ZYDEX-

Self Learning Module

Pavement Basics
Soil Basics
Bitumen Basics
Aggregates Basics
Pavement Failures

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CHAPTER 1

ROADS-BASICS

Road transport is one of the most common mode of transport. Roads in the form of track ways,
human pathways etc. were used even from the pre-historic times. Since then many experiments were
going on to make the riding safe and comfort. Thus road construction became an inseparable part of
many civilizations and empires. In this chapter we will see the different generations of road and their
characteristic features. Also we will discuss about the highway planning in India.

MODERN ROADS

The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction method. Use of bituminous concrete
and cement concrete are the most important developments. Various advanced and cost-effective
construction technologies are used. Development of new equipment’s help in the faster construction
of roads. Many easily and locally available materials are tested in the laboratories and then
implemented on roads for making economical and durable pavements.

FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPORTATION

Human factors affecting transportation

 Variability: The human characteristics like ability to react to a situation, vision and
hearing, and other physical and psychological factors vary from person to person and
depends on age, fatigue, nature of stimuli, presence of drugs/alcohol etc.
 Critical characteristics: The road user characteristics can be of two main types, some
of them are quantifiable like reaction time, visual acuity etc. while qualitative factors
like the psychological factors, physical strength, fatigue, and dexterity.
 Reaction time: The road user is subjected to a series of stimuli both expected and
unexpected. The time taken to perform an action according to the stimulus involves a
series of stages like:
o Perception: Perception is the process of perceiving the sensations received
through the sense organs, nerves and brains. It is actually the recognitions
that a stimulus on which a reaction is to happen exists.
o Intellection: Intellection involves the identification and understanding of
stimuli.
o Emotion: This stage involves the judgment of the appropriate response to be
made on the stimuli like to stop, pass, move laterally etc.
o Volition: Volition is the execution of the decision which is the result of a
physical actions of the driver.
 Visual acuity and driving: The perception-reaction time depends greatly on the
effectiveness of driver’s vision in perceiving the objects and traffic control measures.
The PIEV time will be decreased if the vision is clear and accurate. Visual acuity
relates to the field of clearest vision. The most acute vision is within a cone of 3 to 5
degrees, fairly clear vision within 10 to 12 degrees and the peripheral vision will be
within 120 to 180 degrees
 Walking The most prevalent of the road users are the pedestrians. Pedestrian traffic
along footpaths, sidewalks, crosswalks, safety zones, islands, and over and under
passes should be considered. On an average, the pedestrian walking speed can be
taken between 1.5 m/sec to 2 m/sec. But the influence of physical, mental, and
emotional factors need to be considered.

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Vehicle factors:
 Design vehicles: Highway systems accommodate a wide variety of sizes and types of
vehicles, from smallest compact passenger cars to the largest double and triple
tractor-trailer combinations in general, the vehicles can be grouped into motorized
two wheeler's, motorized three wheeler's, passenger car, bus, single axle trucks, multi
axle trucks, truck trailer combinations, and slow non-motorized vehicles.
 The vehicular dimensions which can affect the road and traffic design are mainly:
width, height, length, rear overhang, and ground clearance. The width of vehicle
affects the width of lanes, shoulders and parking facility. The capacity of the road will
also decrease if the width exceeds the design values. The height of the vehicle affects
the clearance height of structures like over-bridges, under-bridges and electric and
other service lines and also placing of signs and signals.
 Weight, axle configuration: the weight of the vehicle is a major consideration during
the design of pavements both flexible and rigid. The weight of the vehicle is
transferred to the pavement through the axles and so the design parameters are fixed
on the basis of the number of axles. The power to weight ratio is a measure of the
ease with which a vehicle can move. It determines the operating efficiency of vehicles
on the road. The ratio is more important for heavy vehicles.
 The minimum turning radius is dependent on the design and class of the vehicle. The
effective width of the vehicle is increased on a turning. This is also important at an
intersection, roundabout, terminals, and parking areas.
 The visibility of the driver is influenced by the vehicular dimensions. As far as forward
visibility is concerned, the dimension of the vehicle and the slope and curvature of
wind screens, windscreen wipers, door pillars, Equally important is the side and rear
visibility when manoeuvring especially at intersections when the driver adjusts his
speed in order to merge or cross a traffic stream. Rear vision efficiency can be
achieved by properly positioning the internal or external mirrors.

Acceleration Characteristics
The acceleration capacity of vehicle is dependent on its mass, the resistance to motion and available
power. In general, the acceleration rates are highest at low speeds, decreases as speed increases.
Heavier vehicles have lower rates of acceleration than passenger cars.

 Braking performance: As far as highway safety is concerned, the braking performance and
deceleration characteristics of vehicles are of prime importance. The factors on which the
braking distance depend are the type of the road and its condition, the type and condition of
tire and type of the braking system where d is the braking distance, v and u are the initial
and final speed of the vehicle, f is the coefficient of forward rolling and skidding friction and g
is the grade in decimals.
o Safe stopping sight distance: The minimum stopping sight distance includes both the
reaction time and the distance covered in stopping. Thus, the driver should see the
obstruction in time to react to the situation and stop the vehicle.
o Clearance and change interval: The Clearance and change intervals are again related
to safe stopping distance. All vehicles at a distance further away than one stopping
sight distance from the signal when the Yellow is flashed is assumed to be able to stop
safely.
o Sign placement: The placement of signs again depends upon the stopping sight
distance and reaction time of drivers

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ROAD FACTORS
 Road Surface: The type of pavement is determined by the volume and composition of traffic, the
availability of materials, and available funds. Some of the factors relating to road surface like
road roughness, tire wear, tractive resistance, noise, light reflection, electrostatic properties
etc. should be given special attention in the design, construction and maintenance of
highways for their safe and economical operation

 Lighting: The type of pavement is determined by the volume and composition of traffic, the
availability of materials, and available funds. Some of the factors relating to road surface like
road roughness, tire wear, tractive resistance, noise, light reflection, electrostatic properties
etc. should be given special attention in the design, construction and maintenance of
highways for their safe and economical operation

 Geometric aspects: The roadway elements such as pavement slope, gradient, right of way
transportation in various ways. Central portion of the pavement is slightly raised and is
sloped to either sides so as to prevent the ponding of water on the road surface. This will
deteriorate the riding quality since the pavement will be subjected to many failures like
potholes etc. Minimum lane width should be provided to reduce the chances of accidents.
Also the speed of the vehicles will be reduced and time consumed to reach the destination will
also be more. Right of way width should be properly provided. If the right of way width
becomes less, future expansion will become di cult and the development of that area will be
adversely affected. One important other road element is the gradient. It reduces the tractive e
ort of large vehicles

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CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS:

INTRODUCTION:

The features of the cross-section of the pavement influences the life of the pavement as well as the
riding comfort and safety. Of these, pavement surface characteristics affect both of these. Camber,
kerbs, and geometry of various cross-sectional elements are important aspects to be considered in
this regard

PAVEMENT SURFACE CHA RACTERISTICS

Friction:
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of horizontal
curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also affect the acceleration and deceleration
ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles. Skidding
happens when the path travelled along the road surface is more than the circumferential movement
of the wheels due to friction. Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding
longitudinal movement along the road. Various factors that affect friction are:

 Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),

 Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc.)

 Condition of the tyre (new or old), and

 Speed and load of the vehicle.

The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting multiplied
by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f. The choice of the value of f is a very
complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coefficient of longitudinal
friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed and coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15.

DRAINAGE

The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the
pavement layers. Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in
draining out the water from the surface in less time

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CHAPTER 2- INTRODUCTION TO PAVE MENT

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above

the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the
sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality,
adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The
ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so
that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade. Two types of pavements are generally
recognized as serving this purpose, namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements

Requirements of a pavement

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the
sub grade soil, structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed
upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles, Dust proof surface so that traffic
safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected,
 Long design life with low maintenance cost

Types of pavements
The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, flexible pavements
and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of
the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less flexurall strength,
acts like a flexible sheet.

On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural
strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads). In
addition to these, composite pavements are also available. A thin layer of flexible pavement over rigid
pavement is an ideal pavement with most desirable characteristics. However, such pavements are
rarely used in new construction because of high cost and complex analysis required

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Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer
through the points of contact in the granular structure (see figure). The wheel load acting on the
pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress decreases with the depth. Taking
advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally has many layers.
Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system. Based on this, flexible
pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer has to be of best quality to
sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to wear and tear. The lower layers will experience
lesser magnitude of stress and low quality material can be used. Flexible pavements are constructed
using bituminous materials. These can be either in the form of surface treatments (such as
bituminous surface treatments generally found on low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface
courses (generally used on high volume roads such as national highways)

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TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.

Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with
water. It provides proper bonding between two layers of binder course and must be thin, uniformly
cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack
coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.

Surface course

Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior
quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC). The
functions and requirements of this layer are:
 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will
prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base,
sub-base and sub-grade,
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.

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Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to
distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less
asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface
course by the binder course results in more economical design.

Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder
course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage it
may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.

Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the
primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the sub-
base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course A sub-base
course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff
sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations,
sub-base course may not be provided.

Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from
the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted
to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

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Chapter 3- Pavement
Factors affecting pavement design

Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact
pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.
 Contact pressure: The tyre pressure is an important factor, as it determine the contact area
and the contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the
shape of the contact area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often
considered.
 Wheel load: The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the
pavement required to ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affect
the stress distribution and deflection within a pavement. Many commercial vehicles have dual
rear wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice
is to convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made
simpler.
 Axle configuration: The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced
by the introduction of multiple axles.
 Moving loads: The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at creep
speed. Many studies show that when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the
stresses and deflection reduced by 40 per cent.
 Repetition of Loads: The influence of traffic on pavement not only depend on the magnitude of
the wheel load, but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application
causes some deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these. Although
the pavement deformation due to single axle load is very small, the cumulative effect of
number of load repetition is significant. Therefore, modern design is based on total number of
standard axle load (usually 80 kN single axle).

Structural Models
The structural models are various analysis approaches to determine the pavement responses
(stresses, strains, and deflections) at various locations in a pavement due to the application of wheel
load. The most common structural models are layered elastic model and visco-elastic models.

Layered elastic model: A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains, and deflections at any
point in a pavement structure resulting from the application of a surface load. Layered elastic models
assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic. In other
words, the material properties are same at every point in a given layer and the layer will rebound to
its original form once the load is removed. The layered elastic approach works with relatively simple
mathematical models that relates stress, strain, and deformation with wheel loading and material
properties like modulus of elasticity and poissons ratio.

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Material characterization

The following material properties are important for both flexible and rigid pavements.

 When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the elastic moduli and poisson ratio of
subgrade and each component layer must be specified.
 If the elastic modulus of a material varies with the time of loading, then the resilient
modulus, which is elastic modulus under repeated loads, must be selected in
accordance with a load duration corresponding to the vehicle speed.
 When a material is considered non-linear elastic, the constitutive equation relating the
resilient modulus to the state of the stress must be provided.

However, many of these material properties are used in visco-elastic models which are very complex
and in the development stage. This book covers the layered elastic model which require the modulus
of elasticity and poisson ratio only.
Environmental factors

Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause various damages.
Environ-mental factors that affect pavement are of two types, temperature and precipitation and they
are discussed below:

Temperature
The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different from that of concrete pavements.
Temperature affects the resilient modulus of asphalt layers, while it induces curling of concrete slab.
In rigid pavements, due to difference in temperatures of top and bottom of slab, temperature stresses
or frictional stresses are developed. While in flexible pavement, dynamic modulus of asphaltic
concrete varies with temperature. Frost heave causes differential settlements and pavement
roughness. Most detrimental effect of frost penetration occurs during the spring break up period
when the ice melts and subgrade is a saturated condition.

Precipitation
The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity of surface water infiltrating into the
subgrade and the depth of ground water table. Poor drainage may bring lack of shear strength,
pumping, loss of support, etc.

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Pavement Materials: Soil

Pavements are a conglomeration of materials. These materials, their associated properties, and their
interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement. Thus, a good understanding of
these materials, how they are characterized, and how they perform is fundamental to understanding
pavement. The materials which are used in the construction of highway are of intense interest to the
highway engineer. This requires not only a thorough understanding of the soil and aggregate
properties which a ect pavement stability and durability, but also the binding materials which may
be added to improve these pavement features.

Sub grade soil

Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the disintegration of
rocks or decay of vegetation that can be excavated readily with power equipment in the eld or
disintegrated by gentle mechanical means in the laboratory. The supporting soil beneath pavement
and its special under courses is called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called
natural sub grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled movement of heavy
compactors.

Desirable properties
The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are
 Stability
 Incompressibility
 Permanency of strength
 Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and
ground water Good drainage, and
 Ease of compaction

Soil Types
The wide range of soil types available as highway construction materials have made it obligatory on
the part of the highway engineer to identify and classify different soils. A survey of locally available
materials and soil types conducted in India revealed wide variety of soil types, gravel, moorum and
naturally occurring soft aggregates, which can be used in road construction

 Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or no fines
contributing to cohesion of materials.

 Moorum: These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock. Visually
these are similar to gravel except presence of higher content of fines.

 Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in colour as compared to clay, and exhibit little
cohesion. When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed and tapped a
shiny surface makes its appearance, thus dilatancy is a specific property of such soil.

 Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when dry, and
show no dilatancy. Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and shrinkage
properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves stain, which is not
observed for silts.

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Tests on soil
Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it provides the support to the
pavement from beneath. The sub grade soil and its properties are important in the design of
pavement structure. The main function of the sub grade is to give adequate support to the pavement
and for this the sub grade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and loading
conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting tests.

The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly divided into three groups:

 Shear tests
 Bearing tests
 Penetration tests

Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in the laboratory. In order to find
out the strength properties of soil, a number of representative samples from different locations are
tested. Some of the commonly known shear tests are direct shear test, triaxial compression test, and
unconfined compression test.

Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils in-situ with a load bearing area. The
results of the bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil properties within the stressed soil
mass underneath and hence the overall stability of the part of the soil mass stressed could be
studied.

Penetration tests may be considered as small scale bearing tests in which the size of the loaded area
is relatively much smaller and ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is much greater
than the ratios in bearing tests. The penetration tests are carried out in the field or in the laboratory.

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Moisture Content
Moisture content has a profound effect on many properties, and moisture content determinations are
carried out as a routine part of many tests; for example, during the determination of shear strength,
compressibility, plasticity and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). An especially common use is during
density determinations, where it is used to calculate dry density from measurements of bulk density.
To obtain a moisture content value, a soil specimen is simply heated until dry. By weighing the
specimen before and after drying, the weight of dry soil and the weight of water driven off can be
obtained, and moisture content is obtained from:

m = (weight of water) ÷ (weight of dry soil) Expressed as a percentage

Note that the definition relates moisture content to the weight of soil solids (dry soil) and not to the
total weight of the wet sample. This means that for some soils, such as peat, where the weight of
water may exceed the weight of soil solids, the moisture content may exceed 100%.

Grading
Grading otherwise known as particle size distribution or PSD, gives a measure of the sizes and
distribution of sizes of the particles that make up a soil. Grading is arguably the most fundamental
of all properties, especially for coarse‐grained soils with little or no clay particles. 4 Soil Properties
and their Correlations Particle size distribution is used for a wide variety of assessments, especially
where soil is to be used in remoulded form such as fills and embankments, and grading tests are
specified in nearly all site investigation test schedules. Uses include: classifying fill materials for
design purposes; assessment of permeability and drainage characteristics; and suitability for backfill
to pipes. Grading characteristics are more important for coarse‐grained soils (sands and gravels); for
fine‐grained soils (silts and clays), plasticity is more indicative of behaviour but, even for these soils,
the proportion of coarser material present is important for assessing properties.

Test Methods There are two main methods of grading soil.

Sieve analysis: Coarse‐grained soils, with soil particles down to 63µm (fine sand size, defined as
below 75µm in some standards), can be separated out by sieving.

Sedimentation analysis: Below 63 µm, particles are too fine to be sieved, and particle distribution is
determined by the rates of settlement of particles suspended in water using Strokes’ Law.

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Plasticity
Plasticity is a measure of the range of moisture contents over which a soil is a mouldable solid. It is
measured by two tests: the plastic limit test and the liquid limit test. Results are expressed as three
moisture content values: the plastic limit; the liquid limit; and the plasticity index, which is the
difference between the liquid and plastic limits. The tests are carried out on only the fine fraction of a
soil, which is normally material passing the 425µm sieve depending on the test standard. Soils with
no fines (granular soils) are not mouldable at any moisture content and are simply described as ‘non‐
plastic’. Plasticity results are not normally used directly in geotechnical analysis, but may be used in
conjunction with correlations to infer a wide range of properties. Liquid and plastic limit values are
also used in soil classification systems, as described in Appendix A.

Specific Gravity of Soil Particles This method is used to determine the average density of the particles
of soil. Results are expressed as a proportion of the density of water, that is, as specific gravity. The
specific gravity of the soil particles allows the proportion of voids in the soil to be calculated, and it is
needed to calculate the proportion of air voids within a soil, a measure of the effectiveness of
compaction methods. However, it is often specified unnecessarily whenever consolidation tests are
carried out in the mistaken belief that it is necessary for the calculation of the coefficient of volume
compressibility, mv

Permeability
Permeability is used in seepage calculations including seepage through dams, beneath cut‐off walls
and through the ground when estimating the extent of contamination in the ground. It is therefore
limited to certain special types of problem, so permeability tests do not form part of most ground
investigation testing. There are basically two types of laboratory permeability test:
• Falling head tests, in which a fixed amount of water flows through the specimen from
a graduated cylinder, with the pressure head decreasing throughout the test; and
• Constant head tests, in which water flows under a constant pressure through a soil
specimen and the rate of flow is measured.

Falling head tests are more suitable for clay soils, whose low permeability means that the rate of flow
is so slow that test times would be excessive. Constant head tests are more suitable for sands and
gravels, whose higher permeability means that the falling head test, with its limited supply of water,
would be over too quickly for accurate measurement.

In addition to the specific permeability tests described in the following sections, permeability may
also be measured using triaxial test equipment and may be inferred from consolidation test results.
Permeability is often measured in field tests where the flow of water from or to a borehole or
sometimes a trial pit is measured, again using falling/ rising head or constant head tests depending
on the ground permeability. Field testing is beyond the scope of this book, but it is worth considering
the relative merits of field and laboratory tests. Essentially, laboratory tests have the advantage that
the soil geometry is controlled so all the parameters needed for permeability calculations are
accurately known. This knowledge or control of the ground and the flow through it is absent in field
testing, where the ground profile and flow patterns can often only be guessed at. However, the overall
permeability of the ground is greatly affected by the macro‐structure of the soil, with sometimes thin
silt or sand layers within a clay taking most of the flow for instance. The resulting discrepancy can be
huge, with overall ground permeability sometimes being 10 times or more that measured in
laboratory tests. These limitations mean that field testing tends to be preferred where the overall

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permeability of the ground is required, while laboratory testing is preferred to measure the
permeability of specific materials such as those to be used as drainage layers.
Specific Gravity of Soil Particles This method is used to determine the average density of the particles
of soil. Results are expressed as a proportion of the density of water, that is, as specific gravity. The
specific gravity

Shear Strength
Shear strength testing is usually carried out using either triaxial tests or shear box tests, although
other tests, such as ring shear, are occasionally used. Hand penetrometers are also used for quick
indications on site, and a variety of shear vane tests may be used including hand‐held vanes and
vane test equipment for use down boreholes. For both triaxial and shear box tests, there are a
number of variations depending on whether the short‐ or long‐term response of the soil is needed.

These are noted in the test methods described below. Shear strength values are needed for a wide
variety of design calculations, including spread footing stability, pile capacity, retaining wall stability
and slope stability. Shear strength tests are therefore a feature of most test schedules, although the
type of test will depend on both the soils encountered and the design calculations to be carried out.

Standard Compaction Test

When soil is compacted the density obtained depends on the soil type, its moisture content and the
compactive effort used. Standard compaction tests use a standard compactive effort (broadly
comparable with that applied by compaction plant on site), and the sample is compacted at various
moisture contents to determine the optimum moisture content that produces the maximum dry
density.

When used for quality control, this gives a standard against which field density results can be judged
and an indication of the most appropriate moisture content for compaction. At the site investigation
stage, the test gives a comparison between natural moisture content and optimum moisture content,
indicating whether the soil is suitable for earthworks; a natural moisture content more than 1½‐2%
above optimum cannot be well compacted

California Bearing Ratio

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values are used to calculate the required thicknesses of pavement
layers. As its name implies, the test was originally developed in California but, ironically, was used
there for only a short time. The test does not measure any fundamental property of the soil, and is
used only in pavement thickness design. The test measures the resistance of soil to a cylindrical
plunger of standard dimensions being pushed into the surface at a standard rate.

It is therefore basically an indirect measure of shear strength, and for clays an approximate
relationship exists with shear strength. Results are highly dependent on the method of sample
preparation, so much so that the method is no longer used by many highways agencies, but it is still
the basis for some design methods, especially for minor roads, car parks and storage areas. The test
is intrinsically linked to pavement design methods, and test methods must follow those specified in
the design standard being used.
For instance, UK design methods generally require the test to be prepared to the moisture
content that is likely to exist beneath the pavement in the long term and tested without soaking,
whereas US design practice tends to favour soaking of the specimen, regardless of expected subgrade
conditions, then applying a climatic correction

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Swelling Potential
Swelling potential is used to indicate the potential of a soil to swell and shrink with changes in
moisture content. It is used, for instance, in conjunction with estimates of the depth of soil subject to
seasonal moisture content changes to determine minimum founding depths for structures on
expansive soils and in the proximity of trees. Swelling potential is defined in terms of the swelling
potential test, a modified form of consolidation test, as described in Chapter 8. An alternative,
simpler test, used to assess the propensity of a subgrade soil to swell, is the linear shrinkage test, in
which a specimen of soil with moisture content at its liquid limit is pressed into a small trough then
oven dried.
The reduction in length of the specimen after drying is measured and expressed as a
percentage of the original length to give the linear shrinkage value. Although these tests give an
indication of swelling potential, the actual swelling that will occur in the field depends on site
conditions including seasonal moisture content changes and overburden pressures, so test results
can be used only as an indication of relative swelling problems. Because of this, swelling potential is
usually inferred from plasticity and grading tests which are simpler to carry out and based on
standard laboratory practice.

However, there is no universal agreement about the reliability of plasticity tests to predict swelling
potential.
 Frost susceptibility is a measure of the potential of a soil to swell when subjected to repeated
cycles of freezing and thawing. It is used, for instance, in conjunction with climate data to
determine the minimum thickness of pavements. Direct measurements of the amount of
swelling that can occur are tedious as they require repeated freezing and thawing and, like
swelling potential described above, can give only an indication of potential problems, not the
specific movement that may occur in the field. Therefore, frost susceptibility is often
estimated from plasticity and grading tests, using correlations.
 Combustible Content is important when assessing the propensity of a near‐ surface soil to
catch fire when subjected to high temperatures. It is also used in conjunction with air voids
content to assess the risk of spontaneous combustion in deeper soils, especially of colliery
discard tips factor.

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Pavement materials: Bitumen

Bituminous materials or asphalts are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily because
of their excellent binding characteristics and water proofing properties and relatively low cost.
Bituminous materials consists of bitumen which is a black or dark coloured solid or viscous
cementitious substances consists chiefly high molecular weight hydrocarbons derived from
distillation of petroleum or natural asphalt, has adhesive properties, and is soluble in carbon
disulphide. Tars are residues from the destructive distillation of organic substances such as coal,
wood, or petroleum and are temperature sensitive than bitumen. Bitumen will be dissolved in
petroleum oils where unlike tar.

Production of Bitumen
Bitumen is the residue or by-product when the crude petroleum is refined. A wide variety of refinery
processes, such as the straight distillation process, solvent extraction process etc. may be used to
produce bitumen of different consistency and other desirable properties. Depending on the sources
and characteristics of the crude oils and on the properties of bitumen required, more than one
processing method may be employed.

Vacuum steam distillation of petroleum oils

In the vacuum-steam distillation process the crude oil is heated and is introduced into a large
cylindrical still. Steam is introduced into the still to aid in the vaporisation of the more volatile
constituents of the petroleum and to minimise decomposition of the distillates and residues. The
volatile constituents are collected, condensed, and the various fractions stored for further refining, if
needed. The residues from this distillation are then fed into a vacuum distillation unit, where residue
pressure and steam will further separate out heavier gas oils. The bottom fraction from this unit is
the vacuum-steam-refined asphalt cement. The consistency of asphalt cement from this process can
be controlled by the amount of heavy gas oil removed. Normally, asphalt produced by this process is
softer. As the asphalt cools down to room temperature, it becomes a semi solid viscous material.

Different forms of bitumen

Cutback bitumen

Normal practice is to heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In some situations preference is given to
use liquid binders such as cutback bitumen. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower
the viscosity of the bitumen. The solvent from the bituminous material will evaporate and the
bitumen will bind the aggregate. Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road
construction and maintenance. The distillates used for preparation of cutback bitumen are naphtha,
kerosene, diesel oil, and furnace oil. There are different types of cutback bitumen like rapid curing
(RC), medium curing (MC), and slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and
patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of ne aggregates. SC is used for premix
with appreciable quantity of ne aggregates.

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Bitumen Emulsion

Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in
an aqueous medium and stabilised by suitable material. Normally cationic type emulsions are used
in India. The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and the remaining is water. When the
emulsion is applied on the road it breaks down resulting in release of water and the mix starts to set.
The time of setting depends upon the grade of bitumen. The viscosity of bituminous emulsions can
be measured as per IS: 8887-1995. Three types of bituminous emulsions are available, which are
Rapid setting (RS), Medium setting (MS), and Slow setting (SC). Bitumen emulsions are ideal binders
for hill road construction. Where heating of bitumen or aggregates are difficult. Rapid setting
emulsions are used for surface dressing work. Medium setting emulsions are preferred for premix
jobs and patch repairs work. Slow setting emulsions are preferred in rainy season.

Modified Bitumen

Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve properties of Bitumen
and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified bitumen. Polymer
modified bitumen (PMB)/ crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB) should be used only in wearing
course depending upon the requirements of extreme climatic variations. The detailed specifications
for modified bitumen have been issued by IRC: SP: 53-1999. It must be noted that the performance
of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict control on temperature during construction. The
advantages of using modified bitumen are as follows
 Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations
 Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
 Better age resistance properties
 Higher fatigue life for mixes
 Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
 Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking

Requirements of Bitumen
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general, Bitumen
should possess following desirable properties.

 The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the
mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not
become too brittle causing cracks.
 The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This
can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen
and aggregates prior to mixing.

 There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used in
the mix

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Tests on Bitumen
Penetration test

It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to
which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds. BIS had standardised the
equipment and test procedure. The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of
100g and a device for releasing and locking in any position. The bitumen is softened to a pouring
consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the
expected penetration. The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25o C. It may be
noted that penetration value is largely influenced by any inaccuracy with regards to pouring
temperature, size of the needle, weight placed on the needle and the test temperature. A grade of
40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard test conditions. In
hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred.

Ductility test

Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or elongation.
Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or briquette of the material
will be elongated without breaking. Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square.
The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a plate. These samples
with moulds are cooled in the air and then in water bath at 27o C temperature. The excess bitumen
is cut and the surface is levelled using a hot knife. Then the mould with assembly containing sample
is kept in water bath of the ductility machine for about 90 minutes. The sides of the moulds are
removed, the clips are hooked on the machine and the machine is operated. The distance up to the
point of breaking of thread is the ductility value which is reported in cm. The ductility value gets
affected by factors such as pouring temperature, test temperature, rate of pulling etc. A minimum
ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS.

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Softening point test

Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of
softening under the specifications of test. The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus. A
brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in fluid like water or glycerine at a given
temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a
rate of 5o C per minute. Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate
which is at a specified distance below. Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature
susceptibility and is preferred in hot climates. Figure 23.4.3 shows Softening Point test setup.

Specific gravity test

In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use. In most cases bitumen is
weighed, but when used with aggregates, the bitumen is converted to volume using density values.
The density of bitumen is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in aromatic type
mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity.
The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen of
known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27o C. The specific gravity can be measured
using either Pycnometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi-solid or solid state. The
specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.

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Viscosity test

Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of resistance to flow.
At the application temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the strength of resulting paving
mixes. Low or high viscosity during compaction or mixing has been observed to result in lower
stability values. At high viscosity, it resist the compactive effort and thereby resulting mix is
heterogeneous, hence low stability values. And at low viscosity instead of providing a uniform lm over
aggregates, it will lubricate the aggregate particles. Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find
the viscosity of liquid binders like cutbacks and emulsions. The viscosity expressed in seconds is the
time taken by the 50 ml bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard test
conditions and specified temperature. Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm
orifice at 25o C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 40o C.

Flash and Fire point test

At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out volatiles. And these
volatiles catches re which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify this temperature
for each bitumen grade. BIS defined the ash point as the temperature at which the vapour of
bitumen momentarily catches fire. The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified
test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.

Float test

Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured either by penetration test or
viscosity test. But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not applicable and Float test is
used. The apparatus consists of an aluminium float and a brass collar filled with bitumen to be
tested. The specimen in the mould is cooled to a temperature of 5oC and screwed in to float. The
total test assembly is floated in the water bath at 50oC and the time required for water to pass its
way through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and is expressed as the float value.

Water content test

It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of the bitumen
when it is heated above the boiling point of water. The water in a bitumen is determined by mixing
known weight of specimen in a pure petroleum distillate free from water, heating and distilling of the
water. The weight of the water condensed and collected is expressed as percentage by weight of the
original sample. The allowable maximum water content should not be more than 0.2% by weight.

Loss on heating test

When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened. About 50gm of the sample is
weighed and heated to a temperature of 1630C for 5hours in a specified oven designed for this test.
The sample specimen is weighed again after the heating period and loss in weight is expressed as
percentage by weight of the original sample. Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate
more than 1% loss in weight, but for bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in
weight is allowed.

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Chapter 5-Aggregates

Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone that
are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to form
compound materials (such as bituminous concrete and Portland cement concrete). By volume,
aggregate generally accounts for 92 to 96 percent of Bituminous concrete and about 70 to 80 percent
of Portland cement concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base courses for both flexible
and rigid pavements. Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are
generally extracted from larger rock formations through an open excavation (quarry). Extracted rock
is typically reduced to usable sizes by mechanical crushing. Manufactured aggregate is often a bye
product of other manufacturing industries

Desirable properties
Strength

The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to

(i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load,
(ii) Wear and tear
(iii) Crushing. For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should possess high resistance to
crushing, and to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.

Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to
moving traffic. The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the
movements of traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves over the
aggregates exposed at the top surface.

Toughness
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the pavement
should be able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one particle to
another at different levels causes’ severe impact on the aggregates.

Shape of aggregates
Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical, angular, flaky
or elongated particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and
durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same aggregate. Hence
too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.

Adhesion with bitumen

The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when compared
with bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in
presence of water.

Durability
The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called soundness. The
aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities
there-in and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the
construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action

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Freedom from deleterious particles

Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be clean,
tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces, dust, clay balls
and other objectionable material. Similarly aggregates used in Portland cement concrete mixes must
be clean and free from deleterious substances such as clay lumps, chert, silt and other organic
impurities.

Aggregate tests
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following tests
are carried out:
 Crushing test
 Abrasion test
 Impact test
 Soundness test
 Shape test
 Specific gravity and water absorption test
 Bitumen adhesion test

Crushing test
One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress. A test
is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates. The
aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually
applied crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to
a compression test under standard load conditions (Figure 22:1). Dry aggregates passing through
12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter
and 18 cm height in three layers. Each layer is tampered 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The
test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tampered
again. The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of
4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of
passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is
the aggregate crushing value.

Aggregate crushing value = (W1/W2) 100

A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally be
regarded as weak aggregates.

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Abrasion test

Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they
are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one
for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-IV). The
principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action
between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.

Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm
mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated. An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron
spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the
aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample. The
quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The
cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions
depending upon the gradation of aggregates.

After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion value.

A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions. For
bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.

Impact test

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of
internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing machine.
The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows. Metal hammer
of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical guides and the test
specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows. The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36
mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the
total weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = W1 100
W2

Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn't exceed 30 percent. For
bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam
base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent

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Soundness test

Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by conducting
accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and thawing are
likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they are subjected
to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V. Aggregates of specified size are
subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either sodium sulphate or
magnesium sulphate for 16 - 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105-110oC to a constant weight.
After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out all undersized particles
and weighing. And the loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium
sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution.

Shape tests
The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated
particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher workability and
stability of mixes. The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles
whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Test procedure had been standardized
in India (IS: 2386 part-I)

The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles whose
greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable to aggregates
larger than 6.3 mm. This test is also specified in (IS: 2386 Part-I). However there are no recognized
limits for the elongation index.

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PAVEMENT FAILURES
Asphalt Concrete Pavements

Asphalt concrete pavements are not simply a thin covering of asphalt concrete over soil— they are
engineered structures composed of several different layers. Because asphalt concrete is much more
flexible than Portland cement concrete, asphalt concrete pavements are sometimes called flexible
pavements. The visible part of an asphalt concrete pavement, the part that directly supports truck
and passenger vehicles, is called the surface course or wearing course. It is typically between about
40 and 75 mm thick and consists of crushed aggregate and asphalt binder. Surface course mixtures
tend to have a relatively high asphalt content, which helps these mixtures stand up better to traffic
and the effects of sunlight, air, and water. Surface course mixtures also are usually made using
maximum aggregate sizes less than 19 mm, which helps to provide for a quiet ride. Also, using
aggregate sizes larger than 19 mm can make it more difficult to obtain mixtures with sufficient
asphalt binder contents to provide adequate durability for surface course mixtures, since the lower
aggregate surface area of these aggregates results in a lower demand for asphalt binder.

On the other hand, the lower binder content needed for these mixtures can make them more
economical than mixtures made using smaller aggregates. Below the surface course of a flexible
pavement is the base course. The base course helps provide the overall thickness to the pavement
needed to ensure that the pavement can withstand the projected traffic over the life of the project.
Base courses may be anywhere from about 100 to 300-mm thick. In general, the higher the
anticipated traffic level on a pavement, the thicker the pavement must be, and the thicker the base
course. Thicker pavements will deflect less than thinner ones under traffic loading, which reduces
strains within the pavement and makes them more resistant to fatigue cracking. Traditionally, base
course mixtures have been designed using larger aggregate sizes than surface course mixtures, with
maximum aggregate sizes ranging from about 19 to 37.5 mm. This helps to produce a lean mixture
with low asphalt binder content, which helps keep the cost of these mixtures low. Also, using larger
aggregate sizes allows base course mixtures to be placed in thicker lifts, which can reduce
construction costs.

However, many engineers have recently been designing base course mixtures more like surface
course mixtures— with smaller aggregate sizes and higher asphalt binder contents. Using these
types of mixtures in base course mixtures can help improve both fatigue resistance and resistance to
moisture damage, since increased asphalt binder contents in HMA tends to improve fatigue
resistance and will also reduce permeability to water. Sometimes an intermediate course is placed
between the surface and base courses of a flexible pavement system. This is sometimes called a
binder course. Typically 50 to 100 mm in thickness, it consists of a mixture with intermediate
aggregate size and asphalt binder content. The surface, base, and intermediate courses together are
referred to as bound material or bound layers, because they are held together with asphalt binder. In
a typical asphalt concrete pavement, the bound layers are supported by a granular subbase that in
turn lays over the subgrade.

Granular sub-base is crushed stone or gravel, usually 100 to 300 mm in thickness. The nominal
maximum aggregate size varies, but it should always be well compacted prior to placement of the
base course. The subgrade is the soil on which the pavement is constructed. If the soil is stable and
strong, it may only need compaction prior to placing the granular sub-base and remaining pavement
layers. However, some soils, including many soils containing clay and clay-like minerals are
unstable—that is, they shrink and swell significantly when their moisture content changes, and they
can also become very weak when the moisture content becomes too high. Before pavement
construction, such a subgrade should be stabilized by blending in lime, portland cement, or other
additives, or treating it with asphalt emulsion, and then thoroughly compacting the soil. Sometimes
the granular sub-base is omitted from a pavement and a relatively thick base course is placed
directly on the subgrade soil. Such a pavement structure is called a full-depth asphalt pavement.

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The advantage of this type of construction is that the overall pavement can be thinner because of the
increased strength and stiffness of the supporting pavement. However, it should be remembered that
such a base course mixture will be significantly more expensive than granular subbase, since it
contains asphalt binder. Figure 2-2 is a cross section of a typical flexible pavement system.

HOW ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS FAIL

Rutting

Rutting (often referred to as permanent deformation) is a common form of distress in flexible

pavements. When truck tires move across an asphalt concrete pavement, the pavement deflects a
very small amount. These deflections range from much less than a tenth of a millimetre in cold
weather—when the pavement and subgrade are very stiff—to a millimetre or more in warm weather—
when the pavement surface is hot and very soft. After the truck tire passes over a given spot in the
pavement, the pavement tends to spring back to its original position. Often, however, the pavement
surface will not completely recover. Instead, there will be a very small amount of permanent
deformation in the wheel path. After many wheel loads have passed over the pavement—perhaps only
a few thousand in a poorly constructed pavement, to 10 million or more for one properly designed
and constructed for heavy traffic loads—this rutting can become significant. Severely rutted
pavements can have ruts 20 mm or more in depth. Rutting is a serious problem because the ruts
contribute to a rough riding surface and can fill with water during rain or snow events, which can
then cause vehicles traveling on the road to hydroplane and lose control. Rut depths of about 10 mm
or more are usually considered excessive and a significant safety hazard. Figure 2-3 is diagram of
rutting in an HMA pavement.

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Other related forms of permanent deformation include shoving and wash boarding. Shoving occurs at
intersections when vehicles stop, exerting a lateral force on the surface of the hot mix causing it to
deform excessively across the pavement, rather than within the wheel ruts. Wash boarding is a
similar phenomenon but, in this case, the deformation takes the form of a series of large ripples
across the pavement surface. Rutting, shoving, and wash boarding can be the result of permanent
deformation in any part of the pavement—the subgrade, the granular sub-base, or any of the bound
layers. Excessive permanent deformation in one or more of the bound layers is the result of an
asphalt concrete mixture that lacks strength and stiffness at high temperatures. Several problems
with a mix design, such as selecting an asphalt binder that is too soft for the given climate and traffic
level, can make it prone to rutting and other forms of permanent deformation.

Fatigue Cracking
Like rutting, fatigue cracking results from the large number of loads applied over time to a pavement
subject by traffic. However, fatigue cracking tends to occur when the pavement is at moderate
temperatures, rather than at the high temperatures that cause rutting. Because the HMA at
moderate temperatures is stiffer and more brittle than at high temperatures, it tends to crack under
repeated loading rather than deform. When cracks first form in an HMA pavement, they are so small
that they cannot be seen without a microscope. The cracks at this point will also not be continuous.
Under the action of traffic loading, these microscopic cracks will slowly grow in size and number,
until they grow together into much larger cracks that can be clearly seen with the naked eye. Severe
fatigue cracking is often referred to as “alligator cracking,” because the pavement surface texture
resembles an alligator’s back. These large cracks will significantly affect pavement performance, by
weakening the pavement, contributing to a rough riding surface, and allowing air and water into the
pavement, which will cause additional damage to the pavement structure. Eventually fatigue
cracking can lead to extensive areas of cracking, large potholes, and total pavement failure.

Traditionally, pavement engineers believed that fatigue cracks first formed on the underside of the
HMA layers, and gradually grew toward the pavement surface. It has become clear during the past 10
years that pavements are also subject to top-down fatigue cracking, where the cracks begin at or
near the pavement surface and grow downward, typically along the edges of the wheel paths. It is
likely that most HMA pavements undergo both bottom-up and top-down fatigue cracking. However,
as HMA pavements have become thicker and as HMA overlays on top of portland cement concrete
pavements have become more common, top-down cracking has become more commonly observed
than bottom-up cracking. Figure 2-4 illustrates both bottom-up and top-down fatigue cracking.

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Although fatigue cracking in HMA pavements is still not completely understood, most pavement
engineers agree that there are several ways mixture composition can affect fatigue resistance in HMA
pavements. One of the most important factors affecting fatigue resistance is asphalt binder content—
HMA mixtures with very low asphalt contents tend to be less fatigue resistant than richer mixtures.
Poor field compaction also contributes significantly to surface cracking by reducing the strength of
the pavement surface. High in-place air void content will also increase pavement permeability, which
will then allow air and water into the pavement, both of which can damage the pavement and
increase the rate of fatigue cracking.

Low-Temperature Cracking
Temperature has an extreme effect on asphalt binders. At temperatures of about 150°C (300°F)
asphalt binders are fluids that can be easily pumped through pipes and mixed with hot aggregate.
At temperatures of about 25°C (77°F), asphalt binders have the consistency of a stiff putty or soft
rubber. At temperatures of about −20°C and lower, asphalt binders can become very brittle. As a
result, HMA pavements in many regions of the United States and most of Canada will become very
stiff and brittle during the winter. When cold fronts move through an area causing rapid drops in
temperature, HMA pavements can quickly cool. Like most materials, HMA tends to contract as it
cools. Unlike Portland cement concrete pavements, flexible pavements have no contraction joints and
the entire pavement surface will develop tensile stresses during rapid drops in temperature in cold
weather. When the pavement temperature drops quickly enough to a low enough temperature, the
resulting tensile stresses can cause cracks in the embrittled pavement. These low-temperature
cracks will stretch transversely across part or all of the pavement, their spacing ranging from about 3
to 10 meters (10 to 40 feet). Although low-temperature cracking may not at first cause a significant
problem in a pavement, the cracks tend to become more numerous and wider with time and cause a
significant performance problem after several years.

Low-temperature cracking in HMA pavements can be minimized or even eliminated by proper

selection of asphalt binder grade. In fact, one of the main reasons for the development of the current
system for grading asphalt binders was to help prevent low-temperature cracking.

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Moisture Damage
Water does not flow easily through properly constructed HMA pavements, but it will flow very slowly
even through well-compacted material. Water can work its way between the aggregate surfaces and
asphalt binder in a mixture, weakening or even totally destroying the bond between these two
materials. This moisture damage is sometimes called stripping. Moisture damage can occur quickly
when water is present underneath a pavement, as when pavements are built over poorly drained
areas and are not properly designed or constructed to remove water from the pavement structure.
Even occasional exposure to water can cause moisture damage in HMA mixtures prone to it because
of faulty design or construction or poor materials selection. The physicochemical processes that
control moisture damage are complex and only now are beginning to be understood.

Different combinations of asphalt binder and aggregate will exhibit widely varying degrees of
resistance to moisture damage. It is very difficult to predict the moisture resistance of a particular
combination of asphalt and aggregate, although HMA produced with aggregates containing a large
amount of silica, such as sandstone, quartzite, chert, and some granites, tend to be more susceptible
to moisture damage. Proper construction, especially thorough compaction, can help reduce the
permeability of HMA pavements and so significantly reduce the likelihood of moisture damage. Anti-
stripping additives can be added to HMA mixtures to improve their moisture resistance. Hydrated
lime is one of the most common and most effective of such additives.

The moisture resistance of HMA mixtures is often evaluated using AASHTO T 283 (often referred to
as the Lottman procedure). In this test, six cylindrical HMA specimens are compacted in the
laboratory. Three of these are subjected to conditioning—vacuum saturation, freezing, and thawing—
while the other three are not conditioned. Both sets of specimens are then tested using the indirect
tension (IDT) test (see Figure 2-5). The percentage of strength retained after conditioning is called the
tensile strength ratio (TSR) and is an indication of the moisture resistance of that particular mixture.
Many highway agencies require a minimum TSR of 70 to 80% for HMA mixtures. Engineers and
technicians should keep in mind that this test is not 100% accurate and only provides a rough
indication of moisture resistance. Research is underway on improved procedures for evaluating the
moisture resistance of HMA mixtures.

Ravelling
Ravelling occurs when tires dislodge aggregate particles from the surface of an HMA pavement.
Many of the same factors that contribute to poor fatigue resistance will also contribute to ravelling,
including low asphalt binder contents and poor field compaction. Because the pavement surface is
exposed to water from rain and snow, poor moisture resistance can also accelerate ravelling in HMA
pavements.

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