UNIT I

❖ Cell Cycle :

The cell cycle is the process by which a cell grows, replicates its DNA, and divides
into two identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is divided into four main phases: G1,
S, G2, and M.

• G1 (Gap 1): The cell grows and prepares for DNA replication.
• S (Synthesis): The cell replicates its DNA.
• G2 (Gap 2): The cell grows and prepares for mitosis.
• M (Mitosis): The cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

The cell cycle is tightly regulated by a number of genes and proteins. If the cell cycle
is disrupted, it can lead to cancer or other diseases.

1. G1 (Gap 1) :

• The cell grows in size and synthesizes proteins and other molecules.
• The cell checks for damage to its DNA.
• If the cell's DNA is damaged, it can either repair the damage or die.

2. S (Synthesis) :

• The cell replicates its DNA.

• The cell also synthesizes proteins and other molecules that are needed for
mitosis.

3. G2 (Gap 2) :

• The cell grows in size and synthesizes proteins and other molecules.
• The cell checks for damage to its DNA.
• If the cell's DNA is damaged, it can either repair the damage or die.

4. M (Mitosis) :

• The cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

• The cell's DNA is divided equally between the two daughter cells.
 • The cell's cytoplasm is also divided equally between the two daughter cells.

The cell cycle is a complex process that is essential for life.

❖ Features of Cell Cycle :

• The cell cycle is a continuous process, and the phases overlap to some
extent.
• The cell cycle is regulated by a number of genes and proteins.
• The cell cycle can be disrupted by a number of factors, including cancer,
radiation, and chemicals.
• The cell cycle is essential for life.

❖ Phases and Checkpoints of Cell Cycle :

The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a cell as it grows and divides.
The cell cycle is divided into four main phases: G1, S, G2, and M.

1. G1 phase (gap 1 phase): The cell grows and prepares for DNA replication.

In the G1 phase, the cell grows and synthesizes proteins and other molecules in
preparation for DNA replication. The cell also checks for damage to its DNA. If the
cell detects damage, it will either repair the damage or undergo apoptosis
(programmed cell death).

2. S phase (synthesis phase): The cell's DNA is replicated.

In the S phase, the cell's DNA is replicated. This means that each chromosome is
copied, so that each daughter cell will have a complete set of chromosomes.

3. G2 phase (gap 2 phase): The cell grows and prepares for mitosis.

In the G2 phase, the cell continues to grow and synthesize proteins and other
molecules in preparation for mitosis. The cell also checks for damage to its DNA. If
the cell detects damage, it will either repair the damage or undergo apoptosis.

4. M phase (mitosis): The cell divides into two daughter cells.

In the M phase, the cell divides into two daughter cells. This process involves four
subphases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
 • Prophase: In prophase, the chromosomes condense and the nuclear
envelope breaks down. The spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres
of the chromosomes.
• Metaphase: In metaphase, the chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
• Anaphase: In anaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes split and the
sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
• Telophase: In telophase, the chromosomes decondense and the nuclear
envelopes reform. The cytoplasm divides, resulting in two daughter cells,
each with a complete set of chromosomes.

The cell cycle is a complex process that is essential for the growth and development
of all living things. It ensures that cells are able to divide accurately and produce new
cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell.

❖ Checkpoints :

Cell cycle checkpoints are control mechanisms in the eukaryotic cell cycle which
ensure its proper progression. Each checkpoint serves as a potential termination
point along the cell cycle, during which the conditions of the cell are assessed, with
progression through the various phases of the cell cycle occurring only when
favorable conditions are met.

There are many checkpoints in the cell cycle, but the three major ones are:

• G1 checkpoint (restriction point): This checkpoint determines whether the cell

will proceed to the S phase or exit the cell cycle.
• G2/M checkpoint; also known as the DNA damage checkpoint: This
checkpoint ensures that the cell's DNA has been replicated correctly before it
proceeds to mitosis.
• M checkpoint (mitosis checkpoint): This checkpoint ensures that the cell's
chromosomes have been properly aligned before they are separated into the
daughter cells.

Progression through these checkpoints is largely determined by the activation of

cyclin-dependent kinases by regulatory protein subunits called cyclins, different
forms of which are produced at each stage of the cell cycle to control the specific
events that occur therein.

1. G1 checkpoint :

The G1 checkpoint is the first major checkpoint in the cell cycle. It occurs at the G1/S
transition, which is the point at which the cell decides whether to enter the S phase
(DNA replication) or to exit the cell cycle. The G1 checkpoint checks for a variety of
factors, including:
 • Sufficient nutrients and growth factors. The cell must have enough nutrients
and growth factors in order to divide.
• Absence of DNA damage. The cell must not have any DNA damage that
would prevent it from dividing accurately.
• The correct cell size. The cell must be large enough to divide.

If all of these conditions are met, the cell will proceed to the S phase. If any of these
conditions are not met, the cell will exit the cell cycle and either enter a resting state
(G0) or undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).

2. G2/M checkpoint :

The G2/M checkpoint is the second major checkpoint in the cell cycle. It occurs at
the G2/M transition, which is the point at which the cell decides whether to enter
mitosis (cell division) or to exit the cell cycle. The G2/M checkpoint checks for a
variety of factors, including:

• The correct DNA replication. The cell must have replicated its DNA correctly.
• The absence of DNA damage. The cell must not have any DNA damage that
would prevent it from dividing accurately.
• The correct cell size. The cell must be large enough to divide.

If all of these conditions are met, the cell will proceed to mitosis. If any of these
conditions are not met, the cell will exit the cell cycle and either enter a resting state
(G0) or undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).

3. M checkpoint :
A. The M checkpoint is the third major checkpoint in the cell cycle. It occurs
during mitosis, at the metaphase/anaphase transition. The M checkpoint
checks for a variety of factors, including:

• The correct alignment of the chromosomes. The chromosomes must be

properly aligned at the metaphase plate.
• The correct attachment of the spindle fibers. The spindle fibers must be
properly attached to the centromeres of the chromosomes.

B. If all of these conditions are met, the cell will proceed to anaphase and
cytokinesis. If any of these conditions are not met, the cell will arrest in
metaphase until the conditions are met.
C. Checkpoints are essential for the cell cycle to proceed correctly. If a cell fails a
checkpoint, it will either stop the cell cycle and repair the damage, or it will
undergo apoptosis. This prevents the cell from dividing and passing on
damaged DNA to its daughter cells.
 UNIT II

❖ Cell Division in Plant and Animal Cells :

The process of cell division is similar in plant and animal cells. However, there are
some key differences.

I. In plant cells, the cell wall is divided by a process called cytokinesis.

II. The cell plate forms in the middle of the cell and grows outward until it
reaches the cell wall. The cell wall then breaks down and the two daughter
cells are separated.

III. In animal cells, the cytoplasm is divided by a process called cleavage furrow.

IV. The cleavage furrow forms in the middle of the cell and deepens until it
reaches the cell membrane. The cell membrane then pinches in and the two
daughter cells are separated.

❖ Importance of Cell Division :

Cell division is essential for the growth, development, and repair of all living things.
Cell division allows for the growth of an organism by increasing the number of cells.
Cell division also allows for the repair of damaged cells by replacing them with new
cells. In addition, cell division is essential for the production of gametes (sex cells)
that are necessary for reproduction.
❖ Mitosis :

1. Prophase :

1. The chromosomes condense and become visible.

2. The nuclear envelope breaks down.
3. The nucleolus disappears.
4. The centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell.
5. The spindle fibers form between the centrosomes.
2. Metaphase :

1. The chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, which is a central plane in

the cell.
2. The centromeres of the chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers.

3. Anaphase :

1. The centromeres of the chromosomes split.

2. The sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
3. The spindle fibers pull the sister chromatids apart.
4. Telophase :

1. The chromosomes decondense and become less visible.

2. The nuclear envelopes reform around each set of chromosomes.
3. The cytoplasm divides, resulting in two daughter cells, each with a complete
set of chromosomes.

Cytokinesis :
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm. In plant cells, a cell plate forms in the
middle of the cell and grows outward until it reaches the cell wall. The cell wall then
breaks down and the two daughter cells are separated. In animal cells, a cleavage
furrow forms in the middle of the cell and deepens until it reaches the cell
membrane. The cell membrane then pinches in and the two daughter cells are
separated.

❖ Meiosis :

Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces four daughter cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis is essential for the production of
gametes (sex cells), such as sperm and eggs.

Meiosis takes place in two stages: meiosis I and meiosis II.

A. Meiosis I :

1. Prophase I

• The chromosomes condense and become visible.

• The nuclear envelope breaks down.
 • The nucleolus disappears.
• The homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrads.
• The centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell.
• The spindle fibers form between the centrosomes.

Prophase I is divided into five subphases: leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene,

and diakinesis.

i. Leptotene :

• The chromosomes condense and become visible.

• The nuclear envelope breaks down.
• The nucleolus disappears.

ii. Zygotene

• The homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrads.

• The centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell.
• The spindle fibers form between the centrosomes.
iii. Pachytene

• The homologous chromosomes cross over and exchange genetic material.

• The centrosomes move further apart.
• The spindle fibers lengthen.

iv. Diplotene

• The homologous chromosomes separate, but remain connected by

chiasmata.
• The centrosomes move even further apart.
• The spindle fibers continue to lengthen.

v. Diakinesis

• The chromosomes condense even further.

• The chiasmata disappear.
• The centrosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell.
• The spindle fibers are fully extended.

2. Metaphase I

1. The tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, which is a central plane in the cell.
2. The centromeres of the homologous chromosomes are attached to the
spindle fibers.

3. Anaphase I

1. The centromeres of the homologous chromosomes do not split and the

homologous chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
2. The spindle fibers pull the homologous chromosomes apart.

3. Telophase I

1. The chromosomes decondense and become less visible.

2. The nuclear envelopes reform around each set of chromosomes.
3. The cytoplasm divides, resulting in two daughter cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
B. Meiosis II:

1. Prophase II

2. The chromosomes condense and become visible.

3. The nuclear envelope breaks down.
4. The nucleolus disappears.
5. The centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell.
6. The spindle fibers form between the centrosomes.

2 . Metaphase II

1. The chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, which is a central plane in

the cell.
2. The centromeres of the chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers.

3. Anaphase II
1. The centromeres of the chromosomes split and the sister chromatids are
pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
2. The spindle fibers pull the sister chromatids apart.

4. Telophase II

1. The chromosomes decondense and become less visible.

2. The nuclear envelopes reform around each set of chromosomes.
3. The cytoplasm divides, resulting in four daughter cells, each with a haploid
number of chromosomes.
 UNIT III

❖ Cell Signaling :

• Cell signaling is the process by which cells communicate with each other.
• Cell signaling is essential for the coordination of cellular activities, such as cell
growth, differentiation, and apoptosis.
• Cell signaling can be mediated by a variety of molecules, including hormones,
growth factors, and neurotransmitters.
• Cell signaling pathways are often complex and involve multiple steps.
• Cell signaling can be affected by a variety of factors, such as the
concentration of signaling molecules, the presence of inhibitors, and the state
of the cell.

• Signaling molecules are molecules that are released by one cell and bind to
receptors on another cell.
• Receptors are proteins that bind to signaling molecules and initiate a cellular
response.
• Cellular responses can vary depending on the type of signaling molecule and
the type of receptor.
• Cell signaling pathways are the series of steps that occur when a signaling
molecule binds to a receptor.
• Cell signaling can be affected by a variety of factors, such as the
concentration of signaling molecules, the presence of inhibitors, and the state
of the cel

❖ Signaling Molecules :

Cell signaling molecules are molecules that are released by one cell and bind to
receptors on another cell. They can be classified into four main groups:

• Hormones are signaling molecules that are released by endocrine glands

and travel through the bloodstream to bind to receptors on target cells.
• Growth factors are signaling molecules that are released by cells and bind to
receptors on other cells to stimulate cell growth and division.
 • Neurotransmitters are signaling molecules that are released by neurons and
bind to receptors on other neurons or on muscle cells to transmit nerve
impulses.
• Local regulators are signaling molecules that are released by cells and
diffuse locally to bind to receptors on nearby cells.

Cell signaling molecules are molecules that are released by one cell and bind to
receptors on another cell. They can be divided into two main categories: hydrophilic
and hydrophobic.

• Hydrophilic signaling molecules are water-soluble and can diffuse through

the cell membrane. They include hormones, growth factors, and cytokines.
• Hydrophobic signaling molecules are fat-soluble and cannot diffuse through
the cell membrane. They include neurotransmitters and pheromones.

Cell signaling molecules can bind to receptors on the surface of the cell or inside the
cell. Receptors are proteins that bind to signaling molecules and initiate a cellular
response.

The cellular response to a signaling molecule can vary depending on the type of
signaling molecule, the type of receptor, and the state of the cell. For example, some
signaling molecules can cause cells to grow, while others can cause cells to die.

Cell signaling molecules play a vital role in many cellular processes, including:

• Cell growth and division

• Differentiation
• Apoptosis
• Metabolism
• Immunity
• Cell death
 ❖ Signaling receptors: Cell surface receptors :

Cell surface receptors are proteins that are embedded in the plasma membrane of
cells. They act in cell signaling by receiving (binding to) extracellular molecules. They
are specialized integral membrane proteins that allow communication between the
cell and the extracellular space. The extracellular molecules may be hormones,
neurotransmitters, cytokines, growth factors, cell adhesion molecules, or nutrients;
they react with the receptor to induce changes in the metabolism and activity of a
cell.

Receptor protein: cells must have cell surface receptor proteins which bind to the
signaling molecule and communicate inward into the cell. Intracellular signaling
proteins: these pass the signal to the organelles of the cell. Binding of the signal
molecule to the receptor protein will activate intracellular signaling proteins that
initiate a signaling cascade. Target proteins: the conformations or other properties of
the target proteins are altered when a signaling pathway is active and changes the
behavior of the cell.

There are many different types of cell surface receptors, each with its own specific
function. Some of the most common types of cell surface receptors include:

• Ion channel-linked receptors bind to signaling molecules and open a

channel through the membrane that allows specific ions to pass through.
• G-protein-linked receptors bind to signaling molecules and activate a
membrane protein called a G-protein, which then interacts with either an ion
channel or an enzyme in the membrane.
• Enzyme-linked receptors bind to signaling molecules and activate
anenzyme that catalyzes a reaction.
• Tyrosine kinase receptors bind to signaling molecules and phosphorylate
tyrosine residues on other proteins.
• Serine/threonine kinase receptors bind to signaling molecules and
phosphorylate serine or threonine residues on other proteins.

Autocrine, Paracrine, Endocrine Signaling :

• Autocrine signaling is a type of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a

signaling molecule that binds to receptors on the same cell.
• Paracrine signaling is a type of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a
signaling molecule that binds to receptors on nearby cells.
• Endocrine signaling is a type of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a
signaling molecule that travels through the bloodstream to bind to receptors
on cells in other parts of the body.
 • Autocrine signaling is a type of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a
signaling molecule that binds to receptors on the same cell. This type of
signaling is often used to regulate cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis.
For example, the hormone insulin is an autocrine signal that regulates the
uptake of glucose by cells.
• Paracrine signaling is a type of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a
signaling molecule that binds to receptors on nearby cells. This type of
signaling is often used to coordinate the activity of cells in a tissue or organ.
For example, the growth factor epidermal growth factor (EGF) is a paracrine
signal that stimulates cell growth and division.
• Endocrine signaling is a type of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a
signaling molecule that travels through the bloodstream to bind to receptors
on cells in other parts of the body. This type of signaling is often used to
regulate systemic functions, such as metabolism, reproduction, and immunity.
For example, the hormone thyroid hormone is an endocrine signal that
regulates metabolism.

Each type of cell signaling has its own advantages and disadvantages. Autocrine
signaling is the most direct type of signaling, but it can only affect the cell that
secretes the signal. Paracrine signaling is less direct, but it can affect a wider range
of cells. Endocrine signaling is the least direct type of signaling, but it can affect cells
throughout the body.

❖ G protein signaling :

G-protein signaling is a type of cell signaling that is mediated by G-proteins. G-

proteins are a family of proteins that are found in the plasma membrane of cells.
They are activated by the binding of signaling molecules, such as hormones,
neurotransmitters, and growth factors.

When a signaling molecule binds to a G-protein, it causes the G-protein to change

shape. This change in shape activates the G-protein, which then separates into two
subunits: a Gα subunit and a Gβγ subunit.

The Gα subunit then binds to and activates an effector protein, such as an ion
channel or an enzyme. The effector protein then produces a second messenger,
which diffuses into the cell and triggers a cascade of events.

The second messenger can then activate other proteins, which can then activate
other proteins, and so on. This cascade of events can lead to a variety of cellular
responses, such as cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and metabolism.
G-protein signaling is a very important type of cell signaling. It is involved in a wide
variety of cellular processes, and it is essential for the proper functioning of cells and
tissues.

Here are some key points about G-protein signaling:

• G-proteins are activated by the binding of signaling molecules.

• G-proteins activate effector proteins, which produce second messengers.
• Second messengers activate other proteins, which can then activate other
proteins, and so on.
• G-protein signaling is involved in a wide variety of cellular processes.
• A signaling molecule, such as epinephrine, binds to a G-protein-coupled
receptor (GPCR) on the cell surface.
• The GPCR changes shape, which activates a G-protein.
• The G-protein separates into two subunits: a Gα subunit and a Gβγ subunit.
• The Gα subunit binds to and activates an effector protein, such as an ion
channel or an enzyme.
• The effector protein then produces a second messenger, which diffuses into
the cell and triggers a cascade of events.

In this example, epinephrine is the signaling molecule, the GPCR is the receptor,
the G-protein is the effector, and the second messenger is cAMP.

G-protein signaling is a very common type of cell signaling. It is involved in a wide

variety of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and
metabolism.

❖ Calcium Signaling :

Calcium signaling is a type of cell signaling that uses calcium ions (Ca2+) as a
second messenger. Calcium ions are released from intracellular stores or enter the
cell through voltage-gated or ligand-gated channels. Once inside the cell, calcium
ions bind to proteins and trigger a cascade of events that can lead to a variety of
cellular responses, such as muscle contraction, gene expression, and
neurotransmitter release.

Calcium signaling is a very important type of cell signaling. It is involved in a wide

variety of cellular processes, including:

• Muscle contraction : Calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic

reticulum in muscle cells, which triggers muscle contraction.
 • Gene expression : Calcium ions bind to transcription factors, which regulate
the expression of genes.
• Neurotransmitter release : Calcium ions bind to neurotransmitter release
channels, which triggers the release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells.

Calcium signaling is a complex and dynamic process. It is regulated by a variety of

factors, including the concentration of calcium ions, the presence of calcium-binding
proteins, and the activity of enzymes that can either increase or decrease the
concentration of calcium ions inside the cell.

Calcium signaling is essential for the proper functioning of cells and tissues. It is
involved in a wide variety of cellular processes, and it is essential for the coordination
of cellular activities.
 UNIT IV

❖ Cell Death :
1. Aging,
2. Apoptosis
3. Necrosis
4. Neoplasia
5. Autophagy
6. Ferroptosis
7. Pyroptosis

❖ Aging

Aging is a natural process that occurs in all living things. As cells age, they
accumulate damage that can eventually lead to their death. This damage can be
caused by a variety of factors, including free radicals, toxins, and genetic mutations.

There are a number of theories about why cells age. One theory is that cells simply
have a limited number of divisions they can undergo before they die. Another theory
is that cells accumulate damage over time that eventually becomes too much for
them to repair.

➢ Aging can lead to a number of problems, including:

• Increased risk of disease

• Decreased physical and mental function
• Death

There is no cure for aging, but there are a number of things that can be done to slow
the aging process, such as:

• Eating a healthy diet

• Exercising regularly
• Getting enough sleep
• Managing stress
• Avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol consumption
 ➢ Aging can also be accelerated by factors such as:

• Diet: A diet that is high in processed foods, sugar, and saturated fat can
accelerate aging.
• Lack of exercise: Exercise helps to protect cells from damage.
• Stress: Stress can damage cells and accelerate aging.
• Tobacco smoke: Tobacco smoke contains harmful chemicals that can
damage cells.
• Alcohol: Alcohol can damage cells and accelerate aging.

❖ Apoptosis

Apoptosis, also known as programmed cell death, is a type of cell death that is tightly
regulated by the cell. It is often used to remove damaged or unneeded cells.

➢ Apoptosis is a relatively controlled process that involves a number of

steps, including:
• Chromatin condensation: The DNA in the nucleus condenses.
• Nuclear fragmentation: The nucleus breaks up into small pieces.
• Cytoplasm shrinkage: The cytoplasm shrinks.
• Budding: The cell forms small buds that detach from the main cell
body.
• Cell death: The cell dies.

➢ Apoptosis is important for a number of reasons, including:

• It helps to remove damaged or unneeded cells.
• It helps to prevent the spread of cancer.
• It helps to regulate the immune system.
• It helps to promote tissue regeneration.

➢ Apoptosis is triggered by a variety of factors, including:

▪ Damage to DNA: Damage to DNA can trigger apoptosis.
▪ Uncontrolled cell growth: Uncontrolled cell growth, such as in
cancer, can trigger apoptosis.
▪ Infection: Infection by viruses or bacteria can trigger apoptosis.
 ❖ Necrosis

Necrosis is a type of cell death that is caused by external factors, such as injury or
infection. It is characterized by cell swelling, membrane rupture, and the release of
cellular contents.

Necrosis is a more chaotic process than apoptosis. It is not tightly regulated by the
cell, and it can release harmful substances into the surrounding tissue.

➢ Necrosis can lead to a number of problems, including:

• Inflammation
• Infection
• Tissue damage
• Death

➢ Necrosis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

• Injury: Physical injury, such as a cut or a burn, can cause necrosis.
• Infection: Infection by bacteria, viruses, or fungi can cause necrosis.
• Ischemia: Ischemia is a condition in which the blood supply to a tissue
is blocked. This can cause necrosis.
• Toxic chemicals: Exposure to toxic chemicals can cause necrosis.

➢ Necrosis is triggered by a variety of factors, including:

o Physical injury: Physical injury, such as a cut or a burn, can cause necrosis.
o Chemical injury: Chemical injury, such as exposure to a toxin, can cause
necrosis.
o Infection: Infection by viruses or bacteria can cause necrosis.

❖ Neoplasia :

Neoplasia is the formation of new, abnormal tissue. It can be benign (noncancerous)

or malignant (cancerous).

▪ Benign neoplasms are noncancerous tumors that do not spread to other

parts of the body.
▪ Malignant neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can spread to other parts of
the body.
The cause of neoplasia is not fully understood, but it is thought to be caused by a
combination of genetic and environmental factors.

❖ Autophagy:

Autophagy is a type of cell death that is used to recycle cellular components. It is

often triggered by nutrient deprivation or stress.

Autophagy involves the engulfment of cellular components by a vacuole, which then

fuses with a lysosome. The lysosome then digests the cellular components.

➢ Autophagy is important for a number of reasons, including:

• It helps to remove damaged or unneeded proteins.
• It helps to recycle cellular components.
• It helps to protect the cell from stress.
• It helps to promote cell survival.

➢ Autophagy is triggered by a variety of factors, including:

o Nutrient deprivation: When cells are deprived of nutrients, they can
start to break down their own components for energy.
o Stress: Stress can damage cells and trigger autophagy.

❖ Ferroptosis
1. Ferroptosis is a type of cell death that is caused by iron-dependent lipid
peroxidation. It is often triggered by oxidative stress.
2. Ferroptosis involves the oxidation of lipids in the cell membrane. This
oxidation can damage the cell membrane and lead to cell death.
3. Ferroptosis is a relatively new type of cell death, and it is not fully understood.
However, it is thought to play a role in a number of diseases, including cancer,
neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular disease.

❖ Pyroptosis
1. Pyroptosis is a type of cell death that is caused by the activation of
inflammasomes. It is often triggered by infection.
2. Pyroptosis involves the release of inflammatory cytokines and other factors.
These factors can damage the surrounding tissue and lead to
inflammation.111
3. Pyroptosis is a relatively new type of cell death, and it is not fully understood.
However, it is thought to play a role in a number of diseases, including sepsis
and inflammatory bowel disease.