn Bajjah philosophized along
neo-Platonist lines in the 12th century. Bajjah maintains that the purpose
of human life is to gain true happiness, and true happiness is attained by
grasping the universals through reason and philosophy.
The University of Timbuktu produced scholars of high reputation and

knowledge like Ahmed Baba Es Sudane of Timbuktu, Mali, who devoted
his time to learning until he surpassed all his peers and contemporaries. He
was a matchless Jurist, scholar and Imam of his time. His academic
reputation spread all over Sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa.
Like Socrates, he stood on truth in the face of the Amirs and Kings who
persecuted him. He had a library of 1600 manuscripts, which were
plundered during the Moroccan invasion of Timbuktu when he was
deported to Fez, Morocco in 1593. It is reported that he authored sixty
books on theology, grammar, history and Jurisprudence; more than what
Shakespeare had written. This account demonstrates that there have been
great thinkers in Africa too. Ahmed Baba Es Sudane was not the only
African philosopher living at that time as the ancient manuscripts of
Timbuktu University are proofs of the talents, creativity and ingenuity of
the African people. These manuscripts are a living testimony of the highly
advanced and refined civilization in Sub-Sahara Africa, as Timbuktu
flourished as the greatest academic institution before the European
Renaissance.
A notable pre-modern sub-Sahara African philosopher is Anton Wilhelm

Amo (Anthony William Amo) (1703- 1759) who was born in Awukenu in
the Axim region of Ghana and taken to Germany as a slave by the Dutch
East India Company. He was given as a present to Anthony Ulrich, Duke
of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel and later became educated at the Wolfenbuttel
Ritter Akademie (1717-1721) and at the University of Helmstedt (1721-
1727). He later went to the University of Halle, where he completed his
studies with the dissertation, ‘The Rights of Moors in Europe.’ He gained
his doctorate in philosophy at Wittenberg in 1734 with his thesis, ‘On the
Absence of Sensation in the Human Mind and its Presence in our Organic
and Living Body,’ arguing against Cartesian dualism in favour of a broadly
materialist account of the person. He argued that it is the human body rather
the mind which perceives and feels. In 1738 he produced his major work,
‘Treatise on the Art of Philosophizing Soberly and Accurately’ in which
he developed an empiricist epistemology close to John Locke and David
Hume.
For many centuries, non-Africans have dominated discourses in Africa. He

attributes this to the culture of violence and colonization aspects Africa
13
went through at the hands of foreigners, like European colonizers. In the

process Africans were reduced to silence even about themselves. It was
only through decolonization that the silence was broken and the period of
critical analysis and thinking was ushered in. The critical sense which was
dormant and numbed by the colonial system became active when Africans
were given the liberty to express themselves freely. On the contrary, this
liberty was limited to some few countries as military coups and
dictatorships were the order of the decades from the time Sub-Sahara
Africa started gaining independence in 1957 since creative thinkers were
killed, jailed or exiled. Although the status quo of military coups slightly
changed after the collapse of communism in 1989, by the year 2000 alone,
MISA monitored and documented 128 incidents or activities that violated
media freedom (including academic freedom) and undermined the
principle of freedom of expression in the SADC region alone.
Notwithstanding the shortcoming, Ramose notes that one of the bases of

colonization was the belief that ‘man as a rational animal’ was not spoken
of the Africans and other non-Caucasians (Chinese and Japanese). The
Caucasians who may be labelled as the self-appointed heirs to the right to
reason have ambiguously established themselves as the producers of all
knowledge and holders of the truth. In this process, the struggle for reason,
that is who is and who is not rational became the foundation of racism.
However, to deny the existence of an African philosophy is to reject the
very idea of philosophy, as philosophy simply entails the love of wisdom.
This implies that one can acquire wisdom through skills and
communication with other members of the society. No community, no
matter how backward it may seem to be will fail to engage in useful and
relevant communication, in exchanging ideas and other expertise, and in
the process transmit such information to its young ones.
All communities, over the centuries had some form of rudimentary

elements of reasoning, which sustained them. In line with this argument is
Placide Temples, who uses the term philosophy to describe the profound
sayings of the African elders, words which are both witty and pregnant
with meanings. In a technical sense, philosophy is characterized by logical,
consistent and systematic thinking so as to reach conclusions that are
sound, coherent and consistent in all their parts. Of course the words of
African elderly people are full of wisdom and find expression in idiomatic
expressions, proverbs, in incantations (charm) or in oracular or prophetic
sayings. The young Africans are usually expected to treat these sayings
with deep respect because they are words of the departed and ancestral
spirits in some African quarters.
1.5 Trends in African philosophy today.

Students of modern African Philosophy tend to distinguish seven trends
which reflect the main concerns of African philosophers.
Ethnophilosophy examines features of a culture like language and

religious ceremonies, their philosophical systems and their epistemology.
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This trend had its origin in the numerous studies on African traditional
societies undertaken by the early Western anthropologists like Placide
Tempels (1959) in the 1940s. Others followed like Jahn (1958) in his book;
Muntu : An Outline of Neo-African Culture and Kagame (1976) on Bantu
Philosophy of Being. This trend is no longer strong and its turning point is
Mbiti’s book (1969), African Religion and Philosophy (Njoronge and
Bennaars, 1986; Kaphagawani and Malherbe, 2002). The work of Pretorius
(1975) ‘The Fwe of Eastern Caprivi Zipfel)’ and that of Fosse (1996),
Negotiating the Nation in Local Terms: Ethnicity and Nationalism in
Eastern Caprivi, Namibia could be regarded as the starting point of
ethnophilosophical work undertaken by particular philosophers in
Namibia.
Philosophic sagacity: Oruka is the proponent of this philosophy and it

refers to individual thinkers. It is a sort of individualist version of
ethnophilosophy, in which one records the beliefs of certain special
members of the community. The premise is that some members of a
community reach a high level of knowledge and understanding of their
cultures’ worldview and become sages.
Cultural philosophy: This originated during the 1940s when African

writers and thinkers like Leopold Sedar Senghor (Senegal), Aime Cesaire
and Cheik Anta Diop (Senegal) started to explore the mystery of African
personality and culminated in the philosophy of Negritude. Its proponents
tried to discover the meaning of ‘being black in the world,’ and more
particularly the meaning of Africanite, being African. D. Eriving its
philosophical inspiration from the anti-intellectual and personalist
movement in French philosophy during the 1930s and 1940s emphasized
the emotional and non-rationalist qualities in the African personality. It
glorified the ideas of dance, drama and music as they have found
expression in African culture. This trend is still in evidence today but its
followers are artists, writers and traditionalists, rather than professional
philosophers.
Politico-ideological philosophy: The beginnings of this trend may be

traced to the political writings of first African national leaders like Jomo
Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, Kenneth Kaunda, Julius Nyerere, Sekou
Toure and many others. By the 1960s, this trend began to be influenced by
philosophical writings of Franz Fanon (1963), in his book, The Wretched
of the Earth and Black Skins, White Masks. Ernest Wamba dia Wamba,
the current Congolese philosopher is one of the most outspoken advocates,
critical and revolutionary thinking on African problems. This school
proposes a philosophy of action in support of the struggle against
colonialism and imperialism.
In addition to the discourse on the emancipation of the African mind,

Wamba dia Wamba sees the urgent tasks of African philosophy as:
 the freeing of thought of the African, to enable free and critical thinking.
This borders on Ngugi’s decolonizing the African mind concept;
 the production of principles to help conceptualize the universal
emancipation of the African;
15
 helping to heal the African from the great disease of the incapacity to
self-determination at all levels;
 theoretically orienting science and technology towards dealing with
Africa-specific problems;
 theoretically freeing the politics of absolutely generic equality;
 inducing public debates on points of interest to public consciousness in
Africa and contributing to the break-up of the triple refusal – to think
for oneself;
 to take seriously one’s entire history and to resist taking up the long
term perspective.
Professional philosophy studies the international epistemological literature

and keeps abreast of the current academic debate on knowledge. Its
proponents though critical of Western philosophy, accept Western
terminology and methods. These are young philosophers trained in
Technical Philosophy and have the likes of Kwasi Wiredu of Ghana, Paulin
Hountondji of Benin, Olu Sodipo of Nigeria, Elungu Pene Elungu of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Odera Oruka from Kenya.
Literary or artistic philosophy is a branch of philosophy that deals with the

question, "what is art"? According to this branch of African philosophy,
since the dawn of civilization mankind has joined together to celebrate life
through art. It further states that it is through the artist's eye that our
collective society has sought to open its heart and mind, its humanity, to
the mysteries of life and to the differing views of our shared world.
Through this artistic tradition mankind has come together in hopes of
understanding our existence and lessening the isolation created by the
complexities of our world and human nature.
In narrative, a creator can embody, and readers be led to imagine unreal or

fictional characters, and even fantastic creatures or technologies. The
ability of the human mind to imagine, and even to experience compassion
with these fictional characters is itself revealing about the nature of the
human mind. It is in this light that some philosophers have chosen various
narrative forms to teach their philosophy which includes the literary works
of figures like Ngugi wa Thiongo, Wole Soyinka, Chinua Achebe, Ali
Mazrui, Joseph Diescho and many other African writers.
Hermeneutic philosophy: The dictionary defines hermeneutics in three

ways: to make something clear, to explain something and to translate or
interpret something. Proponents of hermeneutics have concentrated on the
understanding of texts, which is the written word. The philosophy focuses
on the analysis of African languages in order to find philosophical content.
1.6 Some African philosophers and their philosophies.

As indicated in the politico-ideological philosophy trend, prominent
African scholars and leaders came up with various philosophies
16
categorizing the thinking of Africans over the years. Hereunder follow

some of the African philosophers and their philosophical discourses:
Senghor’s negritude: Leopold Sedar Senghor the first president of

Senegal from independence in 1960 to 1981 came up and revived the
concept and philosophy of Negritude. It elaborates explications of African
life and values and contains within it a theory of knowledge, which is
epistemology. The philosophy represents the extreme point of the racial
and cultural consciousness of the African (Oruka, 1990). Senghor argued
for the rebirth of a strong Black identity and had a huge influence on culture
and politics in West Africa. He helped develop the idea of Negritude, a
movement to restore the identity of Africans by rejecting European values
and affirming the culture of the African diaspora and sought to reverse
centuries of colonial stigmatization of Black people. His first collection of
poems published in 1945 explored themes of exile and nostalgia. This
philosophy rejects the political, social and moral domination of the West.
According to Senghor, African people have a certain way of living,
speaking, singing, dancing, laughing, crying, painting and sculpting.
Nyerere and Ujamaa: Julius Nyerere’s philosophy of Ujamaa describes

African Socialism, whose main objective is an African extended family.
He also defined socialism as an attitude of mind which is needed to ensure
that people care for each other’s welfare. According to Nyerere, the three
basic characteristics of African Socialism are: work by everyone and
exploitation by none, fair sharing of the resources which are produced by
joint efforts and equality and respect for human dignity. He further states
that the philosophy of Ujamaa encourages people to retain traditional
values of human equality and dignity while taking advantage of modern
knowledge. In 1974 Nyerere at a conference on ‘Education in Africa’,
organized by the Dag Hammarskjold Organization, emphasized another
aspect of his educational philosophy, by emphasizing the role of liberation
in education. According to him, liberation in this context does not only
mean physical freedom of men’s bodies from slavery, from exploitation
and servitude, but meant total liberation of body, mind and soul. This
implied liberation from customs, attitudes and habits. In this process of
liberation one was destined to attain self-actualization, as an individual, not
as a puppet. He emphasized that it was only through education that an
African would be liberated from the mentality of slavery and colonialism,
making him aware of his equality with other humans.
Kaunda’s Humanism: According to Kaunda, mankind is capable of

evolving to a state of perfection by being freed from oppression, disease,
hunger and poverty, if given the opportunity to fully develop his
potentiality. Man should be given dignity and respect because he belongs
to the human race. In addition, man should be taught to work together with
his fellow man. The long-term goal of Dr Kaunda’s humanist philosophy
is to create conditions for love, truth, honesty and justice. In order to
achieve these conditions education should emphasize the unequivocal
rights of the individual, but at the same time recognizing his responsibility
and brotherhood with his fellow human beings. Human beings should be
taught how to participate in national and civic affairs and encouraged to
develop his/her cultural and aesthetic awareness, to contribute fully to the
economic, cultural and social developments of his country.
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Mobutu’s Authenticity: Despite being an autocratic ruler, Mobutu is one

of the few African leaders who advocated a spirit of Africanism by
ordering Congolese to replace their European names with African ones
through his philosophy of authenticity. He rejected the notion of imposing
Western values on Africans and motivated them to be proud of themselves
rather than feeling inferior. His philosophy underscored that Africans
should go back to their roots and relinquishes their Christian names and in
the process alleviates the emulation of Western system. Mobutu maintains
that teaching which induces slave mentality is not education at all; it is an
attack on the minds of human beings. According to him education should
make people aware of their potentials as human beings. He emphasizes that
the mind as well as the body should be liberated by education.
Echoing Mobutu’s sentiments and philosophy is Dr. Ihechukwu

Madubuike, one of the Nigerian prominent scholars, who laments that in
colonial Africa everything African was considered primitive, barbarous,
unholy, whereas everything European was considered pure, proper and
civilized. He further states that to answer to a white man’s name was seen
as one of the ways of becoming civilized. Many Africans today bear
European names even if they do not understand the meanings of those
names. These names are usually termed Christian names even if a person
is not a Christian.
Mzee Jomo Kenyatta’s Harambee: Harambee is a Swahili word

meaning ‘let us all pull together at once.’ The slogan was given to Kenyan
workers for the purposes of national development after Kenya gained
independence in 1963. Kenyatta likened the task ahead of the new nation
to that of workers with a burden which would only be overcome by
working together to successfully heave up or put together their heavy load.
The slogan which turned into a philosophy deliberately asked whites and
Africans to work together for the development of Kenya.
As president, Kenyatta worked to establish harmonious race relations,

safeguarding whites’ property rights and appealing to both whites and the
African majority to forget past injustices. Harambee promoted community
participation for accelerated education development and the motto of
Harambee has been evident in Kenya ever since in the development of
many self-help projects, including community-funded community-built
schools and other services.
Cheik Anta Diop’s African identity philosophy: Diop from Senegal

achieved prominence for his work, Nations Nègreset Culture, published in
1954, which attained the status of a classic in black intellectual circles. The
primary objective of the book is to demonstrate the Negro origin of ancient
Egyptian civilization and to refute the argument that the black race had
produced no great world civilization and Europe owes an immense cultural
debt to Africa. His philosophy of African identity intends to counter the
evolutionist view of classical anthropology which contrives to place white
race and Western civilization at the apex of human development.
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Frantz Fanon’s philosophy of violent revolution: Fanon (1925 – 1961)

believed that violent revolution was the only means of ending colonial
repression and cultural trauma in the Third World. He argued that violence
was the cleansing force by which Africans who were shattered by gaze and
colonial brutality could be freed. He believed that violence freed the native
from his inferiority complex and from his despair and inaction and made
him fearless and restored his self-respect. He blamed the colonizers for not
seeing the colonized as human beings, as they forced the colonized to
accept themselves as mere objects. This can equally be attributed to what
Joseph Conrad says in his book, ‘Heart of Darkness,’ which portrays
Africans as mere objects and dehumanizes them in the process. Fanon
demonstrated how the problem of colour was connected with a range of
words and images starting with the symbol of the dark side of the soul.
White is associated with justice, truth and virginity, while black is
associated with evil and backwardness.
Fanon advocated the instrumentality of violence and the emergence of a

critical and confident African consciousness which was part and parcel of
a dawning universal humanistic consciousness. He sought the rebirth of a
new African equipped with the language of hope and political action.
Central to the political action was the conquest of disease, hunger and the
eradication of hunger on the African soil. He stressed the need to overcome
material necessities in order to acquire new African freedom to heal the
interiorized African shame and self-hatred. The building of a nation is of
necessity accompanied by the discovery and encouragement of universal
values. He cautioned that postcolonial nations would end in disaster if they
simply replaced their colonial bourgeois leaders with African bourgeoisie
trained by European as oppression will retain the capitalistic class structure
(Fanon, 1963; Wiredu, 2006).
Gyekye’s Communitarianism: This philosophy challenges the view that

in African thought, community confers personhood on the individual and
thus the individual’s identity is merely derivative of the community.
Geykye argues that African thought ascribes definite value to the
individual by citing an Akan proverb, “All persons are children of God, no
one is a child of the earth,” in support of his argument that a person is
conceived as a theomorphic being, having in his nature an aspect of God.
He further argues that a person is more than just a material or physical
object, but a child of God and therefore intrinsically valuable. Despite this
argument that the person is ontologically complete, he also acknowledges
that people live in a community as per the following proverb, “When a
person descends from heaven, he or she descends into a human society.”
Consequently a person’s abilities are not sufficient for survival, but the
community is equally necessary for the survival of the individual.
According to him it is an error to hold that African philosophy denies the
individual, but maintains that the individual is intrinsically a valuable child
of God, linked into a web of human relationships. He demonstrates this
link by citing a Ghanaian artist who wrote, “we are linked together like a
chain, we are linked in life, we are linked in death, persons who share a
common blood relation never break away from one another.” According to
Mwimnobi (2003) in an attempt to achieve his idea of a metanational state,
Gyekye claims the following:
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 that personhood is partially defined by a communal structure;

 equal moral attention should be given both to individual and
community interests;
 it is necessary to integrate the ethic of responsibility with rights;
 members of the nation-state should be considered equal;
 to achieve nationhood in a multicultural community, move beyond
ethnicity;
 in an attempt to form a national culture, attention should be drawn to
the elegant aspects of cultures of various ethno-cultural communities.
Wiredu’s Philosophy of Personhood: This philosophy hosts a two part

conception of a person. First and most intuitive to Western conceptions of
persons is the ontological dimension. This includes one’s biological
constitution. Wiredu states that the second dimension which is the
normative conception of personhood is based on one’s ability to will freely
which is dependent on one’s ethical considerations. This designates a
person to become a person. According to this assertion one is not born a
person but becomes one through events and experiences that lead one to
act ethically. Wiredu opposes the ethnophilosophical and philosophical
sagacity approaches to philosophy, arguing that all cultures have
distinctive folk-beliefs and world-views which must be distinguished from
the practice of philosophizing. Although he acknowledges the role of folk
philosophy in genuine philosophy, he argues that the latter demands the
application of critical analysis and rigorous argument.
Ubuntu philosophy: South African thinkers like Khoza (1994) and

Chinkanda (1990) define Ubuntu as an African view of life, collective
consciousness of the African people, their own religion, their ethical
values, their political ideologies, alms-giving, sympathy, care, respect,
patience and kindness. Makhudu (1993) relates Ubuntu to African
Humanism, and regards the qualities of Ubuntu as existing in every person.
According to Teffo (1992) Ubuntu links up with communalism and
involves the distribution of wealth, morality and social responsibility.
Shutte (1992) interprets Ubuntu in terms of the worthwhile, the good, and
the valuable in human life, meaning it is concerned with visions of
happiness and fulfillment. Most Ubuntu thinkers formulate their views in
terms of ‘a person is a person through other persons.
1.7 Branches of philosophy

The study of philosophical issues has been classified into mainly four
areas, namely:epistemology, axilogy, metaphysics and logic as discussed
below:
1.7.1 Epistemology
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy whose main focus is to analyse
and evaluate claims of knowledge. It further investigates critically the
nature, grounds, limits and criteria or validity of human knowledge and
20
theory of cognition (Webster Comprehensive Dictionary, 1998). Many

philosophers argue that different societies have different claims of
knowledge. They maintain that Chinese or Europeans would assert their
claims about knowledge differently from Africans, meaning although
epistemology as a study of knowledge is universal, the ways of acquiring
knowledge vary according to the socio-cultural contexts. Other
philosophers take a strong universalistic line and deny that there are no
distinctive cognitive principles belonging only to a particular society.
They argue that knowledge cannot differ from one society to the other.
According to them if we refer to something as knowledge, it should be true
for all people anywhere. Contrary to these two schools of thought, it would
be fair to regard knowledge as both varying according to the socio-cultural
background and universal. In the main however, epistemology is referred
to as the theory of knowledge. It aims at answering the following questions:
“What does it mean ‘to know something’?” and “how do you know’?”
1.7.2 Axiology
The axiological aspect focuses on the study of concepts and principles that
underlie evaluations of objects and human behaviours. It determines what
standards should be used to distinguish between what is morally right and
what is morally wrong. Axiology is divided into ethics which examines
moral values and the rules of right conduct, while aesthetics addresses
values in beauty and art. Idealists and realists subscribe to the objective
theory of value, which asserts that the good, true and beautiful are
universally valid in all places and at all times. Pragmatists hold that values
are culturally or ethically relative and depend on group or personal
preferences that vary with situation, time and place (Woodhouse, 1980).
Typical questions that philosophers deal with in this area are for example:
 How do you determine a good life from a bad life?
 How do you differentiate a beautiful girl from an ugly girl?
 How do you tell a good piece of music from a bad piece of music?
 (Wainaina and Amukugo (1988, p.9)
1.7.3 Metaphysics
Metaphysics’ central concern is the nature of ultimate reality. It raises

questions like the relationship between human being and nature. The
existence of God and the universe are questions dealt with in this area of
philosophy. Metaphysics seeks to answer questions such as:
 What is the nature of a human being?
 Is a human being made up of body and mind?
 Does God exist?
 What are the characteristics of God?
 Where do we go after death?
(Wainaina and Amukugo (1988, pp 9-10).
Another example can be: Does the universe have a rational design or is it
ultimately meaningless (Kneller, 1971)?’ Mbiti (1997), who collected
information covering three hundred peoples or communities from all over
Africa, confirms that all of them have a notion of God, thus making it
clear that the fundamental idea about God is found in all African
societies. African knowledge of God is expressed in proverbs, short
21
statements, songs, prayers, names, myths, stories and religious

ceremonies.
1.7.4 Logic
The term logic can be described as a science that studies forms of thinking
(concepts, judgement and proof). In this respect, philosophers have
categorised two types of reasoning, namely: ‘inductive’ and ‘deductive’.
In deductive reasoning, you first make a general statement and at the end
of your argument, you draw an explicit conclusion. In Inductive reasoning
you start with a specific statement and in the end conclude with a general
statement.
Take a look at the following examples:
Example
(1) Inductive reasoning: All left-handed people are intelligent.
Maria is left-handed.
Therefore, Maria is intelligent
(2) Deductive reasoning: Tom is good at both mathematics and

languages
Nangula use to be good at both mathematics and languages.
Therefore, all people who are good at mathematics are also good at
languages.
Copi and Cohen (2002) describes logic as the study of methods and
principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning.
According to Kaphagawani and Malherbe (2002) over the past years it has
been assumed that the ability to reason logically and to draw inferences is
an essential characteristic of all human races.
1.8 The role of philosophy

Philosophy is often used to characterize a person’s or a group of persons’
attitude to life, including beliefs.
In an African context it means the profound sayings of the elders, words

which are witty and pregnant with meanings.
According to Plato the source of philosophy was wonder. Aristotle also

states that it was wonder which led men to philosophize about obvious
difficulties. Wonder impels men to seek knowledge.
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Philosophy has been concerned with practical as well as theoretical

wisdom.
Philosophy has also been associated with logical, consistent and systematic
thinking to reach conclusions that are sound and coherent.
1.9 Philosophy is speculative

Philosophy relies on the use of logical reasoning: examines every evidence
from an impartial point of view and exposes prejudice.
No conclusions are absolute and certain at any given time.
Philosophy can provide therapy: This means that philosophy may solve
and clear issues or ideas concerning ethical and aesthetical problems.
It can be a tool for profession or vocation: Learners take philosophy at the

university in order for them to acquire skills which will eventually assist
them in getting jobs; as well as using the acquired skills in enhancing their
lives in general.
2. Understanding philosophy of Education:

Akinpelu (1981) observed that the concepts ‘philosophy of education’
and philosophy and education have historically been used concurrently.
He however regards the former (philosophy of education) as the correct
one. Modern educational philosophers also treat this subject as
philosophy of education. In section one; we discussed at length the
concept ‘philosophy’. This is precisely because we wanted to understand
the philosophical foundations of education. Besides, philosophy will help
us understand the different meanings of the concept education.
2.1 Philosophical Foundations of Education

Akinpelu (1988, p.9) suggests that technically, philosophy of education is
only complete if it include “… both the process of philosophizing about
education and the product of that activity; that is, it should be both
analytical and speculative. It must be concerned with a ‘critique of the
philosophical assumptions of the existing educational systems and
practices from the standpoint of compatibility, consistency and adequacy,
in the light of the growing body of human knowledge”. This to him is the
analytic aspect. To explain the speculative aspect, he cited Millard and
Bertocci who argue that philosophy of education should be about
developing “… a positive conception of what education ought to be in the
light of as much information about [human beings], society and the
universe as [she] can muster [gather] from all available areas of
experience and knowledge”. Akinpelu suggests further that both the
analytic and speculative activities need to be combined if philosophy of
education is to become relevant to societal needs.
23
In section one; we learned that the study of philosophical issues has been
classified into mainly four areas, namely: epistemology, axiology,
metaphysics and logic. The first three of these components belong to a
speculative philosophy of education, whilst logic fits in more with
analytic philosophy of education. These branches of philosophy when
placed within the context of the various philosophical approaches such as
‘idealism’, ‘realism’, and ‘pragmatism’ etc., influence the way we define
or interpret educational concepts and issues as we will see later in this
2.2 Philosophy of education as a discipline of

knowledge
Philosophy of education which is West oriented belongs to two worlds; the
world of philosophy and the world of education. They further maintain
that philosophy of education is an area of specialization within the study
of education and shares a concern for education and other matters related
to education. Philosophy of education as sub-discipline of philosophy deals
with problems related to education. The types of problems philosophy of
education will tackle concern knowledge and values.
Barker (1999) on the other hand defines the concept ‘a philosophy of

education’ as a particular philosophy of a person or a group of people
related to education, for example one can talk about a Greek philosophy of
education or Mahatma’s philosophy of education. In philosophy of
education, terms like metaphysics, which deals with the nature of reality,
epistemology which is the study of the nature of knowledge, axiology
which deals with values and logic which deals with reasoning are important
and key terms. Philosophy of education will ask questions such as: ‘What
is knowledge?’ ‘What are values?’ ‘What is right and wrong?’ ‘What is
reality?’ All these philosophical expressions are debatable, for example
what is meant by “truth is reality,” because it could be relative depending
from which angle or perspective one looks at it.
Akinpelu (1981) defines philosophy of education as a philosophizing

process about education, which is speculative, analytic, and concerned
with the critique of philosophical assumptions of the existing education
system and practices from the standpoint of compatibility, consistency and
adequacy in the light of the growing body of human knowledge. It should
also be concerned with developing a positive conception of what education
should be in the light of much information about man, society and the
universe as he can muster from the available areas of experience and
knowledge.
The four important characteristics or attributes a philosophy of education

are:
The first characteristic is that philosophy of education should have a

theoretical framework which should redefine and give direction where and
how education should be steered. It should indicate to the nation where
education should lead its citizenry. This implies that a philosophy of
24
education should spell out the benefits an education system should provide
to its people. If a philosophy of education emphasizes utility, values and
the importance of knowledge, then it should at the same time state how it
will achieve these variables. In this case, the philosophy of education
should elaborate on the courses, the education system should offer.
The second attribute of a philosophy of education is that it should have

general educational goals. As philosophy of education deals with
educational problems, surely it should address those problems in a context
of national educational goals. Without educational goals, a philosophy of
education will lose the desired direction, and will be purposeless.
Thirdly, a philosophy of education should see to it that the identified goals

should be tied to broader national goals of the country. But in this case,
the national goals of the state should be broader than the educational. The
national goals should be enshrined in the constitution. It is a fact that for
any government to see its educational plans realized, it should include in
its constitution the educational goals, which it aspires to achieve.
The last characteristic of a philosophy of education is that the philosophy

must articulate how the goals are going to be achieved. This means that
the approaches to achieve the national goals should be clearly stated
through a school curriculum.
2.3 The Role of Philosophy of Education

Philosophy of education can become part of the discipline of education.
It can be one of the subjects in the curriculum of higher education and part
of curriculum of teacher education.
An educational philosopher may analyse concepts and reasoning used in

connection with education in order to make people’s thinking about it as
clear, explicit and logical as possible.
Seek to support the prevailing system by providing more philosophical

arguments for the dispositions aimed at and methods used.
Criticize the system and seek to reform it in the light of some more
philosophical theory of education arrived at.
Simply teach logic and philosophy to future educators and parents to apply
them in educational matters.
In a pluralistic society like Namibia, educational philosophers will need to

debate on educational issues.
Take lead in formulating and improving a compromise theory of education.
A philosopher may also work out a fully developed educational philosophy

of his own and start an experimental school in which to put it into practice.
25
In a society which has just emerged from colonialism a philosopher may

even supply a new full-fledged normative (creating standards) philosophy
for its educational system.
Philosophy of education helps teachers to become more aware of the

implications of the various issues involved in education.
It helps teachers to look at educational issues more critically.
It also increases the ability of teachers to influence educational policies.
It offers a personal intellectual education to the teacher.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about philosophy and philosophy of education. The
purpose of philosophy in education was also highlighted. Different trends
in philosophy and philosophers were given prominence in the unit.
Summary
26
References
Akinpelu, J.A. (1981). An Introduction to Philosophy of Education.
London: Macmillan Education Ltd.
Barker, R. (1999) Philosophies of Education: An Introductory Course.
References Harare: College Press Publishers.
Fanon, F (1957) Black Skins, White Masks. New York: Grove Press.
Fanon, F. (1963) The Wretched of the Earth : New York Weidenfeld.
Gyekye, K (2008) Person & Community in African Thought in Coetzee,
P.H. & Roux, A.P.J. (eds) The African Philosophy Reader. London :
Routledge.
Hadot, P (1995) Philosophy as a Way of Life. Oxford : Wiley Blackwell
Hall, M.P. (1973) Twelve World Teachers: A Summary of Their Lives and
Teachings. 3rd ed. Los Angeles: Philosophical Research Society.
Hamm, C.M. (1995) Philosophical Issues in Education: An Introduction .
New York: Falmer Press
Harber, C. (1997) Education, Democracy and Political Development in
Africa , Sussex Academic Press.
Higgs, P & Smith, J (2006) Rethinking Truth . Cape Town: Juta & Co.
Hochschild, A (1998) King Leopold’s Ghost . New York: Hoghton Mifflin
Company.
Joffe, P (1987) Heart of Darkness and Typhoon. Craighall: Ad Donker.
Kaphagawani, D.N. & Malherbe, J.G. (2002) African Epistemology in

Coetze P.H.&Roux, A.P.’s The African Philosophy Reader . London:
Routledge.
Katzao, J.J. (1999) Lessons to Learn: A Historical, Sociological and
Economic Interpretation of Education Provision in Namibia . Windhoek:
Out of Africa Publishers.
Kelly, G.P. & Altbach, G. (1984) “The Four Faces of Colonialism.”
Education and the Colonial Experience . New Brunswick: Transaction.
Kneller, G.F. (1971). Introduction to the Philosophy of Education . New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Lamb, D. (1990) The Africans . London: Mandarin Paperbacks.
Leonard, L.D. (1970) Apartheid and Education in the Republic of South
Africa . Utah State University: U.S.A.
Levy-Bruhl, L (1910) (translated in 1979) How Natives Think . New Jersey
: Arno Press.
Mbiti, J.S. (1997) African Religions and Philosophy. Nairobi: Heinemann.
Njoroge, R.J. & Bennaars, G.A. (1986). Philosophy and Education in
Africa. Trans Africa.
27
Ornstein, A.C. & Levine, D.U. (1993) Foundations of Education. Boston:

Houghton Mifflin Company.
Nyerere, J. (1967) Education for Self-Reliance . Dar Es Salaam:
Government Printer.
Oladipo, O. (1991) The Idea of African Philosophy . Ibadan: Molecular
Publishers
Omoregbe, J.I. (1985) African Philosophy: Yesterday and Today in P.O.
Bodunrin (Ed), Philosophy in Africa: Trends and Perspectives . Ife.
University of Ife Press
Onyewuenyi, I.C. (1994) The African Origin of Greek Philosophy: An
Exercise in Afrocentrism. Enugu: Snaap Press.
Oruka, O. H. (1990) Sage Philosophy , Nairobi: A.D. Press.
Palmer, D. (1994) Looking at Philosophy. The Unbearable Heaviness of
Philosophy Made Lighter . London: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Tempels, P. (1959) Bantu Philosophy Paris: Presence Africaine
Wainaina & Amukugo (1988) Introduction to Educational Issues in
Education, University of Namibia: Centre for External Studies.
Wiredu, K (1992) The African Concept of Personhood in Flack, Harley E

and Pellegrino, Edmund D, (eds.) African-American Perspectives on
Biomedical Ethics. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press
28
Unit 2
Theories of Education
Introduction
In this unit you will study and examine the theories of education. You will
be further encouraged to form your own opinions about these theories. It is
important that you form your own opinion about the theories of education
and how you can apply and implement them in your teaching. It is not
enough to memorize these theories, but it is very important to understand
them. You should be able to critique them, because that is what philosophy
is all about.
 state the role of each theory in education;
 explain the meaning of each theory of education understudy;
Outcomes  list and discuss the types of theories of education and their
philosophical impact on education;
Travers, P.D & Rebore, R.W. (1990) Foundations of Education:Becoming

a Teacher . New Jersey : Prentince Hall.
Prescribed reading
1. Idealism
Many of the different contemporary educational theories are generally
outgrowths of more traditional philosophies or have their roots in those
traditions. It will be noted that some theories are little different from their
parent philosophies while other are unique developments showing links
with several philosophical approaches.
Idealism refers to any philosophy that argues that reality is dependent upon
the mind. More extreme versions will deny that the “world” even exists
outside of our minds. Narrow versions argue that our understanding of
reality reflects the workings of our mind first and foremost — that the
properties of objects have no standing independent of minds perceiving
them. Below follows some categories of idealism:
29
Platonic idealism: perfect realm of form and ideas exist and our world
only contains shadows. As the name implies, this stems from Plato.
Subjective idealism: only ideas can be known or have any reality. This
type of idealistic thought is also known as solipsism.
Transcendental idealism: This was developed by Immanuel Kant and the

theory argues that all knowledge originates in perceived phenomena which
have been organized by categories.
Absolute idealism: According to absolute idealism, all objects are

identical with some idea and the ideal knowledge is itself the system of
ideas. It is also known as objective idealism and is the sort of idealism
promoted by Hegel. Unlike the other forms of idealism, this is monistic —
there is only one mind in which reality is created.
In terms of education, idealists regard education as a process of the

development of the person particularly his or her conscious and spirit. The
ultimate responsibility of learning rests with the individual learner. The
school provides the right atmosphere and proper direction for the growth
of the personality of the individual, to increase the learner’s knowledge, to
cultivate his or her aesthetic taste, frame the character and equip the learner
with skills. The curriculum should include language skills, scientific skills,
normative skills (moral conduct) and aesthetic skills. The teacher and
learner are equally important in education. The teacher must respect the
personality of the learner. Teaching methods should include self-learning
for the learning and the positive influence of the teacher. With the positive
methods the learner should jointly initiate a learning task, pursue it with
the help of the teacher.
2. Realism
Realism theory is the belief that many or most cognitive biases are not
"errors", but instead logical and practical reasoning methods of dealing
with the "real world". Inherent in it is the assumption that subjects include
far more information than cognitive experimenters want them to in their
thought processes. The practical information people use in their reasoning
process includes (but is not limited to):
 memories of things said by other people
 people lie
 people make errors
 things change, and that more time results in more changes
This theory of education emanates from Aristotle’s philosophy. According

to the theory, matter and object exist. The world exists by itself as a reality
whether man knows it or not. There is evidence that there is orderliness in
the world and the basic facts discovered by the scientists about the world
are true and real. Education should develop the capacities of man to enable
30
him to know the truth. The curriculum should include the whole spectrum
of the society. Education should be teacher-centred as the teacher has some
knowledge of the truths.
3. Pragmatism
As a concept, pragmatism has its origin in the Greek word pragma which
means “action” being practical, accomplishing an objective. Pragmatism is
a method of philosophy in which the truth of a proposition is measured by
its practical outcome. Meaning that we need to test our idea by acting on
them, in which the consequences of our action will determine the moral
goodness or badness of our causing actions. Pragmatism defined by
(Pierce), as the fixation of beliefs and how to make our ideas clear. It can
also be referred to as experimentation.
3.1 Philosophical founders of pragmatism

Pragmatism is a philosophy developed in the United States of America by
Charles Saunders Pierce as a founder in 1878 and followed by William
James who applied pragmatic interpretation to psychology, religion and
education, as well as John Dewey who also applied pragmatism to
educational context and social theory.
This is America’s contribution to philosophy. The main advocate and

proponent is John Dewey. The theory is influenced by Darwin’s evolution
theory, empirical psychology and its application to education. Its tenets are
that man exists with his environment. The theory refuses to be drawn into
speculation about the existence of God. Man as living organism has
desires, wants, interests, needs and that fixes his goals and objectives, and
struggles through the use of his intelligence to obtain them. School should
be an extension of the home. The curriculum should be the social life of
the community simplified and translated into the classroom. Teaching
should be child-centred.
4. Perennialism
Perennialism is derived from the word perennial meaning enduring,
everlasting or continuing. Many perennialists identify themselves either
with idealism or classical realism or a combination of both. It was Plato
who stressed the need and importance of ideas and the only true reality.
Educators who identify themselves as perenialists advocate a curriculum
of timeless values and knowledge. They advocate a programme of studies
which is highly general, non-specific in terms of specialization and
nonvocational. They believe in the study of the liberal arts to enable every
student to get ready for anything.
Perenialists are more conservative, and for that reason they promote
cognitive approach to education. According to perrenialism life has
meaning in the4 context of the collective wisdom of the Western culture,
truth is changeless revealed in the classics of Western culture, and the
learner should be passive of what being taught.
31
How would you relate perenialism in the Namibian education system?
Activity 1
Think of the subjects in our curriculum and assess whether they embrace
the perenialistic theory of education.
Feedback
5. Essentialism
Essentialism as an educational philosophy is grounded in the oldest and
most common accepted philosophy found in the public school. Its root
word is essential implying that certain studies are more crucial than others.
There are more varieties of essentialism than any other educational theory.
The one espoused by the majority of essentialists is of an empirical nature.
Essentialism tries to instill all students with the most essential or basic
academic knowledge and skills and character development. Essentialists
believe that teachers should try to embed traditional moral values and
virtues such as respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty,
consideration for others, and practicality and intellectual knowledge that
students need to become model citizens.
The foundation of essentialist curriculum is based on traditional disciplines

such as math, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature.
Essentialists frown upon vocational courses. In the essentialist system,
students are required to master a set body of information and basic
techniques for their grade level before they are promoted to the next higher
grade. The content gradually moves towards more complex skills and
detailed knowledge.
Essentialists argue that classrooms should be teacher-oriented. The teacher

should serve as an intellectual and moral role model for the students. The
teachers or administrators decide what is most important for the students
to learn with little regard to the student interests. The teachers also focus
on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress. The
essentialist classroom is centered on students being taught about the
people, events, ideas and institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists
32
hope that when students leave school, they will not only possess basic
knowledge and skills, but they will also have disciplined, practical minds,
capable of applying lessons learned in school in the real world. Learners in
this system would sit in rows and be taught in masses. The learners would
learn passively by sitting in their desks and listening to the teacher.
An example of essentialism would be lecture based introduction classes

taught at universities. Learners sit and take notes in a classroom which
holds over one hundred students. They take introductory level courses in
order to introduce them to the content. After they have completed this
course, they will take the next level course and apply what they have
learned previously. English 101 and English 102 are a specific example of
essentialism.
6. Thomism
Thomistic Philosophy is inspired by the philosophical methods and
principles used by Thomas Aquinas (1224/5-1274), a Dominican Friar and
theologian, in his explanation of the Catholic faith. Aquinas, who is most
renowned for his Five Ways of Proving the Existence of God, believed that
both faith and reason discover truth, a conflict between them being
impossible since they both originate in God. Believing that reason can, in
principle, lead the mind to God, Aquinas defended reason's legitimacy,
especially in the works of Aristotle. The philosophy of Aquinas continues
to offer insights into many lingering problems in Metaphysics, the
Philosophy of Mind, Philosophy of Religion and Ethics. Education must
deal with both the temporal and spiritual sides of life.
7. Progressivism
Progressive education is grounded in pragmatism, which is the belief that
if ideas have value they must have a practical or cash value. The idea to be
learned must be of personal use to the learner. Peirce, James and Dewey
were the proponents of this theory of education. Progressivists believe that
individuality, progress, and change are fundamental to one's education.
Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to
their lives, progressivists center their curricula on the needs, experiences,
interests, and abilities of students. Progressivist teachers try making school
interesting and useful by planning lessons that provoke curiosity. In a
progressivist school, students are actively learning. The students interact
with one another and develop social qualities such as cooperation and
tolerance for different points of view. In addition, students solve problems
in the classroom similar to those they will encounter in their everyday lives.
Progressivists believe that education should be a process of ongoing
growth, not just a preparation for becoming an adult. An obvious example
of progressivism would be our class. We are in groups a lot and we actively
learn through discussion. We talk about how what we read can be
incorporated into our future teaching careers.
In Dewey’s mind, the students would have to exercise their brain by

problem solving and thinking critically, resulting in learning (even though
the students may not even know it!). This allows the individual's brain to
33
develop, so as the individual grows learning becomes easier! After

attending a school Dewey would have set up, a child would be ready for
the real world and a lot of the everyday setbacks that an individual would
experience, such as losing a button, changing a tire, making lunch, or
balancing a check book. School would be a lot of hands-on learning, and
the progression of education would not end.
8. Existentialism
By the middle of the 19th Century a Danish philosopher, Soren
Kierkegaard (1813-1855) rejected the platonic view but reversed the order
itself. Kierkegaard who may considered to be the founder of the philosophy
of existence contradicted Hegel and asserted that Existence Precedes
Essence. At least for the western world, the first half of the twentieth
century has been an age marked by anxieties, conflicts, sufferings, tragic
episodes, dread, horror, anguish, persecution and human sacrifices caused
by the two intermittent world wars. Existentialism represents a protest
against the rationalism of traditional philosophy, against misleading
notions of the bourgeois culture, and the dehumanising values of industrial
civilization. Since alienation, loneliness and self-estrangement constitute
threats to human personality in the modern world, existential thought has
viewed as its cardinal concerns a quest for subjective truth, a reaction
against the ‘negation of Being’ and a perennial search for freedom. From
the ancient Greek philosopher, Socrates, to the Twentieth Century. French
philosopher, Jean Paul, Sartre, thinkers have dealt with this tragic sense of
ontological reality - the human situation within a comic context. It focuses
upon human existence in an absurd world. It opposes any single mode of
education. The learner should be allowed freedom of choice in terms of
curriculum and educational outcomes. They object treating a student as an
object and believe that the best kind of education exists where the teacher
and learner are equal partners in the learning process.
9. Humanism
Humanism is any system or mode of thought or action in which human
interests, values and dignity predominate. Philosophically it is a variety of
ethical theory and practice that emphasize reason, scientific inquiry and
human fulfilment in the natural world and often rejects the importance of
belief in god. Humanism believes in a naturalistic metaphysics or attitude
toward the universe that considers all forms of the supernatural as myth;
and that regards Nature as the totality of being and as a constantly changing
system of matter and energy which exists independently of any mind or
consciousness. Human believes that human beings are an evolutionary
product of the Nature and that the mind is indivisibly conjoined with the
functioning of the brain; and that as an inseparable unity of body and
personality can have no conscious survival after death.
34
10. Postmodernism
The names most often associated with postmodernism are those of Jean-
Francois Lyotard, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Richard Rorty.
Theoretical approaches most commonly seen as postmodernist are
deconstruction(ism), poststructuralism, and neopragmatism. Other
philosophers associated with postmodernism are Nietzsche, the later
Wittgenstein, Winch, Heidegger, Gadamer and Kuhn. Other theoretical
approaches are perspectivalism, postanalytic philosophy, and
hermeneutics. Even the critical theory of Jurgen Habermas, with its affinity
with hermeneutics and its communicative ethics, has clear postmodern
elements, despite Habermas’s insistence that he is furthering the project of
modernity rather than rejecting it.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned a number of philosophies of education. These
philosophies of education are crucial in Your teaching. As a prospective
teacher it is necessary that you familiarize yourself with them in order for
you to become a knowledgeable and professional teacher. It is important
Summary that you apply these philosophies in the Namibian education system
context.
References
Travers, P.D & Rebore, R.W. (1990) Foundations of Education :
Becoming a Teacher. New Jersey : Prentince Hall.
.
References
35
Theory of Oppressive Action
Unit 3

Introduction
In this unit you will study and examine the theory of oppressive action and
its relevance in education. It is important that you form your own opinion
about the theory of oppressive action and how you can apply and
implement that in your teaching. It is not enough to memorize the theory,
but it is very important to understand it.
 explain the meaning of the theory of oppressive action;
 discuss the components of the theory of oppressive action;
Outcomes
Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. London: Sheed and Ward.
Prescribed reading
1. The general impact of colonial education.

In terms of African intelligence was Lévy-Bruhl (1857-1939) a French
philosopher, sociologist and ethnographer whose primary field of study
focused on the concept of primitive mentality. In his work, How Natives
Think Bruhl (1910) speculated about what he posited as the two basic
mindsets of mankind, "primitive" and "Western." The primitive mind does
not differentiate the supernatural from reality, but rather uses "mystical
participation" to manipulate the world. According to Lévy-Bruhl, the
primitive mind is typical of Africans and doesn't address contradictions
while the Western mind, by contrast, uses speculation and logic. Levy-
Bruhl believed in a historical and evolutionary teleology leading from the
primitive mind to the Western mind In other words Levy-Bruhl believed
that Africans were not capable of learning let alone being critical in their
education. Hountondji of Benin Republic observes that:
36
It was the fate of some cultures in the world to have been systematically
said to be inferior during centuries of Western domination including as far
as Africa is concerned, a long history of slave trade and colonialism. This
sense of inferiority was unfortunately internalized to various degrees by
the cultures themselves (p.3). That’s why some educational historians
argued that formal education in Africa was introduced by Europeans:
missionaries and colonialists. O’Callaghan (1977) and Noble (1977) . This
view has however been disputed by some African educational sociologists.
Amukugo (1975) and Kibera and Kimokoti (2007), who argue that formal
education up to the University level existed in different parts of Africa
before the arrival of Europeans.
Kelly and Altbach (1984) define colonial education as a condition when

one stronger nation takes control of a territory of another nation either
through the use of force or by acquisition and in the process implements
its own education system, which is quite contrary and foreign to the
education system of the conquered nation. In the process the colonized are
forced to conform to the cultures and traditions of the colonizers.
Colonizing governments introduce schooling in order to strip the colonized
people away from their indigenous learning structures and draw them
toward the structures of the colonizers. The impact of colonial education is
that the implementation of a new education system leaves those who are
colonized with a lack of identity and a limited sense of their past. The
indigenous history and customs once practiced and observed by the
colonized people slowly slip away. The colonized become hybrids of two
vastly different cultural systems. Colonial education makes it difficult to
differentiate between the new, enforced ideas of the colonizers and the
formerly accepted native practices. As Frelimo puts it, “In the colonial
society, education is such that it serves the colonialist. In a regime of
slavery, education was but one institution for forming slaves,” (Department
of Education and Culture, 1968).
Ngugi wa Thiong’o (1981) a renowned Kenyan scholar and world

acclaimed writer, asserts that the process of colonial education
annihBGGilates a people’s belief in their names, in their languages, in their
environment, in their heritage of struggle, in their unity, in their capacities
and ultimately in themselves. He goes on to say that colonial education
makes them see their past as one wasteland of non-achievement and makes
them want to distance themselves from that wasteland. Colonial education
creates a sense of wanting to disassociate with native heritage and affects
the individual and his sense of self-confidence.
With the South African colonial education system, Namibians lost much
of their cultural heritage and adopted a foreign one
2. Types of colonialism.
The following methods were used by the colonial masters to undermine the
indigenous knowledge and culture of the African people.
Intellectual colonialism and indigenous knowledge: Hotep (2003) says that

Europeans practised and perfected three types of colonialism over the
37
years: territorial, intellectual and mental. He goes on to maintain that over

the past five centuries, the Anglo-Saxons, Gauls and Teutons of England,
France and Germany developed the weaponry, logistics and tactics to
conquer and colonize the land, knowledge and minds of the indigenous
peoples of Africa including other nations around the globe. In addition to
colonizing African land, Europeans also colonized African knowledge not
just to claim it as their own, but also to disconnect Africans from their
heritage and culture. In echoing this sentiment Ajamu (1997) calls this
process ‘intellectual colonialism.’ According to Hotep (2003), this
imposition has been more pronounced among the Christianized, Western
trained African intellectuals.
According to educators like Boateng (1990) and Spring (1997), the practice
of deculturalization of the Africans involves the systematic stripping away
of the intended victim’s ancestral culture and then systematically replace
it with European culture. Africans were taught to feel ashamed of their
African names and heritage; taught to admire, respect and adopt European
heritage. In the process they were indoctrinated into believing that the
European culture was more superior than theirs.
There is still a widely held view in the formerly colonized countries that
anything associated with culture and hereditary values is pagan and thus
backward, as reflected by the vast number of urban Africans who feel
embarrassed to associate themselves with their own cultural background
(Burtford, Ngilla and Rafiki 2003).
Mis-education is a concept coined by historian Woodson (1933) to

describe the destructive effects of Western schools on the Black mind, in
using a curriculum and pedagogy that deliberately omits, distorts or
trivializes the role of African people towards world history and their
culture. During this process African children were taught about the values
of the Christian church and a White Jesus. Like in South Africa, Whites
were regarded as God’s chosen people, while Blacks were supposed to be
condemned to eternal burning Hell. Contrary to this ideology, African
Governments should embark on educational programmes which focus on
disseminating the information pertaining to the pride of the African
education.
Mentacide: Another form of colonial education is mentacide, a term

linked to genocide coined by Wright (1984), as a label for the European-
orchestrated campaign to destroy the African mind as prelude to destroying
African people. Africans should be taught that they have the ability and
capacity to think like any other human race.
Utengano (a Swahili word meaning disunity) is another form of mis-

education which afflicts Black people who tolerate teen pregnancy, absent
fathers and ineffective leaders and accept them as normal practice contrary
to the spirit of the African culture (Hotep, 2003). Cases of elopement were
very rare among many African communities, because children trusted and
respected their parents and other members of the society. Every elder
38
person was regarded as a father or mother who could render support, hence
was supposed to be respected at all times. It was imperative that both the
husband and wife respect their in-laws.
Bantu education: During the South African colonial period, a form of

oppressive education system known as Bantu Education was enforced and
imposed upon the Black masses in Namibia. In addition to the terror
campaign against the civilian society, school children were instructed to
believe and learn stereotypes and evil indoctrination that Black Namibians
were warmongers while Whites were peace-lovers (International
Conference on Teacher Education for Namibia, 1989). Contrary to this
assumption, in reality Africans, like all races on the face of the earth enjoy
and cherish peace. Africans are no different from other races in terms of
capacity and rational thinking. The distortion and ideology that Africans
are slow thinkers, less civilized, unintelligent, dangerous, and irresponsible
were only imposed on them by some Europeans. The fact that many
Africans did not excel in many developmental issues and projects had to
do with limited facilities at their disposal. It is important to understand, as
Amukugo (1975) argues that some black Namibians questioned the
ideology entrenched in Bantu education why many participated in many
different ways, in the struggle for their own liberation. This could not have
been possible had they uncritically consumed the Bantu education
ideology.
3. Pedagogy of the Oppressed

3.1 Justification for the pedagogy of the oppressed.
 Dehumanization is a distortion of becoming fully humane
 Dehumanization leads to cynicism or total despair
 The oppressed are forced to struggle against those who oppress them
 Oppressed liberate themselves and those who oppress them
 In process oppressed restores humanity for both
 Unjust social order nourished by death, despair and poverty
 True generosity fights false charity
 During initial stage of struggle, oppressed become oppressors
 For them to be human is to be oppressors
 Oppressed adopt an attitude of adhesion to the oppressor
 Their perception is impaired by their submission in the reality of
oppression
At this level, perception does not signify engagement in a struggle to

overcome contradictions. Oppressed does not see the new man, as
oppression give way to liberation. New man has become oppressor. No
consciousness of themselves. The shadow of the former oppressor is cast
over them. Fear of freedom should be examined
39
The oppressed having internalized the image of the oppressor and adopted
his guidelines are fearful of freedom. Freedom requires them to eject this
image and replace it with autonomy and responsibility. Freedom is
indispensable condition for the quest for human completion.
To surmount (overcome) the situation of oppression, man must critically

recognize the causes and create a new situation. This new situation should
pursue a fuller humanity. Oppressed will fail to wage struggle if they feel
incapable of running the risks. Oppressed suffer from duality which
establishes itself in their being.
They realize that without freedom they cannot exist authentically and yet
fear it. They are at the same time themselves and at another time, then
oppressor whose consciousness they have internalized.
The conflict lies in the choice between being wholly themselves or being
divided, between ejecting the oppressor within or not ejecting him. The
contradiction between the oppressors and the oppressed and how it is
overcome.
Liberation is a childbirth and a painful one. The man who emerges is a new
man. He is visible as the oppressor-oppressed contradiction is superseded
by the humanization of all men
4. The theory of anti-dialogical action and its characteristics.

Conquest : The anti-dialogical person in his relations with other people
aims at conquering them by all means, from the toughest to the most
refined, from the most repressive to the most solicitous (paternalism). The
conqueror imposes his objectives on the vanquished and makes them their
possessions.
Divide and rule: According to Freire (1972) the principle of divide and
rule aimed at keeping the invaded divided in order for the minority invaders
to be in power. The oppressors used any methods including violence to
keep the majority divided. Concepts such as unity, organization and
struggle were labelled as dangerous. The oppressors went further by
creating rifts among the oppressed by repressive methods of the
government bureaucracy.
Tabata (1980) a South African scholar and critic of Bantu education

categorized the aims of colonial education in South Africa and Namibia as
dividing the Black populations of those two countries along ethnic lines.
This process enabled the Whites to rule the Black population. The Whites
created and turned Blacks into means of cheap labour; restricted
competition between Blacks and Whites; promoted Afrikanerism and
instilled the notion of ‘baasskap’ (boss-ship) of Whites among Blacks.
Some African countries fell victim to colonial education, to such an extent
that most of the citizens of these countries lost their language, African
names and identity completely.
40
Manipulation: The dominant elite try to conform the masses to their

objectives. This is accompanied by means of deceptive pacts between the
dominant and dominated classes, which outwardly will resemble genuine
dialogue, while not. Pacts are used by the dominators to achieve their ends
and in the final analysis increase the subjugation of the people. Through
manipulation, the dominant elite can lead people into unauthentic type of
organization and avoid the emerging threatening people. It anesthetize
people that they will not think critically. One method of manipulation is to
inoculate individuals with the bourgeois appetite for personal success.
Cultural invasion: The invaders penetrate the cultural context of another

group, in disrespect of its potentialities. They impose their own view of the
world and inhibit the creativity of that group by curbing their expression.
The invaded lose their originality or face the threat of losing it. The
invaders become authors and actors in the process while the invaded
remain objects. The invaders choose, those they invade simply follow.
5. Solutions and relevance to education

Decolonizing the minds of the youth . Decolonizing the African minds to
overthrow the authority which is alien to their traditions. This demands the
dismantling of white supremacist beliefs and the structures which support
them in every sphere of African life. But decolonization does not mean
ignorance of foreign traditions, but simply means denial of their authority
and withdrawal of allegiance from them (Hotep, 2003). The Namibian
Government should inculcate and instill in the minds of its citizens that
colonial indoctrination was bad. It should embark upon programmes in
which all Namibians value their creativity and start thinking along national
lines. The masses should be taught systematically and inculcate into their
minds the effects, importance and advantages of liberation pedagogy. This
can be done through different fora such as discussion groups, media and
through other means of communication. In class, teachers should
encourage learners to think independently and being proud of their cultural
heritage.
Easing the cultural bomb : The Government of the Republic of Namibia

has made theoretical strides in this area, where the Education Act No. 16
of 2001 empowers the Minister of Education through the moneys
appropriated by Parliament to establish cultural institutions to promote
culture and to ensure the enjoyment of cultural opportunities at schools, in
order to maintain, practise and promote any culture, language or tradition
(Education Act No. 16 of 2001). The Government should do more by
encouraging Namibians to stick to acceptable cultural practices like beliefs
in their names, in their languages, in their environment, in their heritage of
struggle, in their unity, in their capacities and ultimately in themselves
(Ngugi wa Thiongo, 1986). Culture among the people of the world is
crucial, as it is the mode of identity. Bob Marley once sang that people
without culture are like a tree without roots. Echoing Bob Marley is the
Ntomba people of Congo’s saying, ‘a youth who does not cultivate
friendship with the elderly is like a tree without roots.’
41
In schools, add meaningful Civics to the current curriculum : In formal

education setup, this subject will assist in addressing and focusing on the
dangers of tribalism, apartheid and nepotism. Establish a value system
which supports democracy, constructive and critical analysis among
learners. Although Life Skills is offered as a non-promotional subject in
Namibian schools, many teachers don’t adhere to it rigorously despite the
fact that it is always slotted on the time-table.
Implement a work-oriented curriculum: The current formal, more

academic curriculum which encourages diploma disease type of education
should be done away with. In its place, educators should strive to
implement a curriculum which is more vocational and self-reliant. Like in
the education for self-reliance by Julius Nyerere, education must inculcate
and reinforce the traditional African socialist values of equality,
cooperativeness and self-reliance. It must foster the social goals of living
together as communities and lastly as a nation. It should involve the young
ones in developing their societies. The young must learn to combine
practical and intellectual activities and to respect and make use of the stock
knowledge and wisdom accumulated over generations in the society.
Education should also prepare the young people for work in the rural
society, where development depends largely upon the efforts of the people
in agriculture and village development (Akinpelu, 1981; Nyerere, 1967).
Encourage participation, choice and co-responsibility in education by the

parent in the child’s education at directorate and school level by means of
officially recognized parent associations and representative bodies in
accordance with the national education policy and the Declaration of
Fundamental Freedoms and Rights. The Government of the Republic of
Namibia has made theoretical strides in this area, where the Education Act
No. 16 of 2001 empowers schools to establish school boards to administer
the affairs and promote the development of the school and learners
(Education Act No. 16 of 2001).
Learning should be by social interaction. Children like to learn together,

and to be allowed to do so will encourage and increase their zest for
learning. As an educator encourage the children to talk to each other quite
freely in and outside the school premises, and in the process discussing
whatever they are doing as a team. Secure as much output from each child
as possible. The elders should encourage their children to interact and
socialize with them and other members of the nation, and learn through the
process.
Encourage unity in diversity policy of the Namibian Government: It

is a fact that Namibians were subjected to a divide and rule type of
administration for many years. There are more advantages and fruits in
unity in diversity. Soon than later about three hundred million people in
Europe will be carrying one passport and use one currency.
Recognize and encourage the value of traditional art, music and dances
among Namibian community members, whether they are displayed at
42
festivals or encouraged by specially-funded institutes (Knight and

Newman, 1976). According to these authors, one way of establishing self-
identity is to turn to the past (of course useful past) and to reinterpret
history through African rather than European eyes. Historical identity may
take the form campaigns for ‘authenticity’ like the discouragement or
abandoning meaningless European names in favour of meaningful African
names as it was done in the former Zaire (renamed the Democratic of the
Republic of Congo) in the 1970s.
Involve learners in the education process: Freire advocates a system of

education in which children are involved. Although it sounds not practical
to fully involve children at all levels, some form of involvement should be
sought which will benefit them. It is not easy for children at primary school
level to design curricula, but these children could be involved in leadership
matters at school. According to Steyn, Steyn, De Waal and Wolhuter
(2001); Freire, (1972), Paulo Freire, a Brazilian born scholar was an
anarchistic-utopian theorist who advocated a stance that the oppressed of
the world need to liberate themselves through education and
alphabetization. They can do this by arriving at a critical understanding of
their situation and create a new situation through transformative action.
Education should be problem-solving orientated: At both formal

schooling setup and in the community, what is taught should assist children
and other stakeholders to solve every day problems. According to Dewey,
education should be seen to be pragmatic. For example, at both primary
and secondary levels, learners should be taught in basic carpentry skills. If
a desk is broken, learners should be able to repair it. Where the school is
in short supply of vegetables, learners should do some basic gardening and
grow vegetables to feed themselves and at the same time, earn some
income. Learners need not be told that, this needs common sense.
Problem-solving in Freire’s term also means developing a critical
consciousness of the contradictions within society and use that awareness
to solve problems or to improve one’s environment.
Education should encourage the practice of freedom: After going

through a system which was traditional and later on oppressive, Namibia
became a democracy with its constitution founded on principles of
freedom. From early years, learners should be taught the tenets of freedom.
This will be in line with what Freire advocates, that there should be a
practice of freedom. Learners should be exposed to the realities of freedom.
Encourage discovery, enquiry and research . Educators should be

encouraged to reflect on enquiry teaching and learning methods. Children
should be encouraged to discover their neglected valuable past. This can
be done through research and by using riddles, idiomatic expressions and
proverbs.
Make schools relevant in terms of the curriculum: The education

imported from Germany and later from South Africa was inappropriate in
many ways. It was foreign to our daily existence and did not teach children
about the problems of everyday life in an African setting. Its main purpose
was to prepare children for an academic bookish future. It did not concern
itself with the real world, but with the artificial world of ivory-tower. The
43
curriculum in our schools should be changed and made relevant to meet

the realities of the problems which confront our society. Above that what
is taught at home should be supplemented by our schools. The learners
should be able to see the relationship between the home and the school.
Our schools should not be treated as foreign institutions in our midst and
environment.
Create tolerance among children: Educators should instill in the minds

of their children the spirit of tolerance, meaning Namibian adults should
teach and encourage their children to accept that Namibia is land of diverse
cultures and beliefs therefore should learn to tolerate other people from
different backgrounds and life styles.
African Governments should encourage the use of indigenous names

which bear clear meanings. This can be done by making a law which
compels every couple to give their child a name that has got meaning and
makes sense at birth. These names should be mandatory registered when
birth certificates are applied for and when children are taken to hospitals.
As Mbeki (1999) puts it, “We must embrace the culture of the globe, while
ensuring that we do not discard our own.”
6. The theory of dialogical action and its characteristics

Cooperation: In the dialogical action subjects meet in cooperation in order
to transform the world. The dialogical theory of action does not involve a
subject who dominates by virtue of conquest. The leaders despite their
important, fundamental and indispensable role do not own the people and
have no right to steer them blindly towards their salvation. Cooperation as
a characteristic of dialogical action occurs only among subjects who may
have diverse levels of function and thus of responsibility which can be
achieved through communication. Dialogue as essential communication
must underlie any cooperation. In the theory of dialogical action, there is
no place for conquering the people on behalf of the revolutionary cause,
but only for gaining their adherence.
Dialogue does not impose, does not manipulate, does not domesticate and
does not sloganize. But this does not mean that the dialogical action does
not have a clear idea of what he wants or of the objective to which he is
committed. The commitment of the revolutionary leaders to the oppressed
is at the same time a commitment to freedom. Dialogical theory requires
that the world should be unveiled, but no one can unveil the world for
another, although one may initiate the unveiling others must laos become
subjects of this act. The leaders must believe in the potentialities of the
people whom they cannot treat as mere objects but who are capable of
participating in the pursuit of liberation.
Unity for liberation : The objective of dialogical liberation is not to

dislodge the oppressed from a mythological reality in order to bind them
to another reality. The unity of the oppressed involves solidarity among
44
them regardless of their exact status. Any attempt to unify the people based
on slogans and do not deal with fundamental aspects produces a mere
juxtaposition of individuals giving a mechanistic character to their action.
The unity of the oppressed occurs at the human level not at the level of
things. In order for the oppressed to unite they must first cut the umbilical
cord of magic and myth which binds them to the world of oppression.
Organization: This is directly linked to unity. The leaders’ pursuit for

unity is also an attempt to organize the people. For the revolutionary
leaders, organization means organizing themselves with the people.
Without leadership, discipline, determination and objectives, an
organization cannot survive and revolution is thereby diluted. The
dialogical theory of action opposes both authoritarianism and license and
affirms authority and freedom, because there is no freedom without
authority and there is no authority without freedom. Freedom and authority
cannot be isolated but must be considered in relationship to each other.
Authentic authority is not affirmed by a mere transfer of power, but
through delegation. If authority is merely transferred from one group to
another or imposed upon the majority, it degenerates into authoritarianism.
Cultural synthesis: This is a form of action which operates upon the social
structure either with the objectives of preserving that structure or of
transforming it. Cultural synthesis is a mode of confronting culture itself
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about colonization in general and its impact on
Africans especially Namibians. You also looked at the theory of oppressive
action and the theory of anti-dialogical action and its characteristics
Summary
45
References
Ajamu, A. (1997) The Importance of Using African Terminologies and
Concepts in the Rescue, Restoration, Reconstruction and Reconnection of
African Ancestral Memory in J. Carruthers and L.Harris (Eds). African
References World History Project: The Preliminary Challenge. Los Angeles:
ASCAC.
Amukugo, E.M. (1995). Education and Politics in Namibia: past trends
and future prospects. Windhoek: Gamsberg Macmillan.
Boateng, F (1990). Combating the Deculturalization of the African
American Child in the Public School System in Lomotey, K (Ed) Going to
School: The African-American Experience. Albany: New York: Suny
Press.
Burford, G, Ngilla, L.O. & Rafiki, Y. (2003), Education, Indigenous
Knowledge and Globalization, in Science in Africa, Africa’s First On-
Line Magazine , Aang Serian Community College, Arusha, Tanzania.
Education Act No. 16 of 2001 of the Republic of Namibia
Frelimo Department of Education and Culture , 1968.
Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed London: Sheed and Ward.
Hountondji, P.J. (2000) “Tradition or Inspiration?” in Prince Clause Fund

Journal Vol. 4. The Hague, Netherlands, September 2000, pp 19 – 22.
Hotep, U. (2003) Decolonizing the African Mind: Further Analysis and
Strategy . Pittsburgh: Duquesne University.
International Conference on Teacher Education for Namibia 21-27
September 1989, in M.H. Craelis’s Vocational and Technical Education
and Related Teacher Training in Namibia, Lusaka.
Kibera, L.W & Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of
Education with Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.
Kelly, G.P. and Altbach, G. (1984) “The Four Faces of Colonialism.”
Education and the Colonial Experience. New Brunswick: Transaction
Levy-Bruhl, L (1910) (translated in 1979) How Natives Think. New Jersey
: Arno Press.
Noble, J. (1977). Education in Namibia. University of Nairobi, Faculty of
Education. Unpublished M.A. thesis.
O’Callaghan, M. (1977). Namibia: The Effects of Culture on Education.
Paris: Unesco.
Spring, J. (1997) Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality. A Brief
History of the Education of Dominated Groups in the United States. New
York: McGraw-Hill
46
Tabata, I.B. (1980). Education for Barbarism . London: Unity Movement

of South Africa
Thiongo, N. (1986) Decolonizing the Mind . London: J. Currey Ltd.
Woodson, C. (1933). Mis-Education of the Negro . Washington:

Associated Publishers..
Unit 4
Sociology of Education as a
Discipline
Introduction
This unit deals with the basic theoretical aspects of Sociology of Education
and the rationale behind studying such a subject. Since Sociology of
Education deals with the learner (educand) in society, we shall look at the
function of the subject and some definitions of Sociology of Education, as
well as its relation to real issues in the Namibian context.
 define the concept sociology of education;
 explain sociology of education as an independent sub-division of

education;
Outcomes
 discuss the major themes of sociology of education as a discipline of
education;
 list and describe the social functions of sociology of education;
47
Sociology of Education as a Discipline
 indicate the aim of education as seen from a sociology of education

perspective.
Kibera, L.W. & Kimokoti, A. Fundamentals of Sociology of Education

With Reference to Africa (2007). Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.
Le Roux, J. (ed.) (1994) Themes in Socio-pedagogics . Pretoria: van Schaik
Prescribed reading Publishers.
Sociology: A systematic study of the structure, function, and

development of society; as well as human social
relationships and social institutions such as
education, health, family to mention but a few.
Terminology
Sociology of A systematic study of the relationship between
Education: society and education as an institution. It
explores “… what education does, its methods,
institutions, administration and curricular”; and
examines the socio-cultural impact on
educational outcome and personality
development (Kibera and Kimokoti, 2007).
Theoretical basis:
Theoretical frameworks within which educational
sociologists analyse educational issues. These
include but not limited to the following theories of
society;
Functionalist theory: in accordance with which
education is seen as a sub-system of society; and
which places focus on the ways in which formal
education serves the needs of society;
Conflict theory: which sees conflict amongst social
groups as inevitable due to social inequalities; and
hence argue from a point of view that education
serves to sustain social inequalities and preserves
the power of the dominant social classes within
society; and
Symbolic interaction theory: whose analysis of
educational issues is limited to what they observe
within the classroom setting. To give an example;
the way in which teachers’ expectations influence
learners ’performance, perceptions and attitude.
48
(Kibera and Kimokoti, 2007 and

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/sociology/edu
cation/current-issues-in-education).
Philosophical grounding of approaching learners
from a sociological viewpoint is also another
philosophical base.
Children: Adults-to-be who need guidance from adults.
Adults: Skilled people who have experienced the

occurrence of life and its demands and challenges
Formal education: Structured education which is planned and

organised
Informal Spontaneous, unplanned and loosely structured

education: education which make provision for fast innovative
changes
Schooling: A vast extensive educational experience that goes

beyond the curriculum and walls of the classroom
1. The subject ‘Sociology of Education’

Sociology is defined as the science or study of society. The word
“sociologie” was first introduced by the French author August Comte
(1789 – 1857) in 1830. The word comes from two words; the one Latin
which is “socius” (originally meaning a people, tribe or city allied to Rome,
but later a SOCIETY); and the second is the Greek word “logos”, which
means (reason or knowledge). Comte thought that sociology was a science
employing observation, experimentation and comparison.
Sociology is a subject that came into being as an attempt to understand the

many and far-reaching changes that have occurred in human societies,
including your own, over the past two or three centuries. Industrialization,
urbanism and new types of political systems are some of the important
developments that are affecting the modern social world. Industrialization
started in England, in the 18th and early 19th century. Its effect was later
felt in other western countries, including Namibia. Industrialization is the
changes brought about by mechanical inventions whereby a new social
system came into being in which large-scale industries played an important
part. A direct result of industrialization was urbanism, whereby large
numbers of people from different cultural backgrounds moved from rural
areas to the cities and towns, in search of employment and better living
conditions. This is a phenomenon that is still true today, more so in
countries like Namibia, albeit in a different form, namely Globalisation.
The inability of the state to create or even facilitate job opportunities in the
rural areas of the country forces rural citizenry to migrate to the urban areas
in search of employment and better living conditions.
49
Sociology of education can also be defined as a branch of sociology that

primarily focuses on investigating the purpose of education in relation to
society on the one hand and the individual on the other. Analysing the
social and personal/private function of education, Datta (1984) outlines the
following functions in this regard:
 Private returns of education; whereby an individual can improve
his/her financial status and acquire scientific and cultural
knowledge and skills for use in the labour market and in social
life;
 The social function of education, which is about the contribution
that education can make to the maintenance and continuance of
society;
 The conservative function of education: preserving culture and
passing it on from one generation to another;
 The innovative function of education: in the context of which
school is seen to be the main source of new ideas, which in turn
can bring about social change;
 The political function of education is about political socialization:
the transmission of values, beliefs, ideas and patterns of behaviour
in relation to the generation, distribution and exercise of political
power;
 The economic function of education refers to its contribution to
economic development of a country; and
 The selective and allocative function of education, which is about
society making full use of the “pool of capability” or the sum total
of intellectual qualities and talents produced by the educational
system.
It will be most useful if you can consider these aims of

education in the context of Namibia.
Sociology of Education also focuses on providing the child with guidance

regarding the details of a modern society. In a child’s various associative
relationships and situations, he/she is educated to achieve adequate
associations at all levels of society. It indicates the communication
processes through which the child communicates with his/her educators,
peers and others in order to actualise his/her communicative and social
potential and learns to communicate and socialise properly with others.
The fast rate of change in society and a modern tendency of people to be
regarded not primarily as individuals but rather both individuals and social
beings, creates a need for guidance.
50
3. Sociology of Education as an independent sub-discipline of

education
Sociology has close ties with other social sciences (i.e. history,
psychology, economics, anthropology, political science and so on). All the
social sciences are concerned with the behaviour of human beings, but each
one concentrate on different aspects of human behaviour. The connection
between sociology, anthropology and history are particularly important.
Although sociology is closely connected with other social sciences, it is a

science in the sense that it involves systematic methods of investigation
and the evaluation of theories in the light of evidence and logical argument.
Sociology provides you with the knowledge and ability to look at the child
as a member of society who needs to be educated in order to become a
responsible human being who contributes to the well-being of society.
Here, the focus is to provide the learner with guidance about the
expectations of society. Sociology can also assist you in understanding the
place and function of education within society and expose you to the
underlying reasons behind inequalities within society and the education
system.
This course is designed to give you an understanding of the concept

sociology of education and its impact at the classroom level. It is aimed at
giving you social insight into the classroom, so that you can adapt to the
needs of the classroom environment and that of leaners from distinct socio-
economic backgrounds.
Contemporary Sociology of Education is one of the independent sub-

disciplines of education as an autonomous science. The concept was used
for the first time in 1850 by A. Diesterweg to describe education that is
determined by social relationships.
The term ‘Sociology of Education is derived from three words, namely:
Latin sociare, socius: co-exist
Greek pais: child
Greek agogein: lead, guide.
As derived from these meanings, Sociology of Education is the science that

studies the process of guiding the child in respect of his/her social
existence. The child and young person are educated in certain social
relationships and social situations so that he/she will be able to co-exist
effectively at all levels, from interpersonal to formal relationships. By
interacting and communicating with educators, peers and others, the child
realises his/her socio-communicative potential, learns to communicate
adequately with his/her fellow humans, and learns to cope with the most
intimate and the most formal of relationships. Sociology of Education is
therefore concerned with the social life of the child as well as with his/her
total social situation.
51
Sociology of Education is also a scientific study of the connection that

exists between society and education as an institution. In this context,
contemporary sociology of education focuses, among others on the
following issues:
Discipline and security issues: This may include issues such as violence
within society and in schools.
Race, ethnicity and social inequalities: This can include studies on

educational opportunities for learners from distinct socio-economic
background. Focus can also be placed on how to deal with bilingual
education, which deals with the issue of how to treat ‘teaching instruction’
in languages other than the official language.
Mainstreaming: studies that examines issues related to the placing of

physically, emotionally or mentally challenged studies in ordinary
classrooms rather than in ‘special education’ ones.
Quality in public versus private education: Studies that explore the issue
of performance in schools often try to compare the educational quality in
public vis-à-vis private education and draw conclusions that at times
influence parents ‘choice of schools for their children.
Socialization and Education: Socialization is the process through which an

individual or social group acquire or build his/her total way of being, which
we call ‘culture’.
“Socialization, as a lifelong interactive process of cultural learning,

involves different types of social actors. Agents of socialization are the
individuals, groups and institutions that create the social context in which
socialization takes place. It is through agents of socialization that
individuals learn and incorporate the values and norms of their culture as
well as their various positions in the social structure in such terms as class,
race and gender”.
https://globalsociology.pbworks.com/w/page/14711154/Agents%20of%2
0Socialization. Children are socialized through various agents of
socialization and acquire norms, values and skills. These include the family
(parents and siblings). The family is seen as the primary socializing agent
because it provides the first learning experience for the child “From our
families, we also inherit our position in the social structure. Families all
belong to some social class, racial and ethnic group. This initial social
positioning is not only central to our self-formation but also to our life-
chances.”
52
0Socialization. Second to the family is the school. Kibera and Kimokoti
(2007) point out the difference between the family and school as agents of
socialization. That is, whilst socialization through the family takes place
informally, school utilizes both informal and formal means.
Schools are the first impersonal and collective environment that children
experience after being in a more protected environment of the family.
Formally, schools serve to transmit knowledge and skills. Informally,
however, schools tend to support certain values such as honesty,
competition, cooperation, respect, punctuality, neatness, obey rules and the
like. Besides, schools also contribute to reproduce inequalities since
educational institutions tend to place more value on the child-rearing style
of middle-class parents and thereby indirectly alienate working class
children who may find themselves lost in middle-class culture. As Pierre
Bourdieu rightly observed, working-class children end up internalizing a
perception that school is boring and is not meant for them, whilst “…the
middle-class children feel more “at home” in the school environment since
their cultural capital matches the institution’s expectations”.
0Socialization.
By the same token, through text books and curriculum, learners are
socialised in what society perceives as acceptable roles for men and women
respectively; and this perpetuate gender inequality. (Kibera and Kimokoti,
2007).
Peer groups: exerts cultural influences within school (class mates and
school friends) and outside schools (friends). As the saying goes, friends
make you. This mainly means that peers and friends can influence each
other either negatively or positively. Antisocial habits such as alcohol
abuse and drugs can be learned through peers. But positive habits such as
cooperation, honesty focusing on positive goals can equally be internalised
through these associations.
Another important agent of socialization is the mass media (radio,

television, movies and print media), through which learners and other
53
people can internalise specific manners, attitudes, behaviours and values

of their society and globally.
Activity 1
How does Sociology of Education relate to other sub-disciplines of

Activity education such as Comparative Education, History of Education and
Educational Psychology?
Feedback to Activity 1
Sociology of Education is about the society/education linkage. It is also

about the social development of the child in order for him/her to become
Feedback a responsible adult who contributes constructively to society. It
specifically addresses the individual in primary, secondary and tertiary
socialisation groups, and has a future perspective as it changes the
child’s personality and relationships for the better. History of Education
deals primarily with the historical development of education, as we know
it today, while Comparative Education deals with educational systems.
Educational Psychology deals with conditions conducive to learning and
contributes to the theories of the child and adolescent development in a
number of ways.
4. The function of Sociology of Education

This sub-discipline is mainly concerned with two essential characteristics
of humankind, namely:
 The human as a being who educates; and
 The human as a social being who cannot exist without belonging to a
society.
Education can be established by the interaction between adults and

children. This interaction takes place either at home or in the school. The
human can be educated and influenced because he/she is a human being.
Sociology of Education is the study of the above relationship in order to
gain a differentiated and informed insight into:
 Adulthood;
 Development towards adulthood; and
 Educating towards adulthood.
54
In the light of above, the function of Sociology of Education can be seen

as twofold:
 It is concerned with the study of the social life of the child; and
 The relationship between education and society.
The phenomenon of education is the point of departure and the focus for
study and research in Sociology of Education.
Activity 2
Do you think that Sociology of Education has a significant function in

Activity Namibia?
Our modern world has become problematic – it is extremely complicated

and changes so rapidly with miraculous dynamics, that specialised,
Feedback demanding and intricate teaching skills are needed to deal with this
situation. In our society there are factors (forces and influences) at work
that disturb and impede the relationships between the child (educand)
and the adults (educators). This may lead to many problems and trauma
amongst children with regard to the acquirement of healthy social skills.
Sociology, therefore, is important as it emphasises the social knowledge
and skills necessary to become socially responsible adults . Sociology of
education also helps us to understand the place, role and function of
education in society.
5. Other study theme(s) of Sociology of Education

Education Social structure Educative goal
(complicated, dynamic) (image of the adult person)
Education 1. Intimacy*: community, I-

1. Children Socialisation
you relationship 1. Meaningful life
(adults to be) i) Primary socialisation: in society
Family, neighbours, friends 2. Mobility in
2. Adults ii) Secondary socialisation: society
3. Opinions 3. Adaptation to
School, church, clubs, peers change in
society
iii) Tertiary socialisation: Mass

media, public opinion, radio,
TV, theatre
2. Formality*: Society, formal

relationships
55
Intimacy and formality are the basic social forms according to which all
social relationships are actualised.
In the light of the above, the child’s socialisation is actualised within a total
social structure that includes social groupings in which social relationships
can range from the most intimate and personal to the most formal and
functional.
Let us briefly discuss the areas of socialisation as indicated in the

abovementioned diagram:
5.1 Primary socialisation

Primary socialization is probably the most important aspect of the
socialization process, and takes place during the early years of childhood
that mainly takes place in the family. By responding to the approval and
disapproval of their behaviour by their parents, and copying their example,
the child learns the language and many of the basic behaviour patterns of
his/her society. It also refers to socialisation throughout one’s life through
friendships and relationships.
Two basic processes take place:

 The internalisation of society’s culture; and
 The structuring of society.
Culture cannot be inherited, but it needs to be learnt. This usually takes

place through informal educative activities. Families form the core of
communities and are ‘factories’ which produce human personalities and
provide warmth, security and mutual support.
5.2 Secondary socialisation

It refers to formal and planned educative activities that usually take place
in later years. Secondary socialization mostly takes place in school or the
educational system of a society. In western societies, which include
Namibia as well, other important agencies of socialization, include the peer
group (a group whose members share circumstances and are often of a
similar age); the church, the media, both electronic and printed, political
parties, and other socializing agencies. Within its peer group, the young
child, by interacting with others and playing childhood games, learns to
conform to the accepted ways of a social group and to appreciate the fact
that social life is based on rules. We, as educators, are specifically
interested in social relationships in school context and we shall concentrate
on this aspect.
56
5.3 Tertiary socialisation

The individual constantly has to adapt to the influences and demands of
mass media, public opinion, etc. through formal and informal educative
activities. This is a lifelong process that affects our social relationships.
5.4 Informal education

Education can occur in a spontaneous, unplanned way. These are
experiences that are not designed by someone to stimulate specific
thoughts or interpretations or to impart specific skills, but are learnt while
the human being lives in his/her community/society.
5.5 Formal education

Education is a process or activity that takes place right through a person’s
life, even to those who have not had the chance to attend school. Through
education a person learn to become a responsible adult citizen of the
country. Education, therefore, is more than just educating and training of a
person to become literate and a productive employee only, but the character
formation of the person as well. Education should therefore be balanced in
developing the person’s physical, intellectual, inter-personal, emotional
and vocational abilities.
It therefore refers to a purposeful, planned effort intended to impart specific

skills and modes of thought. We tend to think of it as consisting of
enriching, liberating or positive experiences through which the child can
socialise effectively. The main aim of education is to teach a learner to
socialise effectively in any group of people.
5.6 Schooling
It is a programme of formal and systematic instruction that takes place
primarily in the classrooms but also includes extra-curricular activities and
out-of-class assignments. Schooling is the means by which those who
design and implement programmes of instruction seek to pass on the
values, norms, knowledge and skills with the major aim to help the child
to socialise properly at different levels. John Dewey sees the school as
primarily a social institution, which makes the child conscious of his/her
social heritage to enable him/her to perform those fundamental types of
activity that make civilisation what it is.
African schooling
Schooling in the African context, before colonialism, was traditional and

prepared the youth for social life in the tribe or ethnic group. As Amukugo
(1995) argue traditional African education differs from western education
in that it is rooted in an African environment and the learning process was
directly related to a specific pattern of work/life in a specific society.
During colonialism schooling was based on foreign values. Norms and
content was introduced, which alienated the African child from his/her
African roots to a large extent. Africans were schooled to become
labourers, without involving themselves in their schooling.
57
Decolonisation, through which African countries gained political

independence, saw a definite move away from these foreign, European
ways of schooling to an African-based schooling, based on African values
and needs. As Makulu (1971) points out, “[t]he independent nations wish
to make their educational policy clear in such a way that it will be directly
related to the development of the nation. They want education to enable
the individual to make a maximum contribution to national development”.
(Ibid., p.31). African education was based on the ‘character to draw out the
powers of the African and fit him to meet the specific problems and needs
of his individual and community life’. The aim was ‘to render the
individual more efficient in his/her condition of life, whatever it may be
and promote advancement of the community as a whole through:
 The improvement of agriculture;
 The development of indigenous industries; and
 The management of their own affairs and the inculcation of the ideas of
citizenship and service’ (Pretorius, 1998: 12).
Activity 3
Identify and name all primary, secondary and tertiary socialisation

activities that take place in your community. Establish whether they
function effectively.
Activity
All these activities eventually contribute to the social existence of the

child. However, there is a cause for concern about the relationships
Feedback between parents and their children - to their own detriment and to that of
their children. Education is becoming an increasingly difficult task for
many parents. Many parents are also absent from the education of their
children due to long work hours and single parent families. Under these
circumstances a social problem prevails: that of a society that is
becoming increasingly unbearable for both parents and children. The
study of Sociology of Education among student teachers is thus essential
as it sensitises students towards potential problems about healthy
relationships . It further assists the teacher to understand the different
social and economic backgrounds of learners, which in turn enhance the
teacher’s capacity to help all learners.
58
6. The social functions of Education

Sociologist Emile Durkheim believed that education functions to serve the
needs of society. In particular, schools function to teach children the things
they need to adapt to their environment. To ensure this end, teachers should
be reminded of the ideas, the sentiments and norms that must be impressed
upon children if they are to adjust to the milieu in which they must live.
Such logic underscores efforts to use schools as mechanisms for meeting
the needs of society. It is therefore important that schools should serve
communities and the society, which presupposes that teaching content
should be relevant to the needs of society. Society should dictate the
syllabus content in schools.
Another viewpoint is that education is a liberating experience that releases

children from blinders imposed by the accident of birth into a particular
family, culture, religion, society, and time in history. Schools therefore
should be designed to broaden children’s horizons so they will become
aware of the conditioning influences around them and they will learn to
think independently of any authority.
Activity 4
Do you think that our schools are relevant to the needs of the Namibian
society?
Activity
There might be many different answers to this question, as the needs of

all the communities within the Namibian society differ from region to
Feedback region, and from urban to rural. However, this is a question we have to
ask ourselves constantly. If we educate just for the sake of educating our
people, we should be careful that education does not become irrelevant
to our society and country’s needs. School syllabuses must be developed
in conjunction with the needs of communities and the private sector
(businesses, industries and farming communities).
6.1 Aims of Education

From a Sociology of Education perspective, the aim of education and
schooling is to guide the child towards becoming a socialised or socially
mobile person. As an adult, the adequately socialised person will be able
to:
 Participate meaningfully in society;
 Cope with a variety of social situations;
 Digest changes in society; and
59
 Contribute towards a better society.
Such a person is able to cope with the variety of diverse and often
problematic social challenges and situations in which he/she finds
himself/herself every day. The ability to communicate openly, easily and
effectively with others is rated highly in society. Well-known
psychologists have analysed the issue of personality, and in addition to
other adequate human functions, regard the following as characteristics of
a mentally healthy, well-adapted personality:
 Elizabeth Hurlock: “the ability to relate to others”;
 Abraham Maslow: “A unified personality, a firm identity – they know
who they are and behave accordingly. They have the ability to develop
intimate relationships”;
 Carl Rodgers: “Relating well to others”;
 Erik Erikson: “Trust others and trust themselves. Have a clear,
integrated identity. Can develop intimate, trusting relationships with
others”;
 Paulo Freire: “Liberating and emancipating humankind from
oppression by authoritarianism and an alienating intellectualism”.
 Emile Durkheim summarises the aim of education as follows:
“Education is the influence exercised by adult generations on those that are

not yet ready for social life. Its object is to stimulate and develop in the
child a certain number of physical, intellectual and moral states which are
demanded of him by both the political society as a whole, and by the
particular milieu for which he is specifically destined…”
Paulo Freire view education as the practice of freedom “… because it frees

the educator no less than the educatees from the twin thraldom [slavery] of
silence and monologue” Both partners are liberated … [from the] stigma
of illiteracy, poverty, or technological ignorance” (Paulo Freire, 1974: pp
viii – iv). Freire (1985) argue further that it is not enough to be critical and
conscious of material realty [what goes on within society], but both the
educator and the ‘educateees’ should utilise their critical consciousness to
transform their environment [communities and society at large].
6.2 Character Education

“To educate a person in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace
[risk] to society” – Theodore Roosevelt
6.2.1 Background
Character is made up of those principles and values that give your life
direction, meaning and depth. These aspects constitute your inner sense of
60
what is right and wrong not only with regard to laws or rules of conduct,
but also on whom you are.
For example, with today’s value systems based solely (and wrongly) on
skill and personality, we find heroes in athletes, musicians and even
politicians. But despite the admiration we feel for these achievers, we
should not necessarily look upon them as role models. While skill is
certainly needed for success, it can never guarantee happiness and
fulfilment. These come from developing character ourselves and those of
the children in school.
Increasing numbers of people across the ideological spectrum believes that

our society is in deep moral trouble. Disheartening signs are
overwhelming: the breakdown of families, deterioration of civility in
everyday life, rampant greed, thefts of personal property, the omnipresent
sexual culture that fills our television and magazines with sleaze, the
growing number of street children, etc. As we become more aware of this
societal crisis, the feeling grows that Namibian teachers and schools cannot
be ethical bystanders and as a result character education is urgently needed
in Namibia.
6.2.2 Features of the time the modern child grows up in
We live in an age of dynamic change and the rate of changing will even
increase further due to scientific and technological progress. We live in an
era of information revolution where we are bombarded by new information
that is sometimes contradictory to our values and norms, every moment of
the day. Established static social patterns are broken up as they are exposed
to a new globalisation culture. Eventually the prevailing attitude has
become one of freedom without responsibility, because it seems as if the
inability to cope with rapid change has brought about a sense of fatalism.
All over the world there seems to be a lack of discipline and control
amongst our people, especially the youth. There is a constant and growing
demand on the teacher to justify the relevance and importance of values
and norms, as the youths are on the one hand begging for guidance but on
the other hand in conflict with older and established values and norms.
6.2.3 Attitudes of modern youths in Western societies
There are two spheres where teachers have to work hard in conveying
values and norms. The teachers/parent should understand two educational
spheres very well.
The sphere (school and church), where parental guidance is still

considerable.
The educational sphere (spare-time activities, attendance of sport

meetings, membership of youth organisations) where parental guidance is
very restricted.
It is in these two spheres that the capitulation of values and morals are most
obvious. The young Namibian finds him/herself in situations where he/she
is confronted by young fellow learners who may come from primary
61
(family) surroundings, which have life-attitudes and norms contrary to

anything proper and educationally acceptable.
Research revealed the following as far as modern youths are concerned:

 They identify with the norms of their working friends rather than norms
advocated by parents and teachers.
 They are sceptical about established values (regardless of their
propriety and relevance), and even positively undermine them.
 The relation to reality is non-traditional, non-romantic, sometimes
radical and typical of the pubertal stage: rebellious.
 They lose themselves in the mass, preferring to become part of the
crowd in which their personal dignity can disappear and responsibility
of their own actions are avoided.
 They conform to followers rather than leaders.
 They are bombarded by shallow culture modes (drugs, free love,
Satanism, heavy pop music, etc.) and accept these values as true values
without putting them to the test or thinking for themselves.
Modern technology in the field of communications (television, cell phones,

newspapers, magazines, Internet, etc,) confronts learners with such
style, colour, graphics and three- dimensional figures that the
unfortunate teacher, while knowing all the content and didactic problems,
appears to be a boring, uninteresting amateur.
6.2.4 Interpretation of norms in the school
To ensure that children increasingly obey values and norms, the teacher
should prescribe norms for him/herself and live up to these norms in and
outside the classrooms. There are two implications for the school:
 the school can accept the norms of society;
 it can confront society with a different set of values and norms should
the current norms be irrelevant.
For the school as a specialist institution in the educational context, the

following is important:
 The teacher must have a thorough knowledge of the essentials of the
norm-value system of society;
 The teacher must be able to identify with these norms and respect them;
 The teachers must be able to interpret these norms for a child in a clear
and unambiguous way;
 The teacher must be able to anticipate and identify a shift in the
emphasis of the value system;
62
 Teachers must know that initially the child accepts norms without
doubting their validity, because they are set boundaries within which
the child experiences safety; and
 Norms must not remain prescriptions, which it must be slavishly
obeyed, but the child must be taught to, on the grounds of personal
decision of conscience, accept and apply values and norms for
him/herself.
We can see that materialism, permissivism (liberalism) and humanism, to

mention but a few, have gained much ground at the cost of the normative.
Parents cannot teach values and morals like in the old days because of long
working hours and the fact that many are single parents. This underlines
the responsibility of teachers to intervene urgently to restore claims for life
driven by good and appropriate values and norms as the only means of
maintaining a society that will be lasting and prosperous.
Activity 5
Do you think that we need character education in Namibian schools? If yes,

Activity design a strategy about teaching character education in your school, taking
all the resources at your school into consideration.
If no, motivate your viewpoint.
I am of the opinion that we need more emphasis on character education

in Namibia. If we read the newspapers and see the crimes around us,
Feedback Namibia is in dire need for character education. We need to get our ethics
and morals correct before we can have prosperity and peaceful
development in Namibia and in our region. We, as Namibians, can show
to the rest of Africa and the world that our society is based on high
morals, peace, order and mutual respect. An emphasis on ‘civic
education’ can also assist in this regard.
Unit summary
Sociology of Education is a sub-discipline of the social sciences,
specifically education that in the main deals with the relationship between
education and society. It also provides the learners with knowledge, social
skills and life skills in respect of his/her social existence. The importance
Summary of studying this subject lies in the fact that society becomes more and more
complex, with the result that teachers sometimes lack the knowledge and
63
skills to cope with it. It is therefore very important that teachers take note
of all functions and issues with regard to Sociology of Education to enable
them to become good teachers.
64
References
Amukugo, E.M. (1995) Education and Politics in Namibia: Past Trends
and Future Prospects, 2nd revised edition. Windhoek: Gamsberg
Macmillan.
References
Ballantine, J.H. (1997) The Sociology of Education: A Systematic
Analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Commonwealth Secretariat (1998) Commonwealth Values in Youth and

development Work. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.
Datta, A (1984). Education and Society: Sociology of African Education.

London: Macmillan Education Ltd.
Ferrante, J. (1995) Sociology: A Global Perspective . USA: Wadsworth

Publishing Company.
Freire, P. (1974). Education for Critical Consciousness. London: Sheed

and Waad.
Freire, P. (1985). The Politics of Education. New York: Bergin and

Garvey.
Good, T.L. & Brophy, J.E. (1994) Looking in Classrooms, Sixth Edition.
New York: HarperCollins College Publishers.
Katzao, J.J. (1999) LESSONS TO LEARN: A Historical, Sociological and

Economic Interpretation of Education Provision in Namibia. Windhoek:
Kibera, L.W & Kimokoti, A.K. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of

Education: With Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.

Publishers.
Makulu, H. F. (1971). Education, Development and Nation-building in

Independent Africa. London: SCM Press.
0Socialization.
65
The educational significance of the school
Unit 5
The educational significance of

the school
Introduction
This unit aims at making students aware of the school’s socialisation task.
Students have to realise that schools not only functions within a specific
community, but also functions as a community as such. Schools have social
structures and rules that determine each individual’s roles and tasks. The
relationship between the parent and the teacher is a crucial one, because it
determines the atmosphere in the school as well as the quality of guidance
that teachers get in regard to the needs of families and communities. This
unit therefore stipulates the responsibilities and activities of the child,
parent and teachers, so that we as teachers can become effective teachers.
 explain the role of the educand in the schools;
 discuss the fundamental relationship between adult and child in

educational-didactic and learning situation;
Outcomes
 describe the responsibilities of the school as a community;
 discuss the internal and external relations of the school with regard to
the socialisation processes.

Publishers.
Prescribed reading
Educational Engagement between adults and non-adults.

encounter:
66
Educative A structured and systemised interaction between

teaching: teacher and learner.
Life views: An outlook on life according to personal beliefs and

traditions.
Ethos: Life according to a code of conduct and discipline.

Terminology Community: A group of people who live together and share
culture, history, traditions and education.
In loco parentis: In the place of the parent.
1. The encounter of teacher and child in the school situation

While the child goes to school to learn, the teacher’s role is to teach
according to specific scientific insights. Despite differences between
teachers and learners, both parties are human and the primary relation in a
school is therefore an inter-human one. The teacher reflects a certain image
of adulthood and in this way the reality of life is brought into the school.
The teacher as an adult directs the child towards the situation he/she (the
teacher) has already arrived at. The concept “educational encounter” is a
vital part of education in the school-didactical situation that implies a
particular engagement between mankind and reality. The child therefore
needs an educative guide (teacher) and a role model.
An analysis of the “educational encounter” shows the following:

 Concrete reality forces itself upon the child who must make choices.
 This reality requires action.
 It is an occurrence necessary for the proper becoming of every
individual.
 Mankind has no choice but to encounter or stand up to reality.
 Questions such as what is our purpose, eternity, sin, future life, hope of
salvation, etc. come from this encounter.
 Encounter is a typical human phenomenon.
1.1 The task of the school during this educational

encounter
The time during which a child is at school has particular significance in
his/her life, because:
 It is a period of most intense moulding by his/her educators;
 It is a sensitive period;
 It is the time in which the child increasingly gains a rational and
intellectual grip on reality, guided by teachers (adults).
67
Education that happens at school has a particular character, because the

school:
 Assumes that right to intervene scientifically in the child’s life in such
a way that his/her perspective on reality is radically influenced and
changed;
 Deliberately plans things to happen educationally, systematically and
in a specific order;
 Constructively changes the child’s initial naïve, pre-rational and diffuse
perspective to a more objective outlook;
 Is commanded to assist and formally guide
 Selects those parts of reality that children are going to need most on
their way to and during adulthood, builds them into syllabuses and
assures children that they can deal with them; and
 Takes care that what is interpreted as future life-world for the child and
corresponds with reality.
When we analyse the school situation, the following characteristics

become clear:
 The school should scientifically interpret the child’s future;
 It forms an intermediary world created by educationists for the child on
his/her way to adulthood;
 Educational occurrences never have an incidental character but are
planned deliberately;
 The schools should complete educational actions initiated at home, in a
scientific accountable way,
 Every school should have an ethos (vision, mission, code of conduct)
which clearly spells out the objectives of the school concerning the
behaviour and aspirations of all stakeholders concerned.
Activity 1
What common grounds are there between a school and a family?
Activity
68
Both institutions consist of adults and non-adults. The family is the

natural teaching ground where education should take place intuitively
Feedback and naturally. In the school the adults are trained to teach the non-adults
to become adults according to strategies, principles and methods. The
school should be a natural extension of the family, but education should
be more structured and relevant to society’s needs. When the school has
different programmes to what the parents and society need, little common
grounds exist for education and the process should be brought in line.
2. The school as a social structure

Educative teaching is achieved in a well-organised social environment
called a school and with a specific social climate, mainly in the form of a
structured and systemised interaction between teacher and learner. The
school therefore is a social institution where a structure of activities is
actualised in order to achieve a specific objective. We can show a school
as a system as follows:
Input Education Outcome
Children Teaching, psychology
Socialised Socialisation, self- actualising
Buildings Safety, access
Teaching resources Competency, etc.
The school forms the formal social structure and is determined by:
 The role of every participant in the school;
 The norms which determine behaviour (norms structure);
 The values in which the norms are embedded;
 Activities, e.g. teaching, learning to achieve objectives;
 objectives, e.g. learning and socialisation objectives; and
 Structure of authority (decision taking, organisational structure).
The informal social structure refers to:

 Dynamic social relationships;
 Interpersonal communication;
 Individual support by teachers, parents and peers;
 The classroom atmosphere; and
 The school climate.
69
Activity 2
What differences are there between the family as a social structure and the
Activity school as a social structure?
The family is a social structure because family members have particular

relationships. Each member has a specific status and role in the family
Feedback set-up. Adulthood is the ultimate aim of both structures. However, the
school as a social structure differs much from the family. It finds itself in
a system that has national goals of intellectual, vocational, civic,
personal and academic development. The basic structures differ vastly
and the relationships differ as well.
3. The school as a community

A community is a group of people who live, learn and work together in
harmony and shares life experiences and culture. A community also has
specific goals, rules and procedures in order to ensure order and discipline.
The school is such a community, which consists of learners, teachers,
parents and other stakeholders who must work together to achieve common
goals despite individual differences that may exist. The school as a
community must be seen as a suitable environment which reflects ideals
such as concern, love, respect, progress, development, etc. The actual
school therefore is a mini-community that reflects and represents the
community that it serves. The school always functions within a community
and should therefore always try to be relevant to the needs and demands of
it.
3.1 Community’s demands on a school

The greater community has certain expectations from the school, such as:
 That the school must serve the interests and needs of the community.
Children belonging to the community, attend school not only for the
sake of becoming an adult, but should also contribute ultimately to the
welfare and future development of that community;
70
 That school facilities be made available for usage by community

members outside regular school hours, e.g. for community meetings,
cultural activities, etc.;
 That the school acts as a bridge between a childlike or playing way of
life and an adult, working way of life; and
 That the school uplifts community life and living standards.
3.2 The child as school-community member

The child should feel comfortable and secure in the school, which require
the following:
 That the school must function as family which is basically a community
of love and respect;
 That the school teaches and convey acceptable principles, norms and
values and teaches mechanisms to apply it in community life and
society;
 That education is in harmony with the spirit and the character of the
home in so far it is acceptable;
 That, in a multi-cultural society, the school will be concerned with
instruction learning in the sense of general community values while the
family has to be responsible for educating the particular values it wishes
to inculcate
 That it assumes a differentiated nature, which will accord with the
particular abilities/disabilities, interests and culture of the child
 That it provides for the fair and just treatment of each child, recognising
human rights and basic educational and international laws.
3.3 The adults (parents and teachers) as school-community

members
Parents
Parents are very important stakeholders (partners) in the community. They

have specific interests and duties in a school within their community, such
as:
 Ensure that their children reap the maximum benefit from education by
offering security, support, caring for physical needs, supervising and
exercising control over educational activities at home, e.g. children
doing homework;
 Seeing that their children attend school regularly and make effort to
enrol them in and transport them to school;
 Ensure that they contribute positively to education, e.g. motivating their
children and paying school fees on time, if required;
 Not to frustrate the teacher’s education efforts or interrupt the teacher
unnecessarily when he/she is teaching;
71
 To exercise control over the life-views put forward in the school

through critical evaluation of educational content, methodology and
activities;
 To accept part of the management of the school, e.g. formulating local
policies, vision, mission, school atmosphere and the appointment of
teachers;
 Provide specialised services to the school in the form of coaching sport,
medical services, building school buildings and constructing sport
equipment;
 Acknowledge and further the teacher’s professional statu;s
 Support and amplify the education provided by the school by providing
additional teaching and learning experiences;
 To collaborate with teachers with regard to all activities, especially with
regard to authority, discipline and respect; and
 To support the teacher’s request for better conditions of service and to
further the teacher’s interests.
Teachers expect the following behaviours from parents:

 Support – moral, intellectual and financial.
 Guidance – indicate what they as parents expect from teachers.
 Respect – personal, professional and academic.
 Involvement – work together as adults, educators and friends.
Teachers
Teachers are sometimes not an original and integrated part of the

community in which they work, but take on some responsibilities towards
the particular community in which the school is situated at which they
teach. Therefore, teachers need to:
 Act in loco parentis during school hours and see to the children’s safety
and welfare;
 Keep the parents fully informed about the children’s progress and
correct improper education through remedial teaching and learning;
 Seek the whole-hearted cooperation of the parents of the children under
his/her care. Stumbling blocks must be identified and removed,
sympathy for the expectations of the parents for their children must be
shown, consultation, goodwill, mutual trust, loyalty and understanding
of parents’ problems; and
 Official and non-official measures must be put in place for discussions
and meetings, e.g. parent’s evenings, teacher-parent associations,
school board meetings, and informal get-togethers.
Parents also have specific expectations from teachers:
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 Loyalty to and respect for them as parents;

 Courtesy, friendliness and good manners;
 Respect for their children;
 Respect for school and private property;
 Cleanliness and neatness - a teacher should be a good role model to
learners;
 Appropriate social behaviour – sound moral behaviour and temperance;
 Teaching of the ‘hidden curriculum’, dealing with non-syllabus matters
that are important to healthy and positive community life; and
 Good planning, administration and class preparation and subsequently
appropriate learner-centred education;.
Activity 3
What does contemporary society require from schools?

Activity
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Contemporary society expects the following from schools:

Feedback 1. Help socialise and unify our multicultural society.
2. Preserve and transmit our cultural traditions.
3. Encourage and recognise cultural diversity and tolerance.
4. Develop and protect the national economy.
5. Improve the quality of family life.
6. Prepare learners for the world of work.
7. Cultivate cognitive competencies.
8. Act as vehicles for social and economic mobility.
9. Provide educated citizens who are needed in a democracy.
10. Help eliminate discrimination and inequalities.
11. Help bring about social changes in society.
12. Develop positive self-concepts and emotional well-being.
13. Select the brightest and the best future leaders of our society.
14. Act as vehicles in attaining world peace.
15. Nurture and develop creative talent.
16. Protect national borders.
17. Develop characters and bodies of people.
18. Make people aware of natural conservation.
19. Provide technical and vocational skills.
20. Educate Namibians to be happy and enjoy life.
4. The social nature of teaching

To teach means to transfer knowledge, skills and culture from one
generation to the next. Essentially it is a social event that demands
communication and interaction between people who exchange ideas, skills,
attitudes and feelings. In the lesson situation the teacher and the learners
and the learners among themselves are conversing and sharing ideas.
Explanations are given, questions asked and answers provided.
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A teacher can actualise up to 200 interpersonal communications (talking

and listening) during a lesson period, or more than a thousand during a
single school day.
The teacher who really cares about his/her learners therefore pays careful
attention to the quality of interpersonal relationships in the classroom. It
will always be his/her objective to communicate with learners in such a
manner that it is conducive to the development of the learner’s personality
and his/her learning of skills and knowledge. This presupposes that
teachers should be fluent in the language of communication. In this regard
we, as Namibians, still have to grow towards becoming fluent in English
as the medium of instruction.
Activity 4
What are the criteria of quality interpersonal relationships?

Activity
Quality interpersonal relationships with learners differ from community

to community, urban and rural contextual realities as well as traditions
Feedback and cultures. However, it is generally based on honesty, real personal
interest, good communication skills and the will to advance in life
peacefully and gracefully.
5. The effective use of social interaction structures in the lesson

situation
Competition amongst learners is a natural phenomenon in our schools.
However, if not handled correctly, competition may promote negative
interactive patterns, misleading communication, obstruction of each
other’s achievement, influencing each other not to achieve, rejection,
refusal to offer support and a more intense fear of failure. In our schools
the competitive structure is usually emphasised, but it does not always
provide learners with the important opportunity of co-operation in the
classroom situation. Learners are taught to work in isolation and to be the
‘best’ in his/her subject area, but it does not always teach the child to
actualise stable, co-operative I-you relationships with others. What can we
as teachers do to introduce healthy academic competition amongst
learners?
The learner-centred teaching approach that we use in Namibia makes it

possible to actualise the competitive nature of teaching and learning well.
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Constructive competition is only possible where there is mutual co-

operation, regulated by rules and procedures. If the learner can learn to
enjoy constructive competition and the desired social attitude (to be the
best), the competitive structure can serve to quicken and change the pace
of the lesson. The learner-centred approach can be actualised through:
Actualisation of the competitive structure in a group
The learner is motivated to study hard and do well by the possibility of

achieving a certain learning aim and objectives. Each learner must
therefore be given the opportunity to win. Group work could be done,
where learners are grouped in such a way that groups have an even chance
of winning. Learners then experience a challenging and realistic
competitive situation. The teacher can follow the following guidelines:
The teacher has to clearly explain the learning activity, group task,
competition rules and criteria for becoming the best (winning). Each group
is given a realistic problem to solve e.g. “we want to see which group has
most answers correct”.
Form equal groups, according to the learners’ abilities and previous

achievements.
Actualisation of the individualised structure
Sometimes a learner has to work individually to complete his/her share of

a task. The teachers should emphasise that his/her (learner) individually
acquired knowledge and skills are essential for successful learning in the
subsequent co-operative situation with fellow learners, as he/she
experiences the involvement, relevance and importance of his/her share of
the task. This motivates him/her to give his/her best. Once again the
individual activity and the criteria of measuring it have to be spelled out
clearly by the teacher.
Actualisation of the co-operative structure
The teacher should monitor the interaction and co-operation amongst the
learners and intervene if they are not co-operating purposefully. The co-
operative structure of social interaction in the lesson situation promotes
positive interaction amongst learners because within this structure they
have to communicate with each other often and effectively, help each
other, share knowledge and skills, accept each other despite cultural,
emotional and intellectual characteristics.
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Activity 5
How can a teacher encourage socialisation during a lesson presentation?

Activity
Teachers should plan the lessons carefully according to the learner -

centred paradigm, making provision for interaction between the learners
Feedback and the teachers. Learners should in fact do most of the work through
explaining, experimenting, discussing and reporting. The teacher should
facilitate the lesson accordingly. Cultural festivals could be held and
friendships across culture could be made. Speakers from outside the
school can contribute and field excursions could be organised to places,
e.g. to the Namibian Parliament, National Assembly, hospitals, etc. Clubs
such as a hiking club, debating club, photography club definitely put
learners from various backgrounds together according to interests and
ensure socialization and communication.
Unit summary
All of us live and function in a particular community. We have to adhere
to the rules of the community in order to become successful and contribute
towards the development of that community. The same principle applies to
education and schools. Children must learn the rules and regulations,
Summary competitiveness and direct and indirect characteristics of the school as
community in order to live in the real community outside school. It is our
task as teachers to take the learners by their hands and introduce them to
the positive aspects of the community, so that they can become not only
community members but also community leaders.
77
References
References Commonwealth Secretariat (1998) Commonwealth Values in Youth and


Publishing Company.
Good, T.L. & Brophy, J.E. (1994) Looking in Classrooms , Sixth Edition.


Publishers. .
78
Unit 6
A ‘Sociology of Education’
perspective on the family
Introduction
The family, with the parents as the leaders, as a core of society is a vital
part of every child and adults’ life and gives meaning to life. In order to
understand our responsibilities as educators, we should look at the
compilation and character of Namibian families and how children are
educated in the families. We should never provide education and
socialisation opportunities that are alienated from the families. We should
abide by the rule of continuity, which stipulates that schools should be an
extension of the family and communities. This unit therefore sensitises us,
as teachers, about the importance of education in the family.
 discuss the family as the centre of education and co-existence;
 indicate the influences that family dynamics have on the education of

children;
Outcomes
 identify what we as teachers can utilise from the characteristics of
family-life in our everyday education;
 explain how this learner-family relationship can improve social

relationships within the Namibian society.
Le Roux, J (ed.) (1994). Themes in Socio-pedagogics. Pretoria: van Schaik

Publishers.
Prescribed reading
Family: The core unit of human beings where adults and

their children and other relatives feel secure
Milieu: The cultural context in which humans live
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A ‘Sociology of Education’ perspective on the family
Terminology
Virtues: Specific contextual qualities that humans have that
distinguishes them from all other living things on
earth.
Communication: Good listening and talking skills based upon a

democratic attitude that enables humans to
understand each other
Vulnerable: Families that are at risk due to external factors

which can be controlled and not controlled.
1. The family as the first and primary educational institution

The concept ‘family’ can be described in different ways especially if we
consider the diverse theoretical perspectives as explained in Unit 5. From
a functionalist viewpoint, the family as a social institution is crucial in
keeping society functioning properly through socialising children;
providing emotional support; and by affording its members with an
identity, among others. The family as a social institution is viewed, in terms
of the conflict perspective, as contributing to social inequalities within
society. The identity it provides to its members for example, can strengthen
a society’s system of stratification in terms of the haves and the have not’s.
Through inheritance, rich families pass on their wealth to family members.
Besides, through patriarchal (male controlled) systems, families do
contribute to gender inequality. According to symbolic interactionism,
blue-collar (working-class) couples tend to be more silent about family
problems and thereby leaving them unresolved. Middle-class families who
are better educated and more emotionally expressive, tend to value and
encourage good communication between couples and within the family.
This leads to shared understanding of their circumstances, which in turn
create a healthy family.
http://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/bookhub/2?e=barkbrief-
ch11_s02#
It can then be argued, that the family is the core, basic and fundamental
educational institution, which serves as the main educational sphere. The
home is thus the primary educational institution. It provides security to
children gives a central and fundamental background. A well-balanced,
healthy family life and good parents are the most important educators and
the corner stones of teaching and education in school and in adult life.
Within the intimate living space of the parents’ home the foundations are
laid for the child’s future psychic, physical, emotional and social life. The
family is the basic/primary education environment, with the parents as the
primary educators.
Family life consists of two components
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The parents/guardians
Parents have a responsibility and duty towards the child. The child is
absolutely dependent on the protection, care, guidance and love of his/her
mother and father or guardian. It is necessary that the child feels secure and
experiences support from the parents. Children will only be able to
challenge life successfully if they feel secure. The following essential
functions of family life can be distinguished:
 Providing for the child’s material needs in an atmosphere of loving care;
 Transmitting socio-cultural and religious norms under stimulating and
patient parental authority; and
 Maintain an atmosphere of security, sociability, sympathy, freedom and
love.
The child
The child learns the essence of good social conduct as reflected in the love
and responsibility of members of the family for each other, and their
dependence on one another. The child acquires the following good virtues
in the home:
 co-operation
 unselfishness
 service
 obedience
 punctuality
 conscientiousness
 earnestness
 neatness
 devotion
 Perseverance, etc.
Education within the home is informal and concerns the whole child
(physical, emotional, intellectual, moral, aesthetic, religious and social
growth). The family has specific functions to perform:
Core functions Peripheral functions
1. biological needs 1. economic-production needs
2. educative needs 2. recreation needs
3. religious needs 3. status-allocated needs
4. protective needs 4. vocational needs
5. social needs
6. Cherishing or affective needs
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In an African setting however, family also include the extended family.
2. Educational activities and styles of parents

The success/failure of the home as an educational institution is determined
by different educational practices and styles. The following causes of
failure may be mentioned:
2.1 Parent’s activities

 Because parents sometimes have to work far from home, other people
have to take over their responsibilities to teach the children. Children
grow up without adequate parental support and care. The absence of
fathers may lead to feminism, homosexuality, rejection of authority,
disrespect, etc. among boys.
 Factors which make it difficult for parents to create a suitable
educational milieu, e.g. urbanisation and squatting, which result in poor
housing conditions, families caught up in the poverty spiral,
deprivation, illiteracy of parent, alcoholism, etc.
 Modern conditions contribute to the disintegration of intimate family
relationships, such as expatriation and emigration. Each member
pursues his/her own interests elsewhere, and the home becomes merely
a resting place and no longer ‘home’.
 Any other factors within the family, e.g. an unwanted child, a divorce,
single-parent families, family in which the father dominates the mother,
or vice versa.
Activity 1
What can families do to enhance the academic achievement of their

Activity children?
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When a man and a woman decide to marry they must make sure they
marry because they love each other. If not, they will eventually separate
Feedback and may harm the children permanently. Parents should support their
children in every aspect; provide security, safety and creative learning
environments. They should have a set of rules in their homes and apply it
strictly but with empathy. Where children fail to understand the content,
parents should teach it to the best of their abilities. Good communication
skills and interpersonal relationships with each child are essential, as
well as with the teachers of their children. Parents have to set good
examples for their children and be role models for their children. Single -
parent families really struggle to provide these ideal circumstances and
usually create more problems for everybody .
2.2 Undesirable educational styles

Authoritarian or rejecting parents
These parents deal with their children in an autocratic way and either
ignore their children or show hostility towards them. They do not have time
for their children and do not communicate effectively with them. Children
from such homes eventually tend to:
 Exhibit various behaviour problems;
 Resort to various forms of aggressive behaviour;
 Be resistant to adults; and
 Be difficult to be friends with.
Casual parents with a laissez faire attitude
These parents do not have a consistent method of dealing with their

children. House rules do not exist and they leave their children very much
to themselves to solve their own problems. Children from such homes are
uncertain of their behaviours in society and lacks self-confidence. Children
from such casual homes tend to be:
 Inactive;
 Withdrawn;
 In need of consistent guidance:
 Dependent on the teachers’ support and help;
 Children who often dominate their own parents;
 Milieu deprived (little attention, support and guidance by parents); and
 Generally unpopular outside the home.
These undesirable activities and educational styles of parents lead to major

problems at school. It means that teachers not only have to teach subject
content, but also act as ‘good’ parents in schools.
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When parents are ‘absent’, teachers have to take over the role of parents as
well. Teachers feel more and more that parents are neglecting their God-
given responsibilities, because teachers have to deal with the children’s
problems through remedial teaching.
One of the results of these unacceptable practices is street children who

roam the streets without parental love, security and guidance.
Activity 2
If you have to organise a parents’ evening for your class where you discuss
Activity responsible parenting and the different parenting styles among other topics,
do you think that it would make a positive difference on education? Discuss
it with the learners in your class
A parent’s evening will definitely make a difference in your relationships

with the parents. Some parents have little understanding of the
Feedback importance of parent teachers and yet parents are key components of
successful teaching and learning. Should one of these 3 pillars of
education be absent, proper education cannot take place. If there are not
regular Teacher-Parent meetings at your school, convince your principal
of the need and benefits thereof.
2.3 Acceptable educational style

The accepting parents with a democratic attitude are the most desirable and
the most ideal style to educate children. Such parents express love for,
respect to and patience with their children. They provide consistent and
firm control and support, taking an interest in their children. They
communicate with their children and guide them constructively to
responsible adulthood. Such parents are strict but fair in their handling of
children. When their children struggle in school, they do not criticise them
unfairly, but rather support and guide them. The result is that children from
such homes are:
 outgoing
 friendly
 creative
 individualistic
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 able to deal fairly easily with learning situations at school.
Activity 3
How would you ensure that the learners in your school/class receive
Activity appropriate attention, love and security at home?
Not all parents are educated or informed and may cause a lot of harm in
their relationships with their children through improper reactions. I think
Feedback that you as a teacher have to meet with the parents and learners and
establish the kind of relationship that they have in their homes.
Informative sessions could be held with parents individually or as a
group where the advantages of acceptable rearing styles should be ‘sold’
to the parents
3. The family as an educative environment

The family can be described as an educative environment because it has a
more or less stable influence on the child on his/her way to adulthood. The
question is how is education realised in the family setting? Perquin
identifies six facets of the family as educational environment:
85
Educational
Environment
Permanent Living space
Family
Dynamic Answer to
experiences
Social World focused

Situation on personal love
The family environment is a living space
The family lives ‘somewhere’ with a fixed address, not only spatially, but
also a place which parents and children experience emotionally. The child
needs a permanent living space which is his/hers and which he/she
experiences as his/her own, in which he/she can be him/herself and where
he/she can move freely and be carefree. It provides the secure anchorage
in which the child can learn, study, explore, experiment and relate to adults.
It acts as a micro-environment of the community outside the home
The family environment is an answer to experiences
The child needs loving guidance in his/her explorations. At home children

find answers to the many problems and challenges, especially during
puberty and adolescence. ‘Home’ really means a place of problem solving,
a base of safety and security. If the child does not get answers to his/her
problems the outcome can be intense emotional disturbance. Then it is no
longer a home.
The family environment is a world focused on personal love
The family is the ultimate environment of fulfilling personal needs. In

order to develop adequately at a psychological level, the child needs the
loving, caring focus of the parents that manifests itself in concrete deeds
and in a visible manner. To be a family member means acceptance and
experiencing love.
86
The fundamental conditions for personal attention and love between

parents and children focus on:
Family meals: Mealtimes should be peaceful, an expression of mutual

love where healthy and nutritional food is provided.
Association: During meals and being together, parents and children must
associate with each other and discuss matters. Family members must not
be too busy with business and social activities, daily chores or watching
television, that conversation becomes impossible. A feeling of trust and
support is created between parents and children.
Bedtime: It should be a ceremony in which the child experiences intense

feeling of protection, care and safety. When a child goes out at night, at
least one parent should welcome the child back to his/her home.
School activities, games and sport : Parents must attend sport and cultural
activities as it shows that they are interested in the development and growth
of their children. It should be clear to the learners that the parents still
accept responsibility for their education.
Religion: Every person is religious and related to specific beliefs. The

religious life of the child should be realised in the most intimate
communication with his/her parents. Religious values are best practiced
and produce the best fruit in the family environment.
The importance of the communal prayer cannot be overestimated: ‘The

family that prays together, stays together!’
The family environment is a social situation
The family is a community in which the child learns social virtues –

respect, a spirit of solidarity, of communal fate and fellowship. By
practicing social virtues, the child is being prepared to partake in broader
society. The ground rule of ‘give and take’ is realistically experienced. The
value of tradition and culture is also taught and practiced, a learning
experience for the child.
The family environment is dynamic
On the one hand the family represents a link to the past and present, but
must also integrate with the ever-changing reality outside the family.
Therefore, families should be modern and vibrant in order to be dynamic,
and not static. The family should represent the social community outside,
and should thus be on par with it.
The family environment is permanent
The family environment is a permanent, intimate circle of I-you

relationships, which help the child to discover him/herself and others as
persons in a world of impersonal social relationships, and to arrive at
giving personal meaning to values and norms. Family circles are
permanent and should have an interesting history, but also a future
perspective, especially for the young family members.
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Activity 4
Talk to learners, parents and colleagues and establish the typical family
Activity environment of the learners in your class. Relate it to the ideal family
environment.
Teachers should be very careful in their relationship with learners, as

they can act without some background knowledge. We, as teachers, need
Feedback to know the living conditions and circumstances of the learners in our
classes, as we may see them in a different light. Personal experience has
shown that poor achieving learners may be the result of poverty at home,
absent parents or empty stomachs, and not necessarily because of
misbehaviour. We should encourage parents to provide an ideal home for
their children to the best of their ability. Unfortunately, statistics show
that we have thousands of orphaned children in Namibia who experience
very poor and unsuitable living conditions. We have to help these
learners. In Africa there are millions of displaced families because of
wars, famine, political instability and poor leadership. We must make
sure that Namibia stays a peaceful country
4. The vulnerable character of the present-day family

Rapid changes and new developments characterise our modern times. The
only constant in today’s world is change! Education is becoming extremely
complicated and everybody is experiencing change and fantastic
opportunities. Forthcoming out of this, it seems, is the fact that many
families do not function as it is supposed to, with the result that the young
family members are neglected in terms of education. The traditional family
consists of the nuclear family (husband and wife and their children) and
together with other family members formed the extended or large family.
The extended family contributed to the family’s stability and ensured a
large degree of emotional security, socialisation and social control.
Unfortunately in our modern times factors such as economic activities

remove and isolate the nuclear family from the extended family. It starts to
function as a separate unit, thereby becoming very vulnerable. The present
day family is:
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Economically vulnerable: In times of need (unemployment,

retrenchment, illness, death of the father), the family is dependent upon
itself.
Socially vulnerable: The smaller, isolated family lose stability as family

members are heavily dependent on each other, and when they experience
problems they do not have relatives to turn to.
Emotionally vulnerable: Family members are more emotionally involved

with each other because of their isolation. There is enormous pressure on
the family members, who then experience problems even more intensely.
The family stability is threatened. Working parents are not at home, cannot
receive their children back from school, oversee homework and cannot
provide security, which result in emotionally insecure children.
Educationally vulnerable: Parents have to work very hard and are away
from home for long hours. Parents, as the primary educators, do not fulfil
their responsibilities and therefore children turn to friends and television
for relaxation. In the process they are neglected and subjected to bad
influences. The so-called ‘chain-key children’ who leave for school in the
morning and return to an empty, cold house after school, are most
vulnerable.
Vulnerable in respect of role differentiation: If the father is absent too

often due to career obligations, the son’s socialisation may be hampered
because he does not have enough contact with the father as identity figure.
Consequently, too close relationship with the mother may lead to
homosexual tendencies in the son. The wife also experiences role
uncertainty due to her emancipation, entry into the labour market and
having fewer children. The variety of roles from which a mother may
choose (housewife, career woman and/or socialite), as well as her actual
position in one of these roles may lead to tension and conflict. A double
responsibility may make the woman tired and irritable, causing educational
neglect.
Activity 5
Identify the changes in your community that might interfere in a stable

Activity family environment
All communities and societies are subject to change. Changes come with
influences from outside such as TV,s, internet, twitter and other various
Feedback forms of education. Alcoholism, drug abuse, family disobedience,
domestic violence, etc. are factors causing family break-downs all over
the world.
89
5. The vulnerable family: effects on education

The vulnerable family has a definite negative effect on education. Children
from these families are victims of insecurity and instability. Because of the
absence of the parents as primary educators, the role of teachers in school
changes dramatically. It is not expected from the teacher to be teaching
subject matter only, but to stand in for the absent parent as well. The result
is that the teacher ends up teaching content, but also values, norms, etc.
and providing the security and social control that are lacking at home. The
teacher therefore has to act in loco parentis, substituting the parent. The
following specific effects on education are visible:
Finance: Because of financial hardships, parents cannot pay school

development fees and contribute to the provision of quality education at
school. As our government cannot pay for all the equipment and facilities
at schools, schools may lack equipment to provide quality education.
Discipline: Many parents do not discipline children at home, resulting in

major disciplinary problems at schools. We know that effective learning
cannot take place without discipline.
Emotional support : Teachers have to act as counsellors, psychologists

and career guides, to mention but a few roles. They have to support
children emotionally during puberty and adolescence, putting more
pressure on the teachers.
Role differentiation. Male teachers have to act as role-figures for boys

and female teachers have to set an example for girls. As many parents do
not fulfil these roles anymore, the child has to associate him/herself with
the respective teachers in order to be exposed to the male and female roles
in society.
Training of teachers. Teachers need to be trained in taking up more

responsibilities than traditionally expected of them. In future, there will
have to be more emphasis on the selection of teachers, as we need people
who are dedicated and have special talents to become teachers.
6. Involvement of families (parents) in education

The family, and specifically parents, is seen as important stakeholders and
partners in Namibian education. Relevant educational authorities
continuously spell out the responsibilities of parents as partners in
education. The Education Act (16 of 2001) also defines the role and
responsibilities of parents clearly. The creation of the following bodies is
also encouraged:
90
School Boards
Each school should establish a school board that serves as an advisory and
decision making body for the school administration. It is a formal and an
official body that oversees the effective functioning of the school. The
school board should be composed of a representation from the parents,
teaching staff and student representative body (in case of a secondary
school). This body deals with several issues such as discipline, financial
supervision, selection of staff, etc. and plays a vital role in the day-to-day
functioning of the school.
Teacher-Parent Association
It is a forum where parents/guardians and teachers can discuss matters

informally regarding the education of their children and where teachers and
parents/guardians can spell out their respective roles and responsibilities in
education. This body is an informal body that plans and coordinates
activities such as fundraising. It provides the important contact between
teachers and parents and plan barbeques, dances, etc. where parents and
teachers can discuss mutual aspects of education informally.
Activity 6
How is the School Board selected in your community, and what segments
Activity of the community are represented? Do the activities and decisions of the
Board have a positive impact on the school?
The compilation, roles and activities of school boards are spelled out in
the Education Act of 2001 and several ministerial circulars. Basically, it
Feedback should be a democratic process involving parents of all sectors of the
community. Recent unfortunate developments have shown that in some
communities groups of people prohibit and hinder other groups of people
to represent their community members because they do not vote for the
ruling political party. This is wrong and undemocratic. In some
communities training of School Board members should be considered in
order to make activities more effective. Try to monitor the activities of
the School Board at your school and determine whether it has a positive
impact on your community.
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Unit summary
The family is the core unit of any community. If families fail to exist in the
true sense of the word, then our whole society will be in trouble. We, as
teachers, should therefore acknowledge the importance of the family. The
family put certain demands on us as teachers that we cannot shy away from.
Summary The family expects from us to educate its members in a responsible way.
It demands from us not only to be good parents, but also to respect the
rights and characteristics of the family. It demands from us that we teach
an array of relevant knowledge and skills, especially socialisation skills, so
that the young family members can one day take their places as fully-
fledged and responsible members of society
References
Ballantine, J.H. (1997). The Sociology of Education: A Systematic
References Commonwealth Secretariat (1998). Commonwealth Values in Youth and


Publishing Company.
Government of Namibia. 2001. Education Act, Act 16. Windhoek:

Government printers.


Publishers.
MBEC (1996) Pilot Curriculum Guide for Formal Basic Education .

Okahandja: NIED.
92
Mwamwenda, T.S. (1996) Educational Psychology. An African

Perspective, Second Edition. Isando: Heinemann.
Unit 7
Educational limitations in
achieving adulthood: the anti-
child society
Introduction
This unit discusses the characteristics of adulthood and factors that
influence the process of non-adults becoming adults negatively. Students
will be made aware of everyday challenges that teachers face in schools,
such as the identification of drug abusers and possible remediation. The
role of irresponsible learners, teachers and parents is also highlighted.
 define the concept adulthood;
 explain the factors that influence education negatively;
Outcomes  indicate the causes of anti-child societies;
 discuss child rearing errors and relationships in the family.
Ballantine, J.H. (1997). The Sociology of Education: A Systematic

Prescribed reading
Anti-child: Contextualities which pose threats to the safety of

children.
Conflict: Disharmony among people or circumstances.

Terminology
Neglect: The absence of support, guidance, love and respect.
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Educational limitations in achieving adulthood: the anti-child society
Juvenile Non-adults who commit crimes against community

delinquency: and societal members.
Peer group: Learners belonging to a similar class, age or interest

group.
1. Causes for the development of an anti-child society

Contemporary society is characterised by rapid change and development.
It requires an attitude of ‘adapt or die’. The following are typical
characteristics of a dynamic, changing society that has a particular effect
on the child:
 Humankind has become such a slave to the machine and technology
that he/she can no longer be an adequate human being and parent.
 The transitory and temporary nature of consumer articles influences our
whole life style. People transfer this consumer mentality to their
friendships and create ‘fast food’ relationships.
 The contemporary family is absorbed by the rhythm of the city, which
is ‘earn, entertain and consume’, with little room for long lasting quality
family life.
 Disharmonious marital relationships create an inhibiting socio-
pedagogic family climate, causing the child to feel unsafe, insecure and
anxious.
 The increased pace of life undoubtedly causes anxiety and illness that
make enormous demands on the community and family life.
 An increase in conflict between parents and their children can be the
result of development and modernisation.
 Because the individual is interested only in himself, he/she has become
overly materialistic.
Political power and power struggles make some political leaders

‘untouchable’ and blind for the needs of the man/woman in the street,
causing great poverty and irrelevant social policies at grass roots level.
Both the teenager and parent spend too much time with the mass media,
people becoming couch potatoes, and this decreases opportunities for
intimate discussions.
The demands made on parents by contemporary society are far more

exacting than a few years ago. The influence of permissiveness,
materialism and restlessness forces parents to rear their children under
circumstances quite different to those under which they themselves were
reared.
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Weakening of traditional ties is characteristic of the contemporary era,

resulting in people becoming lonely and depressed.
Many children find themselves in single-parent families or in families

where both parents work away from home. As a result, children are often
forced to become independent before they can deal with independence in
a responsible way.
The circumstances in contemporary society influence the nature and

quality of family relationships. Fathers are often not available for their
children; working women are not always available to meet the needs of
their children; and children have demanding school and extra-mural
activities.
We live in times of industrialisation with the accompanying specialisation,

urbanisation, materialism, a rushed labour environment and a spirit of non-
involvement that give rise to numerous socio-pedagogical problems.
Activity 1
Reflect on your community and identify factors that contribute towards an

Activity anti-child culture. Make a list of these factors. How would you go about
addressing these anti-child factors?
Our modern society can contain elements of an anti-child culture. We as

teachers should not only dissociate ourselves from these negative
Feedback elements, but identify it and make the community aware of its destructive
impact on the lives of children. We should initiate meetings with the
community, parents, churches, businesses, etc. in order to address these
issues. We should become role models and idols in our schools .
2. Symptoms of an anti-child culture

Teenagers are in daily contact with society’s conflicting values.
For example, parents and teachers may express strong disapproval of

alcohol abuse, yet they themselves trespass in this regard. The teenager
craves for parental and adult involvement. However, modern parents and
teachers often appear to show insufficient interest and involvement in
guiding them to responsible adulthood.
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2.1 Effects on children’s behaviour

Drug abuse
Neglect, especially of the emotional upbringing of the child and teenager,

can lead to the use and abuse of drugs. There is a desperate need for
attention and love. Addiction, however, increases feelings of futility and
rejection.
Teenagers who lack a strong parental figure and support, prove vulnerable
to drug abuse. Teachers must then also act as a parent to address this
problem.
If education fails to provide constructive leisure opportunities, learners

may become bored and idle, resulting in undesirable leisure-time activities
and a hunger for aimless pleasure.
Emotional and norm formation of the teenager may be lacking due to a

generation gap between them and parents. A child may deal with this
neglect by turning to drugs.
Society can also influence a child, for example when excessive publicity is
given to drug abuse. This may be a spark to interest learners in
experimenting with drugs.
The undisciplined and indiscriminate use of tablets and medicine by

parents sets a dangerous example for the child. Some over-the-counter
medicines contain substances that may lead to addiction.
Activity 2
How can you as a teacher identify learners who use drugs?

Activity
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It is never easy to recognise the early signs of drug abuse. Here are some
signs and symptoms to look out for:
Feedback
 Sudden unexplained changes in mood from happy and alert to sullen
and moody.
 Uncharacteristic irritability and aggression.
 Loss of appetite.
 Loss of interest in sport, friends, schoolwork and a drop in school
marks.
 Bouts of drowsiness or sleeplessness.
 Telling lies and unexplained disappearance of money and valuable
objects.
 Unusual smells, stains or marks on the body or clothes or around the
school/house.
 Red eyes (often disguised by eye drops or sunglasses).
 Frequent sore throats, running nose, bags under the eyes, coughing,
wheezing and bruising from falls
Alcohol abuse
Parents and teachers have to educate children about the side effects of the
use of alcohol. Its social acceptance and availability makes the teenager
more vulnerable to experimentation with alcohol.
Peer group pressure forces teenagers to conform to the peer group,

resulting in alcohol abuse.
Psychological factors: teenagers may experience ‘freedom’ and

‘adulthood’ when under the influence. On the other hand alcohol serves as
an escape mechanism to teenagers for coping with stress and personal
problems.
Teenagers sometimes try to attract a parent’s or teacher’s attention by their

drinking habits.
Juvenile delinquency
The extent of juvenile delinquency is showing an upward trend that is

reaching alarming proportions. Violence, aggressive behaviour, sexual
misconduct, vandalism, etc. are reaching alarming proportions.
 The following factors in respect of juvenile delinquency exist:
 Research show towards factors such as the size of the family, broken
families and working mothers.
 Environmental factors such as the neighbourhood where teenagers live
and the life styles to which they are exposed, correlate positively with
teenage misconduct.
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 Boys commit more crimes than girls.

 The juvenile delinquent often comes from a single-parent family that is
characterised by poverty and conflict.
 The family life of the juvenile delinquent is characterised by instability.
 Within the family structure there is very little control and discipline,
because of a permissive parenting style.
 The family usually falls within a lower socio-economic group.
Neglecting parenting is the most important cause of juvenile misconduct,

because the teenager develops without support into a-social person. The
community, especially the school, will have to be involved in combating
juvenile delinquency.
Teenage pregnancy
Unwanted teenage pregnancies are on the increase in Namibia. It is

shocking to learn that a large number of teenagers already have had sexual
intercourse at the age of fifteen. Sex is a serious problem confronting
contemporary society and young people. The matter is becoming more
serious if one looks at the increase of sexual transmitted diseases. We have
to realise that children are developing sexually, physically and
psychologically and need parental and teacher’s support in handling sexual
development. Recently in one particular school there were 20 cases of
pregnancies amongst girls. The following factors may contribute to
teenage pregnancies:
 Inadequate sex education and information on sex can give rise to
irresponsible teenage experimentation with sex. We, as teachers, should
therefore teach sex education in a responsible way.
 The absence of parental love, attention and security forces the teenager
to search for intimacy in illegitimate heterosexual love affairs.
 The absence of a loving association with the parent results in inadequate
stimulation of the teenager’s emotional life. As a result, the teenager is
emotionally neglected.
 The love that should be demonstrated to the adolescent as a prerequisite
for a secure upbringing, is lacking.
The child experiences this anti-child culture as parental neglect and turn to
friends and illegitimate relationships that can end up in:
 sexual intercourse to compensate for a lack of parental love,
 intense feelings of loneliness resulting from ‘instant pretence love’ in
the search for intimacy,
 degraded self-esteem,
 destructive feelings of self-rejection,
 feelings of inferiority.
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Permissive lifestyles
Parents and teachers, who are supposed to know the importance of high
morals and values systems, are sometimes absent in the life of children.
Permissive (liberal) parenting and lifestyles of parents contribute to
permissive lifestyles of their children. Permissive lifestyles include the
abovementioned a-social activities as well as a lack of norms and values.
Both heterosexual and bisexual activities may be found among these
parents and children, which are not acceptable for a healthy community.
Children coming from such a background are usually in dire need for
direction and support by teachers.
Juvenile suicide
This phenomenon has increased in most Western societies over the past
few years. Juvenile suicide is a big problem in Japan where competition
amongst the youth is very high for university entrance. Even in Namibia it
has become a problem. There are many causes:
 Teenagers find themselves in emotional distress because of parental and
teachers’ neglect.
 An insecure family life characterised by conflict, friction, unrest and
alcoholism.
 Parents who are not child-oriented in their child-rearing activities
deprive the child of the chance to grow up properly.
 A lack of quality time and contact between parents and children
inevitably lead to a handicapped upbringing.
 A lack of vision in life, future perspectives, fun, respect and love may
lead to feelings of futility, causing depression and suicide.
Inadequate supportive guidance in the child’s social life leads to the

following behaviours:
 A lack of loving association with the parent implies inadequate
development of the child’s emotional life.
 The adolescent increasingly experiences feelings of insecurity and
uncertainty that are expressed by rebellion against parental authority.
 Children are increasingly bored and this feeling of emptiness gives rise
to aimlessness and a ‘meaningless way’ of life.
 The adolescent’s need for safety and security in the family is
inadequately realised (I-you relationships).
 The child may personally experience failures such as poor examination
results as complete failure as a human being.
The suicide attempt is a cry for help in the society in which his/her
existence has become unbearable. This experience of neglect and an anti-
child culture may cause teenagers to have suicidal thoughts and actions.
We, as teachers, need to be careful in our interpersonal contact with

learners. Firstly we may contribute to these feelings and, secondly, we can
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prevent suicidal actions by listening and talking to the learners who are
entrusted to us.
2.2 Effects on parents’ and teachers’ behaviour

Child abuse
In a child-rearing situation where education is inadequate, the damage

sustained by a child in not easily remedied. Intentional and accidental
mistakes made by adults jeopardise the adequate development of children.
The following types of child abuse can be identified:
Sexual abuse, molestation or indecent assault: It refers to exposure of

children to sexual stimulation which they cannot handle emotionally and
which has a negative effect on their psychosexual development and their
roles in a family. In Namibia some teachers are guilty of this terrible
offence. Learners are manipulated by using sex as a tool. Such people may
not be allowed to continue teaching and must be taken to court.
Physical assault: Any person who is responsible for a child and who
intentionally hurts him/her or allows a child to be hurt, is guilty of
molestation or assault.
Emotional neglect: when a child is constantly accused, belittled, sworn at

or rejected, emotional abuse takes place. Unrealistic expectations, gender
inequality, etc. are all part of this. This is why teachers need to be carefully
selected when they apply for educational studies.
Physical neglect: Children who are not provided with food, clean water,
shelter, clothes, medical care, training, etc. are neglected. Poverty or
irresponsible parents may cause this, hampering the physical development
of their child.
Cultural neglect: Culture of minority groups in Namibia must be

developed and recognised. For example, Afrikaans was previously seen as
the language of the oppressor, but lately is developing in a liberating
language as many Namibians use it as medium of communication,
education, training and development.
The following may be causes of child abuse:

 parents/teachers who are very authoritarian and force children to do and
react exactly as they expect them to,
 parents/teachers who have themselves experienced a lack of maternal
love and who feel inadequate for their parental task,
 parents/teachers who cannot verbally identify and express their feelings
and emotions and therefore do not know how to control it,
 parents/teachers who experience excessive emotional strain because of
neurosis or illness,
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 parents/teachers who abuse alcohol or drugs or are mentally disturbed.
The abused child finds him/herself in an upbringing relationship without

any possibility of adequate upbringing. Child abuse creates circumstances
that can cause the following developmental problems:
 interpersonal problems,
 limited abilities that the child has at his/her disposal, do not enable
him/her to establish relationships,
 feelings of guilt and hopelessness,
 the child avoids communication and physical contact,
 anti-social behaviour,
 negative self-image,
 parental expectations are not met,
 the child often resorts to self-destructive behavioural patterns,
 the child is vulnerable to sexual molestation.
3. The physical and psychological onslaught on the child

3.1 Physical onslaught
Parental neglect is often associated with the child’s physical care, for
example his diet, hygiene and health. With modern mothers entering the
labour market making new demands on the time and energy available,
children are sometimes left to struggle and cope in life. The child’s
contemporary society is increasingly exposed to fast foods. Some children
do not know what it is to eat a balanced meal at a table together as a family.
Modern technology unconsciously contributes to the physical onslaught on
the child:
 there is little parental supervision over healthy eating habits,
 children are increasingly expected to fend for themselves in the
provision and preparation of meals,
 children are more prone to illnesses as a result of an unbalanced diet
 malnutrition causes poor concentration levels affecting achievement in
the learning process negatively.
Unhealthy eating habits may cause overweight and fat children on the one
hand, and on the other hand may cause malnutrition and children with
anorexia nervosa.
Teachers have to be very conscious about such children in their classes, as

they are in most contact with the children. When such children are
identified, teachers can play an important role in addressing and curing the
problem.
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Activity 3
How can eating of ‘junk food’ and ‘fast foods’ contribute towards poor
Activity learning activities and low achievement?
Hamburgers, pizza’s, fried chips, sweets, etc. are processed food and
fatty, and do not contain the vitamins, proteins, minerals and fibre that
Feedback young growing bodies need. It contributes to life-style illnesses such as
heart disease, high blood pressure and nutrient deficiencies. This may
cause learners to be fat, without energy and having poor concentration
levels. It may also lead to low self-esteem and emotional problems. We
should warn the learners about the dangers of ‘junk food’ and encourage
healthy eating habits with lots of raw fruits and vegetables and healthy
meat. Regular exercising should also be emphasised and the importance
of Physical Education as a non-examination subject should not be
downplayed. Learners may not be allowed to become ‘couch-potatoes’,
but be challenged to get involved in exercise. Physical education should
be reintroduced in schools
3.2 Psychological onslaught

Children are increasingly spending time watching television programmes
that are characterised by shallow discussions, improper morals and values,
foreign cultures, etc. In a home where the television is the most important
medium of communication, a child can easily become lonely without the
other members of the family realising it.
Children are also increasingly exposed to the contents of pornographic

literature and television programmes. It affects the child’s sense of
propriety (correctness) and is in conflict with the parents’ accepted norms
and values. This contradiction disturbs the child’s judgement and choices
that need to be made. Another problem is exposure to television
programmes with violence, sexual abuse and immorality contents. This
confuses the child and suggests wrongly that ‘physical strength’,
‘popularity’ and ‘political power’ are what life is about.
In contemporary Western society the teenager is increasingly exposed to

pop music. Teenage aggressiveness towards society, their intense feelings
of distress, anxiety and loneliness, or of enthusiasm and ecstasy are realised
in pop music. Sometimes the content of pop music is symptomatic of the
counter-culture that confronts the teenager. Efforts are consciously being
made to estrange the teenager from traditional values and norms.
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Consider the negative influence of the following statements made by well-

known pop artists on the teenager’s psyche:
“Sex is part of my image. As long as I am top of the hit parade, I don’t care
whether they call me a cheap slut. I am very proud of my sluttish image” –
Madonna
“There is nothing wrong with going to bed with a person of the same sex”
– Elton John
“It takes a man like me to like a woman like me” – David Bowie
The mass media influence teenage views, morals, discipline, values and
conduct. Education cannot take place without norms, values and education.
The child’s education towards a balanced life-style and normative
adulthood is negatively influenced by these factors. Teachers need to take
a stand on this and make children and their parents aware of such dangers.
Activity 4
How could we, as teachers, safeguard the learners from the psychological
Activity onslaught?
I believe that teachers should have high morals and values, with sound
judgments regarding selecting teaching materials and content. They
Feedback should attend church or other religious institutions regularly and be of
strong characters. They should have good relationships with parents and
learners and be knowledgeable about recent pop music and movie
releases. We should act as ‘watchdogs’ over the learners and only allow
appropriate influences, values, norms and philosophies. Although the
authorities censor materials coming from within and outside our country,
it is liberalised and may not protect our children from negative
influences .
4. Namibia’s most vulnerable children

Namibia’s most vulnerable children (UNICEF report)
The 2006 State of the World’s Children Report highlights the plight of
children in the world, including Namibia, who are ‘invisible’ because they
are excluded from gains made about the well-being of children. According
to this report the triple’ threat vulnerable children face are: (1) HIV/Aids
pandemic; (2) Food insecurity and (3) Weakening capacity of social and
economic services.-these rob children from a useful life in Namibia.
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The following international developmental goals need to be met, because

they affect equity, democracy, access and quality of education directly:
4.1 Eight Millennium development goals (MDGs)

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (UNICEF rates: slow
progress in Namibia)
The richest 7000 Namibians spend as much as 800 000 of the poorest, due
to unequal spread of wealth. Poverty and hunger are caused by
unemployment, poor quality education, low levels of employment skills,
affirmative action, politics and impropriate financial policies and
corruption by top officials at governmental and public levels. It will worsen
the HIV/Aids pandemic, because sick people become unable to work and
vice versa.
2. Achieve universal primary education (UNICEF rates: good
Since independence more children enrolled in primary education and fewer

have dropped out, yet the poor quality of education and growing number
of orphans are causes for concern. It is critical that existing policies are
changed to keep learners in school so that they can complete 12 years of
basic education, e.g. Gr. 10 school leavers due to low marks, Gr. 11
learners’ automatic promotion, etc.
3. Promote gender equality and empower women (UNICEF rates: slow
Although we achieved gender equality in primary education to a great

extent, the low status of women remains critical, due to traditions. Despite
legislation promoting gender equality, Namibia has attained less than 20%
success, which means that women are still regarded as ‘property’ by some
males, leading to gender-based violence such as rape, poor representation
at political, economical and technological levels, e.g. only one-third of top
government sector positions and only one-fifth of seats in the National
Assembly, are held by women.
4. Reduce child mortality (UNICEF rates: slow progress in Namibia)
The main causes of deaths are HIV/Aids, diarrhoea, pneumonia and

malnutrition. Child mortality rates are decreasing due to good
immunisation against measles and polio, however the occurrence of
pneumonia has increased dramatically. By 2021 infant mortality is
expected to be 60% higher due to Aids.
5. Improve maternal health (UNICEF rates: good progress in Namibia)
Currently, more than one in five pregnant women is HIV-positive, which

is a major factor in maternal deaths, along with malnutrition and problems
around pregnancy and childbirth. There are improvements due to anti-
retroviral (ARV) drugs and programmes targeting malaria, TB and polio.
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6. Combat HIV/Aids, malaria and other diseases (UNICEF rates:

worsening progress in Namibia)
Aids is the leading cause of death in Namibia since 1996 and is a major
reason for growing poverty of Namibians. Statistics tell that 20% of
Namibians between 15 and 49 age have HIV, 90% because of sexual
intercourse. In 2005 about 254 000 Namibians died of Aids related
illnesses, and since independence Aids reduced the predicted lifespan of
Namibians by more than a decade. HIV/Aids affect children directly when
they get Aids e.g. transmission during birth or through sexual transmission
as adolescents, and indirectly, when parents get ill and die. Namibia is the
third worst TB-affected country: TB (tuberculosis) is the most common
HIV-related illness, causes one tenth of all deaths in Namibia, a new drug-
resistant TB strain in RSA cause for further concern.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability (UNICEF rates: slow progress
in Namibia)
As an arid developing country with periodic droughts, Namibia is

vulnerable to the effects of climate change and desertification especially
seen in the light that most Namibians are dependent on agriculture.
Sustainable development and natural resource management e.g. saving of
water, scientific farming approaches and prevention of deforestation and
marine resources management are crucial. Access to safe drinking water
and sanitation is low in rural areas, affecting children’s health and
education.
8. Develop a global partnership for development (UNICEF rates:
worsening progress in Namibia)
Namibia has an open and investor friendly economy and a well-developed

infrastructure, promote peace and prosperity through international treaties
and conventions, actively involved in the AU and UN. However, Namibia
is classified as a ‘lower middle-income’ country which reduces the amount
of aid the country receives and does not receive the support it deserves (try
to change status to poor income-country). Quality of education need to be
improved, especially technological skills, mathematics and natural science
at school level: could not attract international investors such as a car
manufacturer, due to a lack of skills.
4.2 What is vulnerability?

Vulnerable children are in danger of threats like physical, sexual and
emotional abuse, malnutrition, no access to education, preventative health
or medical care. They are mostly children under the age of 18 whose
mother, father or both parents, or primary care giver have died, and/or is in
need of care and protection. The 2001 census states that only 26% of
children under 15 are living with both their parents, which means that in
reality there are 97 000 Namibian children who had lost one or both
parents.
In 2001 there were 56 000 orphans under 18 in Namibia, 2021 projections

are about 375 000 orphans. This is a big concern to education, as teachers
105
need to know that in a class of 40 learners about 11 children lives with both
parents while 29 learners are either orphans or live with one parent. This
leads to many things such as: indiscipline, not able to pay school
development funds, lack of role players, especially boys who cannot form
associations with males due to lack of male teachers, etc. Research shows
that Gr. 10 results indicate that about 50% of learners do not acquire an
adequate primary foundation to complete their basic education and that
learners drop out of education unnecessarily adding to vulnerability,
unemployment and criminal behaviours amongst the youth.
4.3 How can education put a stop to vulnerability of

learners?
Prevention is better and cheaper than cure!! Educationally wise it means;
(1)that we have to identify the crucial aspects that are causing vulnerability
of learners; (2)make learners and student teachers aware of it by teaching
the relevant issues, e.g. appropriate morals, values, principles, employable
skills, rights and responsibilities of people; (3) take care of already
vulnerable learners by means of providing security, empathy, support, care.
4.4 Psychosocial development

A 1997-study shows that caregivers, church and community leaders all
agree that the key to children’s future is equal access to appropriate quality
education. This has the following appeal to education:
(a) Schools should become safe-centres of personal, psychological,

financial emotional safety.
(b) Adults who are really interested in the well-being of Namibian children
need to be identified and trained as teachers-focus should not only on
school studying subject content, but the learner as a whole person.
(c) A set of societal values that reflect the social fabric of Namibian
communities were suggested that should be taught, namely: (1)respect for
human dignity and cultural diversity, (2)respect for elders (3)willingness
to work hard, (3)obedience, (4)self-discipline, (5)rights =
responsibilities,(6)self-sufficiency, (7)cleanliness, (8)orderliness.
In reality it means that equal focus should be placed on the development of

social morals and obedience on the one hand and school subject contents
on the other; currently the teaching of morals are totally neglected, which
means that the chances of Namibians becoming educated menaces to
society is greater! In order to ensure that suitable people become teachers,
entrée–tests should be written in order to establish whether teachers have
to right values system, personality, interests and motivations (to act as role
players). It means that student teachers must be trained in Religious and
Moral Education (RME).
106
It means that schools should have access to support services such as: (1)
career guidance teachers (2) school psychologists (3) regular medical
check-ups of learners (4) access to medicines, e.g. TB, ARV drugs. It
means that a variety of schools need to be created, such as (1) Schools for
learners with special needs. e.g. schools for gifted learners and schools for
learners with mental disabilities, etc. (2) Pre-primary schools or classes at
primary schools need to be established as was the case before
independence (3) Academic schools as we have it at the moment, and (4)
Technical schools (5) Trade schools for becoming chefs, etc.
5. The influence of the HIV/Aids pandemic on education

HIV/Aids is taking its toll at all levels of the Namibian society. Although
we do not, at this stage, know exactly the extent of the effects of this
pandemic on education as such, we can already see the detrimental effects.
It affects all stakeholders involved in education.
Let us see how it affects the different stakeholders:

Learners/Students
The disease infects many learners in Namibian schools. Recent studies

show that three out of ten learners/students have the disease. This figure is
considered to be conservative, as many learners do not visit clinics or
hospitals. Several reasons for this high figure can be mentioned. Drug
substance and alcohol abuse, traditional social and cultural patterns, and
blood transfusions have been mentioned. However, the main reason is
sexually active teenagers who do not know how to take appropriate
preventative measures, using contraceptives and other methods. Many
teenagers are not abstaining from sex before marriage, and therefore have
more than one sex partner before marriage, if they marry at all.
The effects on infected and non-infected learners are disastrous. Infected

young Namibians still have to learn at educational institutions about the
basics of life and to be trained in specific job categories. They are the
leaders of tomorrow, which means that many leaders will be lost because
of the absence of medicine that can cure the disease. Learners get ill while
at school, causing poor concentration and motivation levels, regular
absenteeism and a low self-esteem. Learners eventually leave school
permanently, causing the dropout figure to rise.
Friends of infected learners get stressed and high anxiety levels are the
end result. They have to see their friends suffer. In many cases learners
drop out of school to generate money in support of their families that are
in need of basic life necessities. When parents get ill, children have to look
after goats and cattle, work the fields and look after their brothers and
sisters. Fortunately, the Namibian government has indicated its
commitment to deal with this situation through several projects and
strategies.
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Teachers
The virus also infects teachers. This leads to unproductivity as teachers

have to receive treatment. In later stages infected teachers cannot work and
relief-teachers have to be found. Usually these relief teachers must be paid
from the local school fund, which puts extra strain on the already limited
funds schools have to operate on. In most of these cases schools revert to
parents who are not trained in order to keep classes going. According to
the MBESC, teachers attend funerals of families and stay away from
schools longer than estimated, causing their colleagues to carry extra
teaching burdens. Another aspect is that more teachers need to be trained.
For example, in Zambia it is estimated that three out of five student

teachers do not complete their studies due to the disease. Recent studies in
Namibia show that one in seven educators are infected.
This has a detrimental effect on the provision of quality education, as

schools will have an increase in the turnover-figure of teachers. This means
that schools will struggle to build and retain a strong workforce, which will
change every year. Management of schools has already been influenced
negatively. Trained and experienced principals and administrators are lost,
which leaves a vacuum with regard to effective management of
institutions.
Parents
Research has shown that people between fifteen and thirty-five years of
age represent the age group mostly infected. This means that many parents
have died or do not have quality lives. According to Unicef officials, there
are already one hundred and eighty thousand HIV/Aids orphans in
Namibia. The government, NGO’s, churches and communities have to
provide these children with food, clothes and shelter. Consequently, the
number of street children in recent years has seen a huge increase. In
Windhoek alone there are about 180 street children. These children have
to make a meagre income from washing cars, begging money, etc. They
are usually also subjected to sexual abuse, causing them to get HIV/Aids
and other diseases. Parents work hard and long hours, which causes child
neglect. Appropriate supervision is not always accessible. This leads to the
‘chain-key children’; children who leave for school in the mornings and
return in the afternoons without parents being at home looking after them.
They are literally alone at home without parental support and guidance.
Usually these children make friends with dubious characters, resulting in
sexual practices, drug abuse, etc.
Possible solutions
It is of importance that effective programmes of instruction about Aids

should be introduced into all schools. Appropriate and responsible sex
education is not an option any more, but a necessity. Parents should take
responsibility for their children and make appropriate after-school
arrangements for supervision. A multi-disciplinary approach should be
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adopted where whole communities become involved with their respective

children. Character education should receive more attention. Values,
norms and good virtues such as responsibility, hard work and honesty need
to be conveyed and practiced. Education authorities must seek national and
international support and help. No discrimination against learners /students
with HIV/Aids may be allowed. People should be made aware of proper
medicine and nutrition. But, most importantly, people should be taught to
abstain from sex outside the marriage and to be faithful to one sex partner.
Activity 5
What do you think we should do in Namibia to address the HIV/Aids

Activity problem?
We should see this as a problem that should be dealt with, firstly, in the
particular Namibian realm, and secondly, with the support of
Feedback international organisations and expertise. However, the first step would
be to change the morals and values of our nation. As there is up to now
no cure for this disease, prevention is the answer. We should therefore
educate the nation about the nature of the disease. Support should be
given to people and their families who already have the disease with
regard to counselling, medical support, etc. Finally, we should ensure
that the disease could not be transmitted due to poor medical practices,
such as through blood transfusion
6. Access to education and training

Despite major successes in this regard, many children do not have access
to education which can be considered as an anti-child situation. Children
who still need access to education can be categorised as follows:
 Marginalised learners such as learners with special needs.
 Children of farm workers who are hindered by long distances, poverty
and ignorance.
 Children of refugees, due to a lack of education opportunities and
facilities.
 Children excluded by traditional lifestyles, such as the Ovahimba and
San people.
 Orphans, street children and school dropouts.
 Children held in detention because of unlawful activities.
 Pregnant school girls who have to leave school.
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Every year about 23 000 learners drop out of school and enter the work
force. However, there are not enough job opportunities for everyone, which
means that most of them end up earning meagre amounts of money doing
odd jobs here and there. More attention should be given to this group of
people and training programmes should be designed to give them access to
skills training. These people should be trained in practical and
entrepreneurial skills in order to become self-employed. Pathways for re-
admittance in either the formal school system or adult education
programmes should be created. As most of these people usually cannot
afford the aforementioned types of education, businesses and other groups
from the private sector should be encouraged to become involved. They
could be granted tax incentives in return for in-house training programmes
or sponsorships to these people to be trained at COSDEC, the Vocational
Training Centres (VTCs) or institutions like KAYEK.
Unit summary
Nowadays children are faced with many anti-child factors in the
community. These factors are the result of modern society and neglect of
children. Teachers have to be knowledgeable about all these potential
negative factors in order to warn the youth against it and also to protect the
Summary young Namibians against it. The onslaught on the youth is increasing and
we should take hands with community leaders, churches, etc. to work out
strategies that will ensure child-friendly communities and schools.
References
References Commonwealth Secretariat (1998) Commonwealth Values in Youth and

110

Publishing Company.


Publishers.
MBEC (1996) Pilot Curriculum Guide for Formal Basic Education.

Okahandja: NIED.
Mwamwenda, T.S. (1996) Educational Psychology. An African

Perspective, Second Edition. Isando: Heinemann.
Pretorius, J.W.M. (ed.) (1998) Sociopedagogics 2000 . Pretoria: van Schaik

Publishers.
Pitout, D.N., Smith, A.G., Windell, J.W.J. & Steinemann, C.F. (1993)
Teachers’ Handbook for Education, Revised Edition . Pretoria: van Schaik
Publishers
Van Rensburg, P 2001. Making Education Work. The What, Why and How
of Education with Production. South Africa: Trend Dynamics
111
Unit 8
The Social Framework of

Namibian Schools
Introduction
In this unit you will study and examine children’s rights and
responsibilities. These issues are equally important in the education of the
young ones. Many countries around the globe are neglecting to pay
attention to the rights of the children, and as a result most of these children
end up on the street, and become destitute. Because of the bleak future that
these children face, most of them end up committing scandalous crimes
like what we have seen in Sierra Leone and Liberia, where children were
recruited into rebel armies. What these children committed (hacking
people and cutting off their limbs) is beyond description. If these children
were given a sound education, and cared for in terms of human rights, they
might have been useful members in their communities.
 explain what is regarded as children’s rights;

 state what is regarded as children’s rights;
 list what is regarded as children’s rights in education.
Outcomes
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Constitution of the Republic of Namibia.
Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Prescribed reading UNESCO. 1999. Education for Human Rights and Democracy in
Southern Africa: A Teacher’s Resource Manual . Longman Namibia.
Windhoek
Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, Education Act , No. 16

of 2001
1. Children’s Rights and Responsibilities

1.1 The Convention of the Rights of the Child.
Before reading this section you must first do this activity
Activity 1
i a) In your own word define “children rights”.
ii b) Why is it necessary for the government to protect children rights?
Activity iii c) What will you do to make sure that children understand their
rights?
As you read this section and the whole unit, I am sure you will have
answers to these questions.
Feedback
The General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December 1948

adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Important to note in this declaration is Article 26 which explici tly states
as follows:
(i) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least
in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be
compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made
generally applicable and higher education shall be equally accessible to
all on the basis of merit.
(ii) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human

personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall
further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
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(iii) Parents have the right to choose the kind of education that shall be
given to their children.
As if the 1948 adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was

not enough, the General Assembly of the United Nations came up with
another Convention on the Rights of the Child. This convention was
adopted on 20 November 1989 by sixty-one countries. Other countries
ratified and signed the convention later of which one of them is Namibia,
because at the time of its ratification in 1989, it was not independent.. In
this convention, the rights of the child are spelt out and member countries
are expected to implement them. Going along with the importance of
human rights in education the member states inserted Article 28 which
deals with this aspect. Article 28 is very explicit about the provision of
education as a human right by all member states who are signatory to this
convention.
1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a
view to achieving progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they
shall, in particular:
(a) Make primary education compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondary

education, including general and vocational education, make them
available and accessible to every child, and take appropriate measures
such as the introduction of free education and offering financial
assistance in case of need;
(c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by

every appropriate means;
(d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance available

and accessible to all children;
(e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the

reduction of drop-out rates.
2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school
discipline is administered in a manner consistent with the child’s human
dignity and conformity with the present Convention.
3. States Parties shall promote and encourage international co-operation in

matters relating to education, in particular with a view to contributing to
the elimination of ignorance and illiteracy throughout the world and
facilitating access to scientific and technical knowledge and modern
teaching methods. In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the
needs of developing countries.
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In addition to the provisions of the Convention the following highlights are

noteworthy knowing by all human rights practitioners dealing with the
education of children:
 Every child has the inherent right to life, and States shall ensure to the
maximum child survival and development.
 States shall ensure that each child enjoys full rights without
discrimination or distinctions of any kind.
 Parents have the primary responsibility for a child’s upbringing, but
States shall provide them with appropriate assistance and develop child
care institutions.
 States shall protect children from physical or mental harm and neglect,
including sexual abuse or exploitation.
 States shall provide parentless children with suitable alternative care.
The adoption process shall be carefully regulated and international
agreements should be sought to provide safeguards and assure legal
validity if and when adoptive parents intend to move the child from his
or her country of birth.
 Disabled children shall have the right to special treatment, education
and care.
 The child is entitled to the highest attainable standard of health. States
shall ensure that health care is provided to all children, placing
emphasis on preventive measures, health education and reduction of
infant mortality.
 Children shall have time to rest and play and equal opportunities for
cultural and artistic activities
 States shall protect children from economic exploitation and work that
may interfere with education or be harmful to health and well-being.
 All efforts shall be made to eliminate the abduction and trafficking of
children.
 Capital punishment or life imprisonment shall not be imposed for
crimes committed before the age of 18.
 Children of minorities and indigenous populations shall freely enjoy
their own culture, religion and language.

2. Children’s Rights as Protected by Member States of the United

Nations.
According to the convention, the following should be done in order to
safeguard the rights of the children:
Article 1 : A child should be recognised and mean every human being

below the age of eighteen years. In Namibia children who are below the
age of eighteen are not allowed to vote for any political party during
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elections. It is only children who are above eighteen who can vote and
partake in an election.
Article 2: States shall respect the rights of every child without

discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child’s race, colour, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or racial or
social origin, property, disability, birth or other status. The Namibian
constitution prohibits any form of discrimination of any kind on the
grounds of race, colour, sex, ethnic origin, religion, or any other form.
Article 3 : In all sections concerning children, whether undertaken by

public or private social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative
authorities or legislative bodies, the best interest of the child shall be a
primary consideration.
Article 4: States shall undertake all appropriate legislative, administrative

and other measures for the implementation of the rights recognised in the
Convention. States shall use all resources to the advantage of the child.
Article 5: States shall respect the responsibilities, rights and duties of

parents or, where applicable, the members of the extended family or
community as provided for by the local customs, legal guardians or other
persons legally responsible for the child, to provide, in a manner consistent
with the evolving capacities of the child, appropriate direction and
guidance in the exercise by the child of the rights recognised by the
convention.
Article 6: States shall recognise that every child has the inherent right to
life and ensure the maximum extent possible the survival and development
of the child.
Article 7: States shall see that the child is registered immediately after
birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to acquire a
nationality, and as far as possible, the right to know and be cared by his or
her parents.
Article 8: States shall undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve
his or her identity, including nationality, name and family relations as
recognised by law without unlawful interference.
Article 9: States shall ensure that a child is not separated from his or her
parents against their will, except when competent authorities subject to
judiciary review determine in accordance with applicable law and
procedure, to ensure that such separation is necessary for the best interest
of the child. Such cases may be necessary where a child is abused or
neglected by the parents.
Article 10: A child whose parents live in different states shall have the
right to maintain on a regular basis, personal relations and direct contacts
with both parents.
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Article 11: States shall take measures to combat the illicit transfer and
non-return of children abroad.
Article 12: States shall assure the child who is capable of forming his or
her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters
affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight, in
accordance with the age and maturity of the child.
Article 13 : The child shall have the right to freedom of expression, this
right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print,
in the form of art, or through any other media of the child’s choice.
Article 14: States shall respect the right of the child to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion. This is Article 21 of the Namibian constitution.
Article 15: States shall recognise the rights of the child to freedom of
association and to freedom of peaceful assembly. This is part of Article 21
of the Namibian constitution.
Article 16: States shall see that no child shall be subjected to arbitrary or
unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or
correspondence, or to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation.
The child has the right to the protection of the law, against such
interference or attacks. This is part of Article 13 of the Namibian
constitution.
Article 17: States should recognise the important function performed by

the mass media and shall ensure that the child has access to information
and material from a diversity of national and international sources,
especially those aimed at the promotion of his or her social, spiritual and
moral well-being and physical and mental health.
Article 18: States shall use their best efforts to ensure recognition of the
principle that both parents have common responsibilities for the upbringing
and development of the child. States shall ensure that children of the
working class have the right to benefit from childcare services and facilities
for which they are eligible.
Article 19: States shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative,

social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of
physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment,
maltreatment or exploitation including sexual abuse, while in the care of
parents, legal guardians or any other person who has the care of the child.
Article 20: States shall provide special protection to children who have
been temporarily derived of their family environment.
Article 21 : States shall permit the system of adoption to ensure that the
best interests of the child are of paramount consideration.
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Article 22: States shall take appropriate measures to ensure that a child
who is seeking refuge status or who is a refugee, receive appropriate and
humanitarian assistance in the enjoyment of applicable rights.
Article 23: States shall recognise that a mentally or physically disabled

child should enjoy a full and decent life, in conditions which ensure
dignity, promote self-reliance and facilitate the child’s active participation
in the community.
Article 24: States shall recognise the right of the child to the enjoyment of
the highest attainable standard and health and to facilities for the treatment
of illness and rehabilitation of health. In addition states shall diminish
infant and child mortality, to ensure the provision of necessary medical
assistance and health care to all children with emphasis on the development
of primary health care. They should also combat disease and malnutrition.
Article 25: States shall recognise the right of a child who has been placed
by the competent authorities for the purpose of care, protection or treatment
of his or her physical or mental health, in a periodic review of the treatment
provided to the child and all other circumstances relevant to his or her
placement.
Article 26: States shall recognise the right of every child to benefit from
social security, including social insurance, and shall take the necessary
measures to achieve the full realisation of this right in accordance with
their national laws.
Article 27: States shall recognise the right of every child to a standard of
living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social
development.
Article 28: States shall recognise the right of every child to education by
making primary compulsory and available free to all. States should also
encourage different forms of secondary education including general and
vocational education. Make higher education accessible to all on the basis
of capacity by every appropriate means. Should encourage regular school
attendance and reduce school dropouts. This is Article 20 of the Namibian
constitution.
Article 29: States shall agree that education of the child shall be directed
to:
development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical

abilities to their fullest potential.
development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
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development of respect for the child’s parents, his or her own cultural
identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in
which the child lives.
development of respect for the natural environment
Article 30: States shall not deny the rights of a child belonging to the
minority, religious or linguistic groups, indigenous, living in their
countries.
Article 31: States shall recognise the right of the child to rest and leisure,
to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the
child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts.
Article 32: States shall recognise the right of the child to be protected from
economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be
hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or harmful to the
child’s health. This is Article 15 of the Namibian constitution.
Article 33: States shall take appropriate measures to protect children from
the illicit use of narcotic drugs.
Article 34: States shall undertake to protect the child from all forms of
sexual exploitation and sexual abuse, unlawful sexual activity, use of
children in prostitution and use of children in pornographic performances
and materials.
Article 35: States shall take all appropriate national, bilateral and
multilateral measures to prevent the abduction of or traffic of children for
any purpose or in any form.
Article 36: States shall protect the entire child against all other forms of
exploitation prejudicial to any aspects of the child’s welfare.
Article 37: States shall ensure that no child is subjected to torture or other
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Neither capital
punishment, nor life imprisonment without possibility of release shall be
imposed for offences committed by persons before eighteen years. No
child shall be deprived of his or her liberty unlawfully. Every child
deprived of his or her liberty shall be treated with humanity and respect
and shall have the right to prompt access to legal and other appropriate
assistance. This is part of Article 8 of the Namibian constitution.
Article 38: States shall undertake to respect and to ensure respect for rules
of international humanitarian law applicable to them in armed conflicts,
which are relevant to the child.
Article 39: States shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical
and psychological recovery and social reintegration of a child victim of any
form of neglect, exploitation, or abuse, torture or any other form of cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, or armed conflict.
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Article 40 : States shall ensure that every child is presumed innocent until
proven guilty according to the law. The child should be informed promptly
and directly of the charges against him or her, and if appropriate through
his or her parents or legal guardian. This is part of Article 12 of the
Namibian constitution.
3. Rights of Children as Protected by the School

As we have, the Namibian Constitution has enshrined rights and freedoms
to protect both adults and learners in this country. It affirms the democratic
values of human dignity, equality and freedom. The school must protect,
promote and fulfil the rights of every child under its control. The following
aspects should be seen to be done and followed by schools in order to
protect and preserve the well-being of the learners in their care:
Democracy: All learners and partners have the democratic right to

participate in decision making about matters which affect them at school.
They also have the right to have their views heard by school management.
Non-discriminatory and equality: No person should discriminate a

learner for any reason. All learners should enjoy equal treatment before the
law and should receive equal protection and benefits of the law.
Privacy, respect and dignity: Every learner has inherent dignity and has
the right to have his or her human dignity respected. This implies mutual
respect including respect for one another’s convictions and cultural
traditions. Every learner has the right to privacy meaning the right not to
have his or her property searched or seized. However the principal or an
educator may search learners based on his or her reasonable suspicion
followed by the use of search methods that are reasonable in scope.
Non-violence and the freedom and security of a learners: Every

learner has the right not to be treated or punished in a cruel, inhuman or
degrading manner. Corporal punishment has been abolished and educators
should learn the importance of mediation and co-operation to seek and
negotiate non-violent solutions to conflict and differences and to make use
of due process of the law.
Freedom of expression and the right to demonstrate and present

petitions: Freedom of expression is more than freedom of speech. The
freedom of expression includes the right o seek, hear, read and wear. The
freedom of expression is extended to forms of outward expression as seen
in clothing selection and hairstyles. But learners’ rights to enjoy freedom
of expression are not absolute for example vulgar words, insubordination
and insults are not protected speech. When the expression leads to the
disruption of school activities, that right can be restricted as disruption of
school activities becomes unacceptable.
120
The right to agreed procedures for expressing and resolving school-

related grievances: This process includes peaceful assemble on the
school property at a time and place designated by the principal.
School environment: Learners have the right to a clean and safe

environment that is conducive to education. This includes security of
property, well-cared for school facilities, school furniture and equipment,
clean toilet facilities, water and a green environment, absence of
harassment in attending classes and writing tests and examinations.
Education: The Constitution enshrines the right for everyone to education

and to further education which the State must make progressively available
and accessible. The right to education includes the right to attend classes,
to learn and be taught in all approved subjects, to be informed regularly
about school progress, to make use of all school facilities and to have the
potential of all learners fully developed.
4. Children’s Responsibilities
Whereas it is good to have rights, it is equally good to have responsibilities.
Children who have reached the voting age should know that it is their
responsibility to vote, but since the convention defines a child, as one who
is below eighteen years, then there are no children with voting
responsibility. But there are responsibilities like respecting other people’s
rights and participate in community work, respecting the laws and rules of
the society and understanding our rights and responsibilities and respect
them. The following responsibilities should be applicable to learners:
 Learners must be involved in the formulation of school and classroom
rules and must conform to such rules.
 All rules should be consistent with the overall code of conduct, be clear
and understandable and make provisions for fair warning, and learners
should adhere to these rules.
 Each learner should be provided with a copy of the school rules at the
beginning of each school year, younger learners at primary level should
be told of the rules verbally.
 Classroom rules should be posted in the classroom and the
consequences of breaking the rules should be made clear to the learners.
In this case learners should know that breaking will lead to appropriate
punishment. The rules should make provision for fundamental fairness
and fair warning
 Learners must be expected to know and adhere to school and classroom
rules, because ignorance of these rules is not an acceptable excuse.
 Learners must commit themselves to do their school work during
classes, complete assigned homework and catch up on work missed
because of absence.
 They should protect and carefully make use of the facilities and
equipment so that others that come after them can also enjoy the
privilege.
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 They should attend school regularly during school hours. Should be

absent from school, his or her parents or guardians must notify the
school to explain the absence.
 Learners have the responsibility to learn and develop their full potential
that is academic, occupational, social, sport, spiritual, art and cultural
potential. They should actively participate in the learning process and
decision making and have the opportunity to talk about their problems.
 Learners can expect educators to maintain a high standard of
professional ethics and to be present to teach their classes, assist them
with their learning difficulties, report on their progress and to look after
their well-being.
 Learners representative’s councils should promote the proper conduct
of learners within the school, but have no right to punish other learners
Activity 2
1. Which other important rights of the child do you think are in line with
Activity the Namibian constitution in the convention on the rights of the child?
2. Which rights have been left out in the convention?
Compare the two documents and write down the answers.

Feedback
Unit summary
The unit focused on the rights of the child and the obligations and
constitutional duty of the States which ratified and signed the convention
on the rights of the child. The convention states clearly that whatever is
done should be done in the interest of the child. All forms of abuse and
Summary exploitations against the child should be protected and defended by the
member states. In this unit you learned.
122
References
Barry, B (2006) Schools and the Law: A Participant’s Guide . Cape Town:
Juta and Co. Constitution of the Republic of Namibia.
References Convention on the Rights of the Child , 1989
UNESCO. 1999. Education for Human Rights and Democracy in

Windhoek
123
Code of Conduct for Schools
Unit 9

Introduction
In this unit you will study and examine an important topic which relates to
you as a teacher. The Code of conduct in most schools remains unknown.
Many teachers are either not disciplined or do not know what their
profession entails. To most teachers, teaching is just a profession where
they can go and laze and receive their salaries at the end of the month or
on the twentieth of each month as it is the case in Namibia. Yet teaching
was regarded as a calling like pastoral work many years ago. What we see
and witness today in the teaching field, unfortunately in many schools is
something else, not teaching at all. Some teachers come to work
unprepared, while others come to work in a drunken spirit.
The learners shoulder the other side of the blame, by not being prepared to
work very hard. They actually don’t take their work seriously. Some of
them end up not finishing their education because of sheer carelessness and
become criminals instead. It is against this background that codes of
conduct for schools and teachers are reviewed in a critical light and
encourage teachers to mend their ways and uplift the teaching profession.
 explain the purpose of the code of conduct for schools;

 state the importance of having a code of conduct for schools in
Namibia;
 list what is regarded as the role of children in the code of conduct for
Outcomes
schools;
 describe the role of principals and teachers as stated in the code of
conduct for schools.
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Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, Amendment of

Regulations made Under Education, Act, 2001.
Namibian Educational Code of Conduct for School , Ministry of

Prescribed reading Education, Culture, Youth and Sport, 1990.
1. The Namibian Educational Code of Conduct for Schools

The Namibian Educational Code of Conduct was compiled in 1990 after a
lengthy period of consultation among stakeholders in education. The main
aim of the code of conduct is to motivate all those who are involved in
education to establish and create an environment which is conducive to
positive learning and personal development. You can create an
environment for positive learning through the following:
 by expressing in a uniform manner all those standards of behaviour
which integrate control with learning.
 by establishing broad guidelines which are necessary in maintaining
discipline.
 by formulating a policy to safeguard the academic, social, physical and
emotional progress of all students.
1.1 Code of Conduct for Learners

Learners are expected to know, understand, accept and obey the code of
conduct and school rules in order to maintain order and discipline in the
school environment. If you want to run the school smoothly then the
following are expected to be operational:
 Learners should be informed of all code, school regulations and

necessary procedures which are applicable in the school, so that they
should not be caught unaware.
 In every school, there should be appropriate avenues for learners to air
their grievances or appeal decisions. This is crucial as this will serve as
breathing space valve. To bar learners from airing their grievances will
only lead to strikes and demonstrations on the school premises and
impede learning.
 Learners alike should be obliged to obey the instructions of the principal
and teachers while on premises and even when they are outside the
school premises provided those instructions are healthy and morally
good and sound.
 If the learner leaves the school, the legal liability of the school for that
learner ceases.
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 Learners have the right to be treated as individuals or groups and to

have specific circumstances that affect their learning activities taken
into account.
 Learners have the right to free and equal access, to all equipment and
facilities provided for their use.
 Learners have the right to protection from corporal punishment, verbal
abuse or unjust and excessive punishment from authorities.
 Learners must respect the persons, rights and property of their fellow
students, teachers and officials.
 Learners in the hostels should adhere to hostels rules and respect the
hostel superintendent.
 Learners should accept correction where they go wrong and make
mistakes.
 Learners have the right to be informed of any disciplinary action that
can or might be taken against them for failure to comply with the school
rules.
Reflective Thought
As Ms. Twalimbwa Mumbone entered her Grade 10 Mathematics class, an

insult was uttered at the back of the class, directed at her. Ms. Mumbone
panicked and the books she was carrying fell from her hands. She was
perplexed, as that was her second time coming to the Grade 10
Mathematics class.
While still puzzled the same insult echoed. She tried in vain to spot the
culprit. The whole class started whistling and laughing. No one knows
what send Ms. Mumbone packing and finally left the teaching profession.
Activity 1
1. If you were in Ms. Mumbone’s shoes, what would you do to solve the
Activity problem?
2. Why is it important for learners to be involved in the drawing up of

school rules and regulations?
126
2. Principles, legislation and regulations guiding teaching in Namibia

2.1 Constitution
All persons shall have the right at their own expense to establish and
maintain private schools, colleges or other institutions of tertiary education
provided that:
 such schools, colleges or institutions of tertiary education are registered
with a Government department in accordance with any law authorising
and regulating such registration
 the standards maintained by such schools, colleges or institutions of
tertiary education are not inferior to the standards maintained in
comparable schools, colleges or institutions of tertiary education
funded by the State
 no restrictions of whatever nature are imposed with respect to the
admission of pupils based on race, colour or creed;
 no restrictions of whatever nature are imposed with respect to the
recruitment of staff based on race or colour.
2.2 Education Act 16 0f 2001

 This Act covers schools and hostels in Namibia.
 It covers the Teaching Service
 It establishes National Advisory Council on Education
 It also establishes a National Examination and Certification Board
 It forms Regional Education Forums
 It establishes School Boards
 If forms School Development Fund
 It establishes the Teaching Service Committee
2.3 Education Policies

 Language policy : official and national languages to be accorded equal
status
 Policy on corporal punishment : no admission of corporal punishment
 Policy on pregnancy : duration of expecting mother and allowed to
write exams
 Inclusive education policy : no discrimination of physically challenged
learners
 HIV and AIDS policy: no discrimination of affected and infected
learners and teachers.
 Policy on textbooks : equal distribution and allocation of textbooks
 Namibia Students Financial Assistance Fund (NSFAF) Policy
 National Policy Options for Educationally Marginalized Children
 Education Policy for Orphans and Vulnerable Children
127
 School Assets Control
3. Code of Conduct for Teaching Services

3.1 Purposes of Code of Conduct for Teaching Services
 Set the basic professional requirements and minimum standards of
professional conduct for teachers
 Guides the teaching profession in its quest to deliver professional
services
 Promote a sense of professionalism, accountability and responsibility
among teachers to improve effective teaching and learning.
3.2 Objectives of Code of Conduct for Teaching Services

 Establish a safe, disciplined and purposeful school environment
dedicated to the improvement and maintenance of the quality of the
learning and teaching process
 Create a caring and nurturing environment for learners to enable them
to develop into caring, honest and responsible adults.
 Act responsibly and in a clear and transparent manner, bearing in mind
the responsibility they hold in their communities and in society
 Be aware of the imbalance that exist in any teaching situation and vow
to not use their position to override the best interests of their learners
 Undertake to avoid using violence as a teaching and disciplinary tool
 Execute their duty of care as imposed upon them by any Act, regulation
or rule in the best interest of the learner
 Inform themselves about the diverse cultural backgrounds of the
learners under their care,
 Respect and accommodate the diversity and adapt their classroom
approaches accordingly.
Standards of Code of Conduct for Teaching Services.
 Setting, monitoring and publishing clear standards of service that
individual members of the public can reasonably expect.
Information
 Providing information about public services in a straightforward and
open manner which is readily understandable.
Courtesy and helpfulness
 Provide a courteous and helpful service
 Service should suit the convenience of those entitled to the services
128
Consultation and choice

 Ensuring regular consultation and communication with those who use
the service
 Take the views and priorities into account
 Provide choice wherever possible.
Accountability
 Providing details of performance against targets and identify who is
responsible.
Openness
 Disclosing how public services are managed
 Determine the cost and performance of specific services.
Non-discrimination
 Ensuring that services are available and applied equally to all
Quality of Service
 Publicizing straightforward complaints procedures with independent
review
 Providing correction of errors.
Value for money
 Providing efficient and economic public services within affordable
resources
 Promoting literacy and language development
 Functional numeracy and logical reasoning
 Intellectual development
 Emotional development
 Physical development
 Spiritual development
 Social and cultural development
 Political development
 National unity and international understanding
 Civic responsibility
 Vocational orientation and economic development
 Development of environmental awareness
Professional conduct for teachers
 Dress in an appropriate manner : dress neatly and decently (not too
revealing and not too tight)
 Ethical conduct or behaviour : acceptable values and beliefs
129
 Gender equality : equal status of women and men as equal partners at

work
 Moral standards : values generally accepted as right by the society
 Sexual abuse : not harming the child through contact, gestures, sexual
comments and jokes, love affairs
 Sexual harassment: unwanted behaviour or advance of a sexual nature
Teachers must maintain and adhere to the following standards of
professional conduct:
Teacher and Learner
Teacher must :
 Take the place of parents when learners is at school, when participating
in official school programmes and activities in and outside school
 Execute teaching duties and assist learners within the framework of the
Ministry
 Ensure that effective teaching and learning are developed and
maintained to the maximum level
 Respect the dignity of constitutional rights of every learner without
prejudice, including the right to education, equality of culture and the
right to privacy
 Promote gender equality and refrain from any form of discrimination
including those affected or infected with HIV and AIDS
 Promote acceptable moral standards and development among learners
 Promote a sense of responsibility among learners toward themselves,
their school peers and their community
 Not in any form humiliate or abuse learners (physically, emotionally or
psychologically)
 Not divulge information about a learner received in confidence or in the
course of professional duties
 Not administer corporal punishment or any other degrading punishment
upon a learner
 Not accept any form of payment for tutoring a learner in any school
subject without the necessary permission
 Not withhold a learner’s progress report as a form of disciplinary
measure or for non-payment of contribution to a school development
fund
 Not abuse his or her position for financial, political or personal gain
 Not use language or behaviour that will undermine the confidence and
respect of any learner.
 Not become involved in any form of romance or sexual relations with
a learner or sexual harassment or abuse of a learner
130
 Not discriminate against any learner on the basis of physical or mental

impairments or disability, but assist every learner to reach his or her full
potential.
Teacher and School Authorities and Ministry
A teacher in relation to school activities such as School Boards and
learner’s representative councils and the Ministry as employer must:
 Recognize such authorities and the employers as partners
 Acknowledge that such authorities and the employer have certain
responsibilities and authority
 Assist such authorities and serve the employer to the best of his or her
ability
 Fulfil his or her contractual obligations to the best of his or her ability
to the employer until released by mutual consent or according to the law
 Act responsibly in relation to the execution of professional,
organizational and administrative duties
 Refrain from discussing or disclosing confidential information which
he or she has obtained in the course of his or her duties as a teacher.
Teacher and Parents
A teacher in relation to parents and community must:
 Recognize parents and the community at large as parents in education
and promote good relationship with them
 Create effective communication channels between the school, parents
and the community
 Keep parents adequately and timeously informed about the well-being
and progress of their children
 Acknowledge and recognize that his or her school serves the
community and accept different customs, codes and beliefs within the
community but simultaneously promote national reconciliation
 Inform and advise parents and the community on matters relating to
HIV and AIDS and disability, and ministerial policies regarding HIV
and AIDS and disability.
Teacher and Colleagues
A teacher in relation to colleagues must:
 Acknowledge that his or her duties require the corporation and support
of the colleagues
 Promote the motto of corporation, collaboration and consultation
among colleagues on matters related to teaching
 As an administrator provide opportunities for colleagues to express
their opinion and bring forth suggestions regarding the administration
of the school
131
 Respect the various responsibilities assigned to colleagues and the

authority that arise thereof to ensure the smoothing running of the
school
 Not undermine the confidence of parents, the community or learners in
any colleague
 Not undermine the status, authority or confidence of any colleague
 Not criticize the professional competence or professional reputation of
a colleague in public but use proper procedures to report infringements
of the law, sexual relations with a learner, any harassment or abuse of a
learner, professional incompetence and misconduct by a colleague
 Not take personal advantage any step to secure the dismissal of another
teacher
 May not sexually harass or in any way abuse a colleague.
Teacher and Profession
A teacher in relation to the teaching profession must:
 Take his or her task as an educator seriously
 Act in manner which maintains the honour and dignity of the profession
inside and outside the school
 Accept that he or she has a professional obligation towards the
continuous development of teaching as a profession and therefore
should keep abreast of developments in education
 Not engage in activities which may adversely affect the quality of the
teacher’s professional service
 Acknowledge that his or her attitude, dedication, self-discipline,
integrity and training determine the quality of education
 Dress in an appropriate manner for specific duties in order to enhance
the image of the profession
 Not attend school activities under the influence of alcohol and other
drugs
 Uphold the professional conduct in order to enhance the image and
status of the profession
 Take the necessary steps to contribute through the profession to the
eradication of HIV and AIDS in the spirit of the National Policy on HIV
and AIDS for the Education sector.
Teacher and Learning and Teaching Environment
 Take reasonable steps to ensure and protect the safety of learners in
schools and hostels
 Ensure that schools and hostels become institutions that promote the
well-being and happiness of learners
132
 Take pride and ownership and responsibility for the school and hostel
facilities
 Foster a sense of pride and ownership in the school and hostel facilities
amongst learners, parents and the community
 Inculcate in learners knowledge of and respect for Namibian national
symbols and assets
 Instil in learners from an early age the need to protect, preserve and
conserve
 Keep calm and stare at the learners in their eyes one by one.
 Investigate the case by interrogating learners
 Take the issue up with the principal
 So that they feel to be part of the rules and regulations and so will find
it difficult to go against them.
4. Rights and Responsibilities of Teachers

After having looked at the responsibilities and rights of learners, let us now
look at the responsibilities and rights of teachers. Teachers like learners are
expected to respect and obey the rules and regulations governing the school
institution. Teachers should always bear in mind that they are the role
models of learners. This means that if they misbehave, learners will equally
follow suit. The following could be regarded as the rights and
responsibilities of teachers.
 The responsibility to correct both classroom and other school related
student behaviour in a professional manner.
 The right to fulfil their teaching responsibilities in a professional
manner.
 The right to be accepted by both school officials and students in an
individual capacity. They should also accept others.
 The right to have their knowledge of individual students taken into
account in official school discipline.
 Teachers should maintain a written, confidential, “Behavioural Profile’
for learners.
 The right and responsibility to consult with learners’ parents or
guardians regarding both academic and social matters.
Activity 2
1. What would you do as a teacher, where you are supposed to correct a
learner, yet the learner seems not to take your advice seriously?
Activity 2. Why should teachers keep ‘Behavioural Profiles’ of learners?
133
3. (a) Involve other teachers
(b) Talk to the principal about the learner
Feedback (c) Invite the learner’s parents to assist you
4. To keep both positive and negative records of the progress and
performance of the learners.
5. Rights and Responsibilities of School Principals

We have looked at the rights and responsibilities of learners and teachers.
Let us now look at the rights and responsibilities of school principals:
 The principal is the head of the school. He or she has full executive
authority and responsibility in the school and must ensure that the
function and purpose of the school are carried out.
 He or she must ensure that the rights of all staff members and learners
are protected.
 He or she must provide professional educational leadership, which
involves planning, consultation, control of expenditure, discipline,
communication with parents and community members, implementing
Ministry policies, delegation and the accounting for school security,
property and finances.
Reflective Thought
What will you do as a new principal of a school, where the community

hardly understands the importance of education? For example, a parent
who has two children, one in Grade 12 and one in Grade 10 respectively
comes to you for an exchange. He wants the older one to go and heard
cattle, while the younger brother should be moved to Grade 12 in his place.
The parent insists that the issue is possible, when you try to argue against
that. How will you handle such an argument?
6. Responsibilities of parents with respect to the code of conduct.

The ultimate responsibility for learners’ behaviour rests with their parents
and guardians. It is expected that parents will:
 Support the school and require learners to observe all school rules and
regulations and accept responsibility for any misbehaviour on their part
 Take an active interest in their children’s schoolwork and make it
possible for the children to complete assigned homework
134
 Parents should attend meetings that the governing body convenes for
them
 Parents have the right to take legal action against any educator, learner
or person who unlawfully violates the constitutional rights of their
children by corporal punishment or injury to the child.
Unit summary
In this unit we learnt about the rights and responsibilities of learners,
teachers and school principals. All in all, all three stakeholders should obey
and respect school rules and regulations. As teachers we should provide
professional guidance to learners and ensure that they keep records of
Summary learners. Principals should manage and lead the school institutions in a
professional manner.
References
Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, Amendment of
Regulations made Under Education, Act , 2001.
References Namibian Educational Code of Conduct for School, Ministry of

Education, Culture, Youth and Sport, 1990
Barry, B (2006) Schools and the Law: A Participant’s Guide. Cape Town:
Juta and Co. Constitution of the Republic of Namibia.
Convention on the Rights of the Child , 1989
UNESCO. 1999. Education for Human Rights and Democracy in

Windhoek
135
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STUDY GUIDE

Educational Foundations 2 (2nd Edition):

Centre for Open, Distance & eLearning

Edited and Published by Centre for Open, Distance & eLearning

University of Namibia, Windhoek

Centre for Open, Distance & eLearning

Dr G.N Likando, Dr C.H. Brunette and Author

Prof. E.M. Amukugo Content Editor

Dr A. Isaacs Language Editor

Getting around this study guide 6

About this study guide

How this study guide is

 If the course is suitable for you.

 What you will already need to know.

 What you can expect from the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Where to get help.

 Course assignments and assessments.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

 An introduction to the unit content.

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

 Answers to Assignment and/or assessment, as applicable

 Course content and structure.

 Course reading materials and resources.

 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

This is a semester course (14 weeks).

most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

For further assistance you can go to your nearest Regional UNAM

Getting around this study guide

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

Activity Additional Answers to Assessment

Assignment Audio Case study Discussion

Exit Learning Feedback Group Activity Help

References Reflection Study skills Summary

Terminology Tip Video

Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:

 explain the meaning of philosophy as a discipline or branch of

 describe the aptness of both philosophy and philosophy of education;

 analyse the inaptness of both philosophy and philosophy of

Hamm, C.M. (1995) Philosophical Issues in Education. An Introduction.

1. The meaning of philosophy:

1.1 What do we regard as philosophy?

Omoregbe (1985) explains philosophy in broader terms as follows:

Human experience is the source of reflective activity known as philosophy.

Meanwhile according to their definition Njoroge and Bennaars (1986)

Philosophy as a subject is a world which is full of apprehension, fretfulness

Philosophy as a discipline is parasitic, because it is capable of borrowing

1.2 The Western concept of philosophy.

Aristotle became Plato’s best student and reflects the teleological

In A.D. 313, Roman Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity

After the impasse, the Renaissance or Enlightenment dawned, of which the

1.3 The Eastern concept of philosophy

Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC) of India was a contemporary of

1.4 The African concept of philosophy

Above that philosophy consists of different schools and this is inevitable,