ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES IN Subtopic 1

MODULE 5
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION Resistance, Voltage and Current meter and the
Wheatstone bridge

INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES A Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) meter – also known as a
D’Arsonval meter or galvanometer – is an instrument that allows you PMMC instruments (i.e. D’Arsonval meters) are only used for
to measure the current through a coil by observing the coil’s angular measuring the Direct Current (DC) current. If we were to use
At the end of this discussion the students will be able to: deflection in a uniform magnetic field. Alternating Current (AC) current, the direction of current will be
¾ Explain the principle of D’Arsonval type instrument and its A PMMC meter places a coil of wire (i.e. a conductor) in between two reversed during the negative half cycle, and hence the direction
application permanent magnets in order to create stationary magnetic field. of torque will also be reversed. This results in an average value of
¾ Explain the purpose of wheatstone bridge circuit According to Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction, a current zero torque – hence no net movement against the scale.
¾ Solve related problems in D’Arsonval type instrument such as carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field will experience a force in
ammeter,voltmeter and wheatstone bridge the direction determined by Fleming’s left-hand rule.

A PMMC meter (or D’Arsonval meters) is constructed of 5 main components: In the present time we use magnets of high field intensities, The moving coil can freely move between the two permanent
high coercive force instead of using U shaped permanent magnets as shown in the figure given below. The coil is
Stationary Part or Magnet System
magnet having soft iron pole pieces. The magnets which we wound with many turns of copper wire and is placed on
Moving Coil are using nowadays are made up of materials like alcomax rectangular aluminium which is pivoted on jeweled bearings.
and alnico which provide high field strength.
Control System

Damping System

Meter
 The spring generally acts as control system for PMMC The damping force hence torque is provided by movement of Meter of these instruments consists of light weight pointer to
instruments. The spring also serves another important aluminium former in the magnetic field created by the have free movement and scale which is linear or uniform and
function by providing the path to lead current in and out of the permanent magnets. varies with angle.
coil.

A galvanometer is a device used to detect the flow

of current in an electrical circuit. Eventhough the
An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring instrument deflection is directly proportional to the current, the
used to measure the current in a circuit. Electric currents are galvanometer scale is not marked in ampere. Being
a very sensitive instrument, a large current cannot
measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used be passed through the galvanometer, as it may
to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or damage the coil. However, a galvanometer is
converted into an ammeter by connecting a low
microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or resistance in parallel with it. As a result, when large
microammeters. current flows in a circuit, only a small fraction of the
current passes through the galvanometer and the
remaining larger portion of the current passes
through the low resistance. The low resistance
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connected in parallel with the galvanometer is called
shunt resistance. The scale is marked in ampere.

The main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very low resistance and In orders to convert this ammeter into a galvanometer, we attach a large resistance in
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring
also inductive reactance so that the voltage drop is very low. series with the coil of the galvanometer. This resistor acts to minimize the coil interference
electrical potential difference between two points in
an electric circuit. Voltmeter works on the principle of with the circuit. Since according to ohms law the voltage is directly proportional to the
‫ ܫ‬ൌ ‫ܫ‬௦ ൅ ‫ܫ‬௙௦ ‘” ‫ ܫ‬ൌ ‫ܫ‬௦ š—Ž–‹’Ž‹‡”
Ohm’s law, which states that the voltage across a resistance, so the voltage consumed by the galvanometer is minimized and a very
‫ܫ‬௙௦ ܴ௣ accurate voltage drop across the circuit is measured.
ܴ௦ ൌ resistance is directly proportional to the current
‫ܫ‬௦ passing through it. In order to implement it in real
‫ ݎ݈݁݅݌݅ݐ݈ݑܯ‬ൌ
ܴ௚ ൅ ܴ௦ time, we form the construction of a galvanometer, ܸ௙௦ ൌ ‫ܫ‬௙௦ ܴ௖ ൅ ܴ௦௘
ܴ௦ such that a coil is suspended in a magnetic field.
We know that the current passing through the circuit ‫ݎ݋‬
In the figure also passes through the coil and the needle that is ܸ௙௦ ൌ ܸ௖ ‫ݎ݈݁݅݌݅ݐ݈ݑ݉ ݔ‬
I = total current flowing in the circuit in Amp. attached to the coil which deflects on the reading
Ifs = is the full scale deflection. scale moves, and the movement of the needle is
Is = is the current through the shunt resistor in Amp. directly proportional to the current passing through it.
Rc is the ammeter resistance in Ohm. ܸ௖ ൌ ‫ܫ‬௙௦ ܴ௖

ܴ௖ ൅ ܴ௦௘
‫ ݎ݈݁݅݌݅ݐ݈ݑܯ‬ൌ
ܴ௖
 Ohm meter is part of VOM or multimeter and it does not exist as a
The OHMMETER is an instrument which measures When current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, a
separate measuring instrument.
resistance of a quantity. Resistance in the electrical sense mechanical force acts on the conductor, if it is attached to a
means the opposition offered by a substance to the current moving system, with the coil movement, the pointer moves
flow in the device. Every device has a resistance, it may be over the scale.
large or small and it increases with temperature for
conductors , however for semiconducting devices the reverse
is true. Where,
B = Flux density in Wb/m². b = Breadth of the coil in m.
i = Current flowing through the coil in Amp. N = No of turns in the coil.
l = Length of the coil in m.

A milliammeter of 3 ohms resistance reads a maximum Solutions.

Therefore by connecting a resistance of 97Ω in series with the meter, the same milliammeter can be
used as a voltmeter to read up to 15 volts.
current of 150 milliampere. How can it be used as i. To use the milliammeter as a voltmeter to read up to 15 volts a resistance “R” is placed ii. To use the milliammeter as an ammeter to read up to 30A, a shunt resistance ܴ௦௛ is connected in
in series with the meter, as shown in the figure. Now, given that the meter resistance. parallel with the meter as shown in the figure.
1. A voltmeter to read up to 15 volts ܴ௠ ൌ ͵π ,and the meter current ‫ܫ‬௠ ൌ ͳͷͲ݉‫ܣ‬ Now, given that
2. An ammeter to read up to 30 amperes ™ The voltage drop across meter. Total current ‫ ܫ‬ൌ ͵Ͳ‫ܣ‬
Meter current ‫ܫ‬௠ ൌ ͳͷͲ ‫ିͲͳݔ‬ଷ ‫ܣ‬
ܸ௠ ൌ ‫ܫ‬௠ ܴ௠
™ The current in the shunt resistance is given by
ܸ௠ ൌ ͳͷͲ ‫ିͲͳݔ‬ଷ ‫ ͵ݔ‬ൌ ͲǤͶͷ ܸ ‫ܫ‬௦௛ ൌ ‫ ܫ‬െ ‫ܫ‬௠
Now the voltage across R, ൌ ͵Ͳ െ ͳͷͲ ‫ିͲͳݔ‬ଷ
ܸ௠ ൌ ͳͷ െ ͲǤͶͷ ൌ ʹͻǤͺͷ‫ܣ‬
ܸ௠ ൌ ͳͶǤͷͷܸ Therefore, the voltage across the meter, ܸ௠ ൌ ‫ܫ‬௠ ܴ௠
Because R is in series with the meter, ™ ܸ௠ ൌ ͳͷͲ ‫ିͲͳݔ‬ଷ ‫͵ݔ‬
the same current ‫ܫ‬௠ will flow in it. By Singh Voltage across the shunt resistance is given by
ܸ௦௛ ൌ ‫ܫ‬௦௛ ܴ௦௛
௏ೃ ଵସǤହହ ൌ ʹͻǤͺͷ ‫ܴ ݔ‬௦௛
™ Resistance  ൌ ൌ ൌ ͻ͹π
ூ೘ ଵହ଴௫ଵ଴షయ

Solution
But, since it is in parallel, It is given that
ܸ௦௛ ൌ ܸ௠
In a voltmeter the moving coil consists of 100 turns Number of turns of coil N = 100
wound on a square former has a length of 3 cm and a Length of the square ݈ = 3cm
Or, ʹͻǤͺͷ ‫ܴ ݔ‬௦௛ ൌ ͳͷͲ ‫ିͲͳݔ‬ଷ ‫͵ݔ‬
flux density in the air 0.06 ࢃ࢈Ȁ࢓૛ . Calculate the former
Air-Gap flux density B = 0.06 ܹܾȀ݉ଶ
Or, ܴ௦௛ ൌ
ଵହ଴ ௫ଵ଴షయ ௫ଷ deflecting torque when the coil is carrying a current of Current I = 12 mA = 12 x ͳͲଷ A
ଶଽǤ଼ହ
12 milliampere. Area of the square former A = ݈ ଶ = 9 c݉ଶ = 9 x ͳͲିସ ݉ଶ
Or, ܴ௦௛ ൌ ͲǤͲͳͷ π Now, the deflecting torque of a moving-coil instrument
Therefore, by connecting a shunt resistance of 0.015π in parallel with the meter, the same
milliammeter can be used as an ammeter to read up to 30A. Is given by ܶௗ = NBIA N-m
Therefore :
ܶௗ = 100 x 0.06 x 12 x ͳͲିଷ x 9 x ͳͲିସ
Or
ܶௗ = Ͳିଷ N-m
6.48 x ͳͲ
 FRONT PANEL SYMBOLS
A digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
values—principally voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It V DC
is a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the electrical/electronic V AC
industries. Digital multimeters long ago replaced needle-based analog mV
mV Millivolts (0.001V or 1/1,000V)
meters due to their ability to measure with greater accuracy, reliability and A Amps
increased impedance. Fluke introduced its first digital multimeter in 1977. https://www.fluke.com/fluke
mA Milliamps (0.001A or 1/1000A)
Digital multimeters combine the testing capabilities of single-task meters— ᶣA microamp (0.000001A 0r 1/1,000,000A)
the voltmeter (for measuring volts), ammeter (amps) and ohmmeter (ohms). Capacitance
Caap
pacitance
https://www.fluke.com/fluke (ᶣF : Micro farads )
Often, they include several additional specialized features or advanced
(ᶯF : Nano farads )
options. Technicians with specific needs, therefore, can seek out a model
Ω Resistance (Ohms)
targeted to meet their needs.
kΩ, MΩ Kilo
o-
o-Ohms. Mega
ga-
a-Ohms

SYMBOL DESCRIPTION Unknown resistance values and as a means of calibrating measuring When balanced, the Wheatstone bridge can be analyzed simply as two series strings
in parallel
Continuity Beeper instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a long resistive
Diode test slide wire. Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way
Hz Hertz (cycles/sec) to measure a resistance. The Wheatstone Bridge can still be used to
REL
L Relative or offset reading measure very low values of resistances down in the milli-Ohms range.
Range Manual override of autorange
The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used in
Hold
d H Touch Hold-last stable reading
number of applications and today, with modern operational amplifiers
MIN MAX Highest, lowest recorded readings
we can use the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit to interface various
Dangerous voltage levels
Caution: See manual
transducers and sensors to these amplifier circuits.

The Wheatstone Bridge equation required to give the value of The following unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge is constructed.
By replacing R4 with a resistance of known or Calculate the output voltage across points C and D and the
unknown value in the sensing arm of the Wheatstone the unknown resistance, RX at balance is given as:
bridge corresponding to RX and adjusting the opposing value of resistor R4 required to balance the bridge circuit.
resistor, R3 to “balance” the bridge network, will result
in a zero-voltage output. Then we can see that balance
occurs when:
 • Electrical4U, "Ammeter Working Principle and Types of Ammeter," Electrical4U, 8 June 2019.
[Online]. Available: https://www.electrical4u.com/ammeter/. [Accessed 23 May 2020].

• Electrical4U, "Ohmmeter Working Principle of Ohmmeter," Electrical4U, 15 June 2018. [Online].

Available: https://www.electrical4u.com/ohmmeter/. [Accessed 23 May 2020]. Subtopic 2
• Electrical4U, "Working Principle of Voltmeter and Types of Voltmeter," Electrical4U, 15 June
2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.electrical4u.com/working-principle-of-voltmeter-and- Electric Energy Meter and Instrument Transformers
types-of-voltmeter/. [Accessed 23 May 2020].

• D. N. R. Kidwai, "PMMC instruments, Galvanometer, DC Voltmeter, DC Ammeter," Slide Share, 3

February 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.slideshare.net/NaimKidwai/pmmc-instruments-
galvanometer-dc-voltmeter-dc-ammeter. [Accessed 23 May 2020].

INTENDED LEARNING
The meter which is used
OUTCOMES for measuring the energy utilises
The energy meter has four main
parts. These are:
by the electric load is known as 1.Driving System
the energy meter. The energy is
At the end of this discussion the students will be able to:
the total power consumed and 2.Moving System
¾ Explain the principle of Energy meter and Instrument Transformer utilised by the load at a particular
¾ Solve related problems Energy meter and Instrument Transformer 3.Braking System
interval of time. It is used
in domestic and industrial AC 4.Registering System
circuit for measuring the power
consumption.
Source: https://circuitglobe.com/energy-meter.html

1. Driving System – The electromagnet is the main component of the 3. Braking system – The permanent magnet is used for
driving system. It is the temporary magnet which is excited by the current The energy meter has the aluminum disc
reducing the rotation of the aluminium disc. The aluminium
flow through their coil. The core of the electromagnet is made up of whose rotation determines the power
disc induces the eddy current because of their rotation. The consumption of the load. The disc is
silicon steel lamination. The driving system has two electromagnets. The
upper one is called the shunt electromagnet, and the lower one is called eddy current cut the magnetic flux of the permanent magnet placed between the air gap of the series
and hence produces the braking torque. and shunt electromagnet. The shunt
series electromagnet.
magnet has the pressure coil, and the
series magnet has the current coil.
2. Moving System – The moving system is the aluminium disc mounted on 4. Registration (Counting Mechanism) – The main function of The pressure coil creates the magnetic
the shaft of the alloy. The disc is placed in the air gap of the two the registration or counting mechanism is to record the number field because of the supply voltage, and
electromagnets. The eddy current is induced in the disc because of the the current coil produces it because of
of rotations of the aluminium disc. Their rotation is directly
change of the magnetic field. This eddy current is cut by the magnetic the current.
flux. The interaction of the flux and the disc induces the deflecting torque. proportional to the energy consumed by the loads in the
kilowatt hour. Source: https://circuitglobe.com/energy-meter.html
 The electrodynamometer Wattmeter has two types of coils; fixed and The instantaneous torque acts on the pointer of the If the current coil lag by a voltage in phase angle Φ, the current through the current coil is given as
the moving coil. The fixed coil connects in series with the circuit whose wattmeter and is given by the equation ip = √2Isin(ωt-‫)׎‬
power consumption use to be measured. The supply voltage applies to The value of the current in the pressure coil is very small. Hence the current flows through the
the moving coil. The resistor controls the current across the moving pressure coil is considered as the
th total load current. The torque acts on the coils becomes
Where, ip = pressure coil current
nnec
nected
ted in ser
coil, and its is connected series
ies wit
with
h it
it.. ic = current coil current
dm/dθ = the rate of change of deflection of pointer
concerning angle θ The average deflection torque is obtained by integrating the torque from 0 to T limit. The average
The voltage across the pressure coil of the circuit is deflection torque of the coil iis given as
given as

If the pressure coil is purely resistive, then their current

is in phase with the voltage. And the value of current is The controlling torque exerted on the spring is given
given by the equation. by

https://circuitglobe.com/electrodynamometer

Digital Single Rate Meters Electricity mechanical digits meter Electricity mechanical dial meter
1. Start by ignoring the red dials – you don’t need
For a single rate meter simply write down the five numbers as Just write down the numbers as you those. Then read the black dials from left to
you read them from left to right, including any zeros at the read them from left to right. Include any right, and include any zeros. When the point is
in between two figures, just give us the lowest
start. Here, this one says: 21138. zeros at the start, but ignore the red one. So if it’s between 0 and 1, write down 0.
numbers and any that come after the But if it’s between 0 and 9, write down 9.

decimal point. Here, the reading 2. Use a pen and paper to write the numbers and
is: 63287. underline any where the pointer is right at the
top. If any of these underlined numbers are
followed by a 9, simply subtract one from that
number to get your reading. Here, the reading Source: https://www.npower.com/help-and-support/meter-
readings/how-to-read-an-electricity-meter/
Source: https://www.npower.com/help-and-support/meter-readings/how-to-read-an-electricity-meter/ is: 00920.

Source: https://www.npower.com/help-and-support/meter-readings/how-to-read-an-electricity-meter/

• In power system, the currents and voltages are very large –

Therefore, their direct measurements are not possible. • The power consumed by multipliers become large as the
voltage increases A current transformer (CT) is an
• It might appear that the extension of range could be instrument transformer, used along
conveniently done by the use of shunts for currents and • The measuring circuit is not isolated electrically from the with measuring or protective devices,
power circuit in which the secondary current is
multiplier for voltage measurement, as in DC. – But this method
proportional to the primary current
is suitable only for small values of current and voltage. (under normal conditions of
• The solution is to step The solution is to step -down these
operation) and differs from it by an
• Difficult to achieve accuracy with a shunt on AC currents/voltages with the down these currents/voltages with angle that is approximately zero.
the help of Instrument Transformer – So that, they could be
• Capability of having shunt of large range is not possible metered with instruments of moderate size
https://owlcation.com/stem/What-is-a-Current- https://circuitglobe.com/current-
transformer-How-does-it-work transformer-ct.html
 The primary and the secondary windings are The basic principle of the current transformer is the same as that of
Current transformers perform the following functions:
insulated from the cores and each other. The
primary winding is a single turn winding (also
the power transformer. Like the power transformer, the current
1. Current transformers supply the protective relays with currents of magnitude transformer also contains a primary and a secondary winding.
called a bar primary) and carries the full load
proportional to those of power circuit but sufficiently reduced in magnitude. Whenever an alternating current flows through the primary winding,
current. The secondary winding of the
transformers has a large number of turns. The alternating magnetic flux is produced, which then induces alternating
2. The measuring devices cannot be directly connected to the high magnitude
working principle of the current transformer is current in the secondary winding. In the case of current transformers,
supplies. Hence current transformers are used to supply those devices with currents
slightly different from the power transformer. In
of magnitude proportional to those of power.
a current transformer, the load’s impedance or the load impedance or “burden” is very small. Therefore the current
burden on the secondary has slightly differed transformer operates under short circuit conditions. Also the current in
3. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from high voltage
the secondary winding does not depend on load impedance but
https://circuitglobe.com/current-transformer-ct.html
from the power transformers. Thus, the current
circuits.
transformer operates on secondary circuit instead depends on the current flowing in the primary winding.
conditions. Ns/Np = Ip/Is = a

The ratio of primary current to the secondary current is known as the The secondary of a current transformer should not be Based on the function performed by the current transformer, it
current transformation ratio of the CT. Usually the current can be classified is follows:
disconnected from its rated burden while current is
transformation ratio of the CT is high. Normally the secondary ratings • Measuring current transformers. These current transformers
are of the order 5 A, 1 A, 0.1 A, whereas the primary ratings vary flowing in the primary. As the primary current is
are used along with the measuring devices for the
from 10 A to 3000 A or more. independent of the secondary current, the entire primary
measurement of current, energy, and power.
current acts as a magnetizing current when secondary is
The CT handles much less power. Rated burden can be defined as the opened. This results in deep saturation of the core,
product of current and voltage at the secondary side of the CT. It is • Protective current transformers. These current transformers
measured in volt ampere (VA). which cannot return to normal state and so the CT is no are used along with the protection equipment such as trip
longer usable. coils, relays, etc.
Burden = VA = VCTs x ICTs

Based on the function construction, it can also be classified

as follows:
The value of the rated secondary current is 5A. A secondary current The potential transformer may be
• Bar Type. This type consists of a bar of suitable size rating of 2A and 1A may also be used in some cases if the number of defined as an instrument transformer
and material forming an integral part of the secondary turns is low and the ratio cannot be adjusted within the used for the transformation of voltage
transformer. required limits by the addition or removal of one turn, if the length of from a higher value to the lower value.
• Wound Type. This type has a primary winding of ore secondary connecting lead is such that the burden due to them at This transformer step down the voltage
than one full turn wound over the core.
• Window Type. This type has no primary winding. The
higher secondary current would be excessive. to a safe limit value which can be easily
secondary wind of the CT is placed around the current The disadvantage of making transformers with lower secondary measured by the ordinary low voltage
flowing conductor. The magnetic electric field created current ratings is that they produce much higher voltage if they are instrument like a voltmeter, wattmeter
by current flowing through the conductor induces ever accidentally left open circuited. For this reason, it is better to and watt-hour meters, etc.
current in the secondary winding, which is used for adopt 5 A rating at the secondary.
measurement.
https://www.electronicshub.org https://circuitglobe.com/potential-
/potential-transformers/ transformer-ct.html
http://technitab.in/protection/current-transformer/
The potential transformer is connected in parallel with the
The potential transformer is mainly classified into two types, 1.It is used for a metering purpose.
circuit. The primary windings of the potential transformer
are directly connected to the power circuit whose voltage i.e., the conventional wound types (electromagnetic types)
is to be measured. The secondary terminals of the and the capacitor voltage potential transformers. 2.For the protection of the feeders.
potential transformer are connected to the measuring
instrument like the voltmeter, wattmeter, etc.The 1. Conventional wound type transformer is very expensive 3.For protecting the impedance of the generators.
secondary windings of the potential transformer are
because of the requirement of the insulations.
magnetically coupled through the magnetic circuit of the
4.For synchronizing the generators and feeders.
primary windings. The primary terminal of the
transformer is rated for 400V to several thousand volts, 2. Capacitor potential transformer is a combination of The potential transformers are used in the protecting relaying scheme because the potential coils of the
and the secondary terminal is always rated for 400V. The capacitor potential divider and a magnetic potential protective device are not directly connected to the system in case of the high voltage. Therefore, it is
ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage is transformer of relatively small ratio. necessary to step down the voltage and also to insulate the protective equipment from the primary
termed as transformation ratio or turn ratio. circuit.

A 100 : 5 transformer is used in conjunction with a 5-amp ammeter. If • https://www.npower.com/help-and-support/meter-readings/how-to-read-an-electricity-

the latter reads 3.5 A, find the line current. meter/

• anonymous, "How to read an electricity meter," npower, [Online]. Available:

https://www.npower.com/apps/login/. [Accessed 23 May 2020].

• Electrical4U, "Instrument Transformers: What is it? (and their Advantages),"

Electrical4U, 17 November 2019. [Online]. Available:
https://www.electrical4u.com/instrument-transformers/. [Accessed 24 May 2020].

• B. L.Theraja, A.K. Theraja, Textbook of Electrical Technology Volume II–, S. Chand &
Co.