EBN 111 Notes

Chapter 1
1.1 – Introduction
Electric circuit – An interconnection of electrical elements
Element – Individual component of an electric circuit
1.2 Systems of Units
SI Units
Quantity Basic Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Charge (not a basic Si unit) Coulomb C
SI prefixes
Multiplier Prefix Symbol
1018 Exa E
1015 Peta P
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo k
102 Hector h
10 Deka da
10-1 Deci d
10-2 Centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 Micro μ
10-9 Nano n
10-12 Pico p
10-15 Femto f
10-18 Atto a
1.3 Charge and Current
Charge – An electric property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (C)
Charge of an electron (e) = +/-1.602 x 10-19
All charges exist in integer multiples of e
The Law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed,
only transferred. Thus, the algebraic sum of the electric charge in a system does not change.
Electric current – The time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A)
dq
i≜
dt
Current is measured in Ampere (A0 where 1 A = 1C.s -1)
t
Q ≜ ∫ idt
t0

Direct Current (DC) – Flows only in one direction and can be constant or time varying.
Alternating Current (AC) – A current that changes direction with respect to time
1.4 Voltage
Voltage – the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a reference point (-) to
another point (+), measured in volts (V).
dw
V ab ≜
dq
V ab=V ba
1 volt = 1 Joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb

1.5 Power and Energy

Power – The time rate of expending or absorbing energy measured in watts (W)
dw
p≜
dt
Where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).
From this equation, we can derive that:
dw dw dq
p= = . =vi
dt dq dt
The power in this equation is a time-varying quantity and is called the Instantaneous
power. If the sign of this equation is positive, then power is being delivered or
absorbed. If the sign is negative, then it is being supplied by the element.
Passive sign convention – This is satisfied when the current enters through the positive
terminal of an element and p =+vi. If the current enters through the negative terminal,
then p= -vi.
 In all circuits, the following equation apply as well as the law of conservation of energy
+ Power Absorbed=−Power Supplied
∑ p=0
From these equations, we can derive that:
t t
w=∫ p . dt =∫ vi , dt
t0 t0

Energy – The capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

This is used to measure the energy in watt-hours (Wh) where:
1 Wh=3600 J
1.6 Circuit Elements
Passive vs Active element – Passive element cannot generate energy where an active one can.
Ideal Independent source – An active element that provides a special field voltage or current that
is completely independent of other circuit elements.
Ideal Dependant source – An active element in which the source quantity is controlled by
another voltage or current.
VCVS – Voltage-controlled voltage source
CCVS Current-controlled voltage source
VCCS – Voltage-controlled current source
CCCS – Current-controlled current Source
Chapter 2
2.2 – Ohms Law
All materials have a characteristic behaviour of resisting the flow of electric charge. This
physical property is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R and is measured
in ohms (Ω). The resistance of an object is dependant on the objects area, (A), the length of
the material (l) and the materials resistivity (p)
l
R=p
a
Resistivity is a property of a material. Conductors have a lower resistivity and insulators have
a higher resistivity
Resistivity table
Material Resistivity (Ω.m) Usage
Silver 1.64 x 10-8 Conductor
Copper 1.72 x 10-8 Conductor
Gold 2.45 10-8 Conductor
Aluminium 2.8 x 10-8 Conductor
Carbon 4 x 10-5 Semiconductor
Germanium 47 x 10-2 Semiconductor
Silicon 6.4 x 102 Semiconductor
Paper 1010 Insulator
Mica 5 x 1011 Insulator
Glass 1012 Insulator
Teflon 3 x 1012 Insulator

The relationship between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as
Ohms Law.
Ohms Law – The voltage (v) across a resistor is directly proportional to the current (i)
flowing through the resistor
v ∝i
Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance R. This value
of this is dependant on the material property but is also affected by internal and external
conditions of the element such as a change in temperature. Thus, the following equation
was developed:
v=Ri
Resistance (R) – The resistance of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of
electric current.
We can deduce from the above equation that:
v
R= From this equation. We see that 1 Ω = 1 V/A.
i
 The value of R can range from 0 to infinity. These two limits create two different circuits
known as a closed circuit and an open circuit.
Short circuit – a circuit element with resistance approaching zero
V =lim iR=0
R→ 0

In this equation, current can be any value, but voltage would still be zero.
Open circuit - a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity
v
i= lim =0
R→ ∞ R
In this equation, voltage could be any value but current would still tend towards zero.
A useful quantity to analyse is the reciprocal of resistance, known as conductivity. This value
can be used to show how well a material conducts electric current.
Conductivity – The ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in
siemens (S). 1S = 1 A/V
1 i
G= = From this equation, we can derive the following equations:
R v
2 2
v i
i=Gv p=vi=i 2 R= p=vi=v G= From these equations, we can note two things:
2
R G
1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of either current or voltage
2. Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a resistor is always
positive. Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit. This confirms the
idea that a resistor is a passive element, incapable of generating energy

2.3 – Nodes, Branches and Loops

Branch – Represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
Node – The point of connection between two or more branches. (Parallel branches share
nodes.
Loop – Any closed path in a circuit (Parallel paths exist in different loops to each other).
The number of each of these can be determined by the following formula:
b=l+n−1
Elements are in series if: they exclusively share a single node and consequently carry the
same current
Elements are in parallel if: they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently
have the same voltage across them.
2.4 – Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) – The algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or
closed boundary) is zero.
This also means that the sum of currents entering the node is equal to the sum of currents
exiting the node.
n

∑ ( in ) =0 – Where n is the number of branches connected to the node and i n is the nth
n =1
current entering or exiting the node.
To prove this, assume the set of currents i k(t) = 1,2…, flow into a node
i T ( t )=i 1 ( t )+ i2 ( t ) + …Integrate both sides of the equation to get:
q T ( t ) =q1 ( t ) + q2 (t ) +…We know that the law of conservation of electric charge that the
algebraic sum of electric charges at a node must not change. Thus, q T ( t ) =0 i T ( t )=0,
thereby confirming and validating KCL.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) – The algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path
or loop is zero.
m

∑ ( v m )=0 – Where m is the number of voltages in the loop (Number of branches) and V m is
m=1
the mth voltage.

2.5 – Series Resistors and Voltage Division

If we combine Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law with Ohms’ law, we can get a new equation that can
help determine the current or voltage across two resistors in series. This equation is
v
v=v 1 + v 2=i ( R1 + R2 ) ∨i=
R 1+ R 2
v
This can also be written as: i= , where Req ( Equivalent Resistance )=R1 + R2
Req
Equivalent Resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances. This can be written as:
n
Req =∑ Rn
n=1

To determine the voltage across each resistor, we can combine two formulas to get:
R1 R2
v1 = v∨v 2= v This formula is known as the principle of voltage division. This
R 1 + R2 R 1+ R 2
formula can be adapted to be used with any number of resistors:
Rn
v n= v
R eq
2.6 – Parallel Resistors and Current Division
If we combine Ohm’s Law with Kirchhoff’s Current law, we can obtain the following equations:

i=
v v
+ =v
R1 R 2
1 1
+ (
=
v
R1 R 2 R eq )
Where Req is:
1 1 1 1 R1 + R2 R1 R
= + or = or Req = 2

R eq R1 R2 R eq R 1 R2 R 1+ R 2
From this, we can see that: Equivalent Resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product
of their resistance divided by the sum. This however ONLY APPLIES TO TWO RESISTORS IN
PARLLEL. To work out more than two resistors, the following formula is used:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +…+ This formula can also be written in term of conductance (G) as:
R eq R1 R2 R3 Rn
Geq =G 1+ G2+G3 + …+Gn
This formula shows Equivalent Conductance which is the sum of all individual conductance
connected in parallel.
From the above equations and the fact that voltage in parallel remains constant, we can see
work out the value of i by combining formulas to get the following:
R2 i R1 i
i 1= or i 2=
R 1+ R 2 R 1+ R 2
There are two special cases where this formula is not used. These cases are for open and
short circuit.
In a short circuit, one path will have no resistance and thus, that path will have all the
current.
In an open circuit, one path will have close to an infinite amount of resistance and will
therefore have no current.
2.7 – Wye and Delta
Chapter 3
3.2 – Nodal Analysis
In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltage. In a circuit without voltage
sources, the following steps can be followed to determine the nodal voltages.

Steps to determine Nodal Voltage:

1. Select a node as a reference node. This node has an assigned voltage of 0 and acts as
the ground of the circuit (This ground can either be a common ground, a ground or a
chassis ground). After selecting a reference node, label the rest of the nodes as v 1 , v2
,V3 … vn-1. These voltages are referenced to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each node of non-reference nodes. The voltages are referenced with
respect to the reference node.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain unknown node voltages.
Current always flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor. We can
v higher −¿ v
express this as: i= lower
¿
R

3.3 – Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

Case 1
If the voltage source is in between the reference node and a non-reference node;
set the voltage of the non-reference node to the voltage source.

Case 2
If the voltage source is connected between two nonreference nodes, the two nodes
combine to form one super node. We then apply both KCL and KVL to determine the
node voltage.

Super node – Formed by enclosing a voltage source connected between two reference
nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

3.4 – Mesh Analysis

Mesh – A loop that does not contain another loop inside
A circuit must be planar (No wires crossing) for mesh analysis to be used.

Steps to determine Mesh Currents:

1. Assign mesh currents I1 , I2 …. In. Where n is the number of meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s Law to express the voltages in terms of
the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting in simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

3.5 – Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

Case 1
When a current source exists only in one mesh, we can set one of the mesh currents to
that value and use it to solve for the remaining mesh currents
 Case 2
When a current source exists between two meshes, we create a super mesh by
excluding the current source along with any with any components connected in series.
This creates one large mesh which we then use to get one equation. A second equation
is obtained by applying KCL for the super mesh (All currents entering super mesh = all
currents leaving super mesh.

3.6 – Nodal and Mesh Analyses by inspection

3.9 – DC Transistor Circuits

Chapter 4
4.2 – Linearity property

4.3 – Superposition

4.4 – Source Transformation

4.5 – Thevenin’s Theorem

4.6 – Norton’s Theorem

Chapter 5
5.2 – Operational Amplifiers

5.3 – Ideal Op Amp

5.4 – Inverting Amplifiers
5.5 – Noninverting Amplifiers
5.6 – Summing Amplifiers
5.7 – Difference Amplifiers

5.8 – Cascaded Op Amps

Chapter 6
6.2 – Capacitors
Capacitor – A device that consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator
Capacitance, C, [Farads] – The ratio of charge on one plate of a capacitor to the
voltage difference between the two plates, measured in farads (F)
cA
C= – where c – is the permittivity if the insulator, A – is the surface
d
area of the capacitor and d – is the distance between the plates.
When voltage is not varying with time, the current through the capacitor is zero, and
therefore forms an open circuit.
The voltage
across a
 capacitor cannot change abruptly as if it does, it would require an infinite amount of
current.

6.3 – Series and Parallel Capacitors

Equivalent capacitance in parallel– The equivalent capacitance of capacitors in parallel is the
sum of the individual capacitors
Equivalent capacitance in Series– The equivalent capacitance of capacitors in series is the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitors.
Voltage Parallel – The voltage across parallel capacitors is equal
Voltage Series – The voltage across series capacitors follows the current division rule.
6.4 – Indictors

6.5 – Series and Parallel Indictors

Chapter 9
Unit 9.1 - 9.3
Sinusoid
Voltage
v ( t )=V m . t . sin ( wt )

 V m is the amplitude
 w is the frequency in radians
 wt is the argument of the sinusoid
Period
2π
T=
w
Periodic Function
v ( t+ T ) =t . sin ( wt +2 π )

Frequency
1
f=
T
Frequency in radians
w=2 πf

Other phases of Sinusoid

v ( t )=V m t . sin ( wt +θ )

 If θ >0, the sinusoid leads a standard sinusoid.

 If θ< 0 the sinusoid lags a standard sinusoid
Acos ( wt ) + Bsin ( wt )=C cos ( wt−θ )

 Where C=√ A 2 +B 2
−1 B
 θ=tan ( A )
Phaser
z=x + jy
r =√ x + y
2 2

x=rcos ( ϕ )
y=rsin ( ϕ )
y
ϕ =tan −1( )
x
z=r ∠ ϕ

z=r e 8
jϕ

z=rcos ( ϕ ) + jrsin ( ϕ )

Subtraction/addition z 1 ± z 2=( x 1 ± x 2 )+ j( y 1 ± y 2 )

Multiplication z 1 z 2=r 1 r 2 ∠(ϕ ¿ ¿ 1+ϕ 2 )¿

z1 r 1
Division = ∠ ¿)
z2 r 2
1 1
Reciprocal = ∠(−ϕ )
z r
ϕ
Square root √ z=√ r ∠( )
2

Complex Conjugate z=x + jy=r ∠ ϕ

¿
z =x− jy=r ∠(−ϕ)

Voltage v ( t )=V m cos ( wt +ϕ )=ℜ ( V m ∠ ϕ ) =r ∠ϕ

Standard form (V m >0 ;−180< ϕ<¿ 180)

V m cos (ϕ)
V m sin ( ϕ )=V m cos ( ϕ−90 )

−V m sin ( ϕ )=V m cos ( ϕ+ 90 )

−V m cos ( ϕ ) =V m cos ( ϕ−180 )
dv
Derivatives for v(t) dt
↔ jw W

V
Integral for v(t) ∫ v .dt ↔ jw
Difference between v(t) and V
  v(t) is the instantaneous or time domain representation, while V is the
frequency or phasor domain representation
 v(t) is time dependant while V is not
 v(t) is always real with no complex term, while V is often complex
Unit 9.4