1.

Hardware basics

1.1. Describe a Computer System

 A computer system consists of hardware and software components.

 The term software includes the system and application software.
 Hardware is the physical equipment such as the case, storage drives, keyboards, monitors, cables,
speakers, and printers.
 The operating system instructs the computer how to operate.
1.2. System Cases

Computer case is an enclosure that holds all the primary electronics of the PC.
It is also called chassis.
Computer cases:
 house all the internal components
 offers access to the external world through ports and connectors
 prevent delicate circuits from damage and EMI
 prevent EMI from pc from affecting surrounding devices such as TV, telephone, etc
EMI-is a radio frequency that is emitted from electronic or electrical device.
There are different types of cases:
 Full-sized tower: big with a height that is about 76 cm, internal drive bays inside these cases can
be between 6 and 10.
 Mid-size tower: most widely used computer cases, about 45 to 60 cm, usually contain 2 to 4
internal drive bays and a similar number of external bays (for CD/DVD readers and similar).
 Mini-tower: 30 to 45 cm, have up to 2 or sometimes 3 internal drive bays, Expandability is a
problem with these cases.
 Desktop:
 Slim desktop (Slim line cases) are simply tower cases turned on their sideways. They can hold
a monitor on top of the case.
 Small Form Factor (SFF) Case
Small form factor or SFF cases are custom cases that are designed to minimize the spatial volume
of a desktop computer. SFFs are available in a variety of sizes and shapes, including shoe boxes,
cubes, and book-sized PCs.

1
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1.3. Motherboard

 The motherboard is the main printed circuit board.

 It contains the buses, or electrical pathways, found in a computer.
 These buses allow data to travel between the various components that comprise a computer.
 A motherboard is also known as the system board, backplane, or main board.
 The motherboard accommodates

o the central processing unit (CPU),

o RAM, expansion slots, heat sink/fan assembly,
o BIOS chip, chip set, and
o the embedded wires that interconnect the motherboard components
o Sockets, internal and external connectors, and various ports are also placed on the
motherboard.

2
1.3.1. Mother board Form factors

 The size of the motherboard is often called the Form Factor and there are several standards.
 The form factor identifies the size of the circuit board, the location of the slots as well as the
location of the faceplate that comes out the back of the computer
 It also describes the physical layout of the different components and devices on the motherboard.
 Motherboards have various form factors:
o Advanced Technology (AT)
o Advanced Technology Extended (ATX)
o Smaller footprint than Advanced Technology Extended (Mini-ATX)
o Smaller footprint than Advanced Technology Extended (Micro-ATX)
o Low-Profile Extended (LPX)
o New Low-Profile Extended (NLX)
o Balanced technology Extended (BTX)

1.3.1.1. Advanced Technology (AT)

 They are distinguished by their shape and usually by the presence of single full sized keyboard
3
 connector soldered onto the motherboard.
 All other devices are connected to the motherboard via cards and expansion slots or cables.
 The serial and parallel ports are attached using cables that go between the physical connectors
mounted on the case and pin headers located on the motherboard.
 AT motherboards get power through P8 and P9 connectors.
 The original AT motherboard, later known as "Full AT", is 13.8 × 12 inches (351 × 305 mm),

2.3.1.2. Advanced Technology Extended (ATX)

 Also called Full ATX

 Probably the most common form factor for a motherboard is the ATX form factor.
 The board is approximately 12″ x 9.6″ (30cm x 24cm).
 The ATX motherboard is rotated 90 degrees; the processor sits near the back of the board.
 In ATX motherboards, the connectors COM1, COM2, LPT, keyboard, mouse, and USB are directly
mounted on the motherboard. This motherboard requires a specifically designed chassis with an I/O
access opening.

4
 I/O connector

CPU

PCI/ISA bus power connector

Memory slots

peripheral Connector

Some of the advantages of ATX over AT are:

1) Soft power support: the ATX power supply is turned on and off using signaling from the
motherboard, not a physical toggle switch. This allows the PC to be turned on or off under software
control, allowing improved power management.
2) Reduced expansion card interference: the CPU and memory modules are relocated so they can’t
interfere with any bus expansion cards. This makes upgrade easy because removing any installed cards
is not necessary.
3)Reduced drive bay interference: since the board is essentially 90 degrees form AT style, there is
much less overlap between the board and drive bays. This means easier to access the motherboard and
fewer cooling problem.
4) Better Power Connector: ATX uses a single 20-pin connector instead of two confusing connectors.
You don’t have the risk of blowing up your pc motherboard by connecting the power cable backwards.
5) Better air flow(cooling effect): The ATX power is intended to blow air into the case rather than out
of it. This cuts down dust. Furthermore, processor sockets and RAM are located next to power supply.
Because of this the power supply fan can cool CPU heat sink. Current power supply fans blow air into
or out of the case.
6) Integrated I/O connectors: AT motherboard uses pins and cables. In ATX, the port is directly
mounted on the motherboard. This improvement saves cost, installation time, and improved reliability.

Mini ATX

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A mini-ATX motherboard is a slightly smaller variation of the full ATX size that
measures 11.2″ x 8.2″ (28cm x 21cm). The main difference between ATX and mini-
ATX is the number of buses and possibly memory slots on the motherboard. Mounting
holes for both are located in the same place, making them interchangeable in most
cases. A case that supports an ATX motherboard can also support mini-ATX
motherboard.

Micro ATX

The micro-ATX form factor is an even smaller version of the ATX standard, with a
maximum size of 9.6″ x 9.6″ (24cm x 24cm). The faceplate line up to the exact same
position as in all other versions of ATX. System case that can hold an ATX
motherboard can also hold micro ATX motherboard. The smaller mid or mini tower
cases would likely be too small for a full ATX motherboard but should accommodate
micro ATX motherboard. The terms mini-ATX and micro-ATX are often used
interchangeably.

Micro ATX Form Factor

Flex ATX

The size of Flex ATX is 9” x 7.5” (22,9 cm x 19,1 cm). It is derived from Micro ATX and
is used in small computer cases.

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 Flex ATX Form Factor

Mini ITX

Going down in size we have a mini ITX motherboard with a maximum size of 6.7″ x
6.7″ (17cm x 17cm). Notice that there is a single expansion slot and the motherboard
itself is considerably smaller than the ATX and even the micro ATX. Also notice that
the faceplate still line up and the hole positions still match the ATX hole positions.
Theoretically we could take this micro ITX motherboard and place it inside a full tower
case. However we usually use a small form factor case for this motherboard.

Mini ITX Form Factor

Em ITX

Em ITX dimensions are 17 cm x 12 cm.

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 Em ITX Form Factor

Nano ITX

Measures of Nano ITX are 4.7″ x 4.7″ (12 cm x 12 cm). It is used with smaller devices
like set-top boxes, car PCs, media centers, and other embedded devices.

Nano ITX Form Factor

Pico ITX

The size of the Pico ITX is 3.9” x 2.8” (10 cm X 7.2 cm).

8
 Pico ITX Form Factor

Mobile ITX

Mobile ITX is the smallest form factor with the size of 2.4” x 2.4” (6 cm x 6 cm).

Mobile ITX Form Factor

The ATX form factor and its variations are the most common motherboard form
factors.

DTX Form Factor

DTX form factor is intended for small form factor PCs, and is backward compatible with
ATX form factor cases. Dimensions are 8” x 9.6” (20.3 cm x 24.4 cm).

DTX Form Factor

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Mini DTX

Mini DTX is a shorter version of DTX form factor. Dimensions are 8” x 6.7” (20,3 cm x
170 cm).

Mini DTX Form Factor

SSI CEB

SSI form factors were developed by SSI (Server System Infrastructure) forum, and
are intended for dual or multiprocessor motherboards used in servers and or even
workstations.

SSI form factors were derived from ATX specification, so they have the same rear
panel, IO connector area, and mounting holes. But, SSI form factors are larger than
ATX, so SSI motherboards will not fit cases designed for standard ATX.

The computer case has to be designed for larger than standard ATX form factor.
Three SSI form factors are CEB (Compact Electronics Bay), EEB (Enterprise
Electronics Bay), and MEB (Midrange Electronics Bay). The smallest of them is SSI
CEB, and the size is 12” x 10.5” (30,5 cm x 26,7cm).

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 SSI CEB Form Factor

SSI EEB (also called Extended ATX or E-ATX)

SSI EEB dimensions are 12” x 13” (30.5 cm x 33 cm).

SSI EEB Form Factor

SSI MEB

The SSI MEB size is 16.2” x 13” (41,1 cm x 33 cm). It is longer in order to provide
space for two additional CPU sockets.

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 SSI MEB Form Factor

NLX Form Factor

The NLX is an older style form factor that is not used very often anymore. We might
see it in some older motherboards but it’s not likely to encounter it with newer
motherboards.

NLX Form Factor

NLX is an older form factor used for slimline desktop-style computers. NLX is an
improvement over an even earlier LPX form factor. Notice that this motherboard has
no expansion slots for the PCI or ISA bus. The NLX form factor is used in slim line
cases that are very short.

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 NLX with Riser Card

In order to accommodate expansion cards we use a tab on the edge of the

motherboard. We insert a Riser Card on the end of the motherboard. Riser Card is
then used for expansion cards, so that now expansion cards lay flat rather than being
perpendicular to the motherboard. The riser card does not have built-in ports for audio,
joystick, USB, network or modem.

1.3.1.3. Balanced technology Extended (BTX)

 The BTX, or Balanced Technology Extended form factor.

 BTX was developed to take advantage of technologies such as Serial ATA, USB 2.0, and PCI
Express. Changes to the layout with the BTX form factor include better component placement for
back panel I/O controllers and it is smaller than microATX systems.
 The BTX form factor provides the industry push to tower size systems with an increased number of
system slots.
 One of the most talked about features of the BTX form factor is that it uses in-line airflow.
 In the BTX form factor the memory slots and expansion slots have switched places, allowing the
main components (processor, chipset, and graphics controller) to use the same airflow which reduces
the number of fans needed in the system; thereby reducing noise.
 In many cases this means that an ATX system case will not work with a BTX system board, although
there are system cases that are able to accommodate both the ATX and the BTX form factors.

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Common Motherboard Layout (INTEL Socket T (LGA775))

14
1 CPU Socket
2 CPU_FAN - CPU cooling fan connector
3 DIMM1~2 - 240-pin DDR2 SDRAM slots
4 IRDA - Infrared header
5 FDD - Floppy diskette drive connector
6 ATX1 - Standard 24-pin ATX power connector
7 IDE1 - Primary IDE channel
8 CLR_CMOS - Clear CMOS jumper
9 SATA1~4 - Serial ATA connectors
10 PANEL1 - Panel connector for case switches and LEDs
11 USB1-2 - Front Panel USB headers
12 1394a - IEEE 1394a header
13 BIOS_WP - BIOS flash protect jumper
14 COM2 - Onboard Serial port hider
15 WOL1 - Wake On LAN connector
16 S/PDIF - SPDIF out header
17 F_AUDIO - Front panel audio header
18 AUX_IN - Auxiliary In connector
19 PCI1~2 - 32-bit add-on card slots
20 PCIE1 - PCI Express x1 slot
21 PCIEX16 - PCI Express slot for graphics interface
22 SYS_FAN - System cooling fan connector
23 ATX12V - Auxiliary 4-pin power connector

Integrated I/Os

 Rear panel on of a motherboard with many integrated inputs and outputs (I/O's).

PS2 Mouse Used to connect a PS/2 pointing device.

PS2 Keyboard Used to connect a PS/2 keyboard.
Parallel Port (LPT1) Used to connect printers or other parallel communications devices.
Serial Port Used to connect serial devices such as mice or (COM1) fax/modems.
VGA Port Connect your monitor to the VGA port.
1394a Port Use the 1394a port to connect to any firewire device.
LAN Port Used to connect an RJ-45 cable to a Network hub or router.
USB Ports Used to connect USB devices such as printers, scanners cameras et...
Audio Ports Used to connect audio devices.

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1.3.2. Chipsets
 An important set of components on the motherboard is the chip set.
 The chip set is composed of various integrated circuits attached to the motherboard that
control how system hardware interacts with the CPU and motherboard.
 The CPU is installed into a slot or socket on the motherboard.
 The socket on the motherboard determines the type of CPU that can be installed.
 The chip set of a motherboard allows the CPU to communicate and interact with the computer’s
other components and to exchange data with system memory (RAM), hard-disk drives, video
cards, and other output devices.
 The chip set establishes how much memory can be added to a motherboard.
 The chip set also determines the type of connectors on the motherboard.

Most chip sets are divided into two distinct components,

 North Bridge (Memory controller hub) and

 South Bridge (I/O controller hub).
 What each component does varies from manufacturer to manufacturer,
 But in general the North Bridge controls access to the RAM, video card, and the speeds at
which the CPU can communicate with them.
 The video card is sometimes integrated into the North Bridge.
 The South Bridge, in most cases, allows the CPU to communicate with the hard drives, sound
card, USB ports, and other input/output (I/O) ports.

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Difference between North Bridge and South Bridge:

S.NO North Bridge South Bridge

is located towards the north of is located towards South of

1. motherboard. PCI bus of the motherboard.

is connected via North

2. is directly connected to the CPU. bridge to the CPU.

It manages the communications between

the CPU and other parts of the It manages the Input and
3. motherboard. Output functions.

is placed near to processor for easy

4. access. is placed near PCI.

5. communicates faster. communicates slower.

Other names for North bridge include IO Controller Hub is the

6. Memory Controller Hub, host bridge. other name for South bridge.

is a hub for input and output

7. is hub for memory control. functioning.

connects the buses that work faster like connects the buses that work
8. the AGP bus. slower like ISA.

9. North bridge looks bigger. South bridge looks smaller.

North bridge connects components like South bridge connects

10. RAM, AGP. components like PCI, USB.

 The motherboard is the board that contains the logic circuits that tie all parts of your PC together.
 It provides the connectors for the CPU, the memory, BIOS, CMOS, Video devices, sound
devices, storage devices, chip sets, etc. in order to form an integrated set of components.

17
Some of the key components found on a motherboard include:

 The CPU (microprocessor

 Microchips that provide support for the CPU.
 Random Access Memory (RAM) chips.
 The system Bus
 A Keyboard controller and connector.
 A mouse connector.
 Power connectors.
 Serial and parallel communications ports.

Some of the most recent boards also contain:

 Integrated IDE disk controller circuits.

 USB Bus controller circuits.
 Built in video controller/adapters.
 Built in sound card circuits.
 The motherboard also contains other components such as
o BIOS chips,
o the CPU clock,
o cache chips,
o bus, etc.
o To see every detail, you will need to get a "User's Manual" for the specific
motherboard you have, and to locate all components on the board.
 It is the system board components that determine the capability and speed of a
computer.

Several factors determine the overall performance of a system.

Speed - The processor clock speed, size of the internal and external data bus, and the processors
design all determine the systems overall speed.
Configuration - The way the individual parts of the board are layered out and connected.
Memory - How much memory is on the board? What type of memory is being used?
Bus Type - Does the system support ISA, or PCI buses? The actual speed of the bus makes a
difference.
 There are Many different types of motherboards used in computers today: the AT, ATX, etc.
 Each one uses different design techniques depending on the CPU chip and bus type and size
used.

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Each of the components on a motherboard serves specific functions:
BUS- is a set of circuits that run throughout the board and connect all the expansion slots, memory,
and CPU, etc. together.
Expansion Slots - used for connecting other devices/controller cards to the motherboard bus.
Memory Slots - provides receptacles for adding additional memory chips (SIMMs, DIMMs, or other
types of memory).
ZIF Socket -The processor slot on modern boards is a grid of tiny holes in which the CPU is inserted.
 Older model boards required a considerable amount of force to install or remove the CPU chip.
 The Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) socket required a minimal force to insert and remove the chip.
 The ZIF socket has a lever at the side of the socket that allows quick removal of the CPU Chip.
BIOS Chips
Firmware is software embedded into hardware. Hardware like GPUs, hard drives, SSDs (solid
state drives) and more
Also commonly referred to as the BIOS, motherboard firmware defines how a PC turns on, which drive
it boots from, what peripherals it recognizes and even the frequency at which it runs the CPU.
BIOS Chips – is a ROM chip found on motherboards that allows you to access and set up your
computer system at the most basic level.
There are two different types of BIOS:
UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) BIOS - Any modern PC has a UEFI BIOS.
UEFI can handle drives that are 2.2TB or larger
 Legacy BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) - Older motherboards have legacy BIOS firmware
for turning on the PC. While, like UEFI, it controls how the CPU and components interact,
Legacy BIOSes have some limitations. They can't recognize drives that are larger than 2.1TB
and they have text-only menus in their setup programs.

The method used in DOS to communicate with any device on the system such as disks, keyboard,
monitor, etc. Directs only system hardware, not network hardware.
USB Port - some newer machines will have a port for the Universal Serial Bus (USB) connection. The
USB port will support up to 127 devices and
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) specification stipulates five data transfer rates:
 USB 1.0/Low-Speed: 1.5 Megabits per second (Mbps)

 USB 1.1/Full-Speed: 12 Mbps

 USB 2.0/Hi-Speed: 480 Mbps

 USB 3.0/SuperSpeed: 5 Gbps

 USB 3.1/SuperSpeed: 10 Gbps

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When connecting devices with different USB versions, the data transfer rate will be limited by the
slowest of the connected devices. This means that data transfer will occur at 12 Mbps when you
connect a USB 2.0 device to a USB 1.1 device, even though the USB 2.0 device is capable of
transferring data at 480 Mbps.

Chip Set The "Chipset" is the set of integrated circuits that control most of the activities that take place
on the motherboard. They also interface with most of the circuits of the motherboard.

In some cases a system will not have a full motherboard. The chips normally found on a motherboard
are on a separate adapter card which plugs into a connector. In this case the plug in board is called a
backplane or planar board and contains the expansion slots.

1.3. Power Supply (PS or P/S)

 Also called PSU (power supply unit) is a hardware component of a computer that supplies all
other components with power.
 is located at the back of the computer, usually at the top
 However, many more recent tower computer cases house the power supply at the bottom back of
the case. In a desktop computer case (all-in-one), the power supply is located at the back left or
back right
 A box-shaped device that converts wall-outlet AC power to low-voltage DC used to power the
devices in the computer.
 DC power is required for all the components inside the computer.

The basic function of power supply is to convert the type of electrical power available or Alternate
Current (AC) to the type of computer circuitry can use direct current or DC voltage and Address power
good signal messages to mother board.

The power supply converts a 110-115 or 220-230 volt AC (alternating current) into a steady low-
voltage DC (direct current) usable by the computer and rated by the number of watts it generates.

Standard power supplies turn the incoming 110V or 230V AC (Alternating Current) into various DC
(Direct Current) voltages suitable for powering the computer's components.

Power supplies are quoted as having a certain power output specified in Watts, a standard power supply
would typically be able to deliver around 250-350 Watts.

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The quality of Power supply unit can be assured by their wattage. Power supply having around 250
watt is good.

Parts found on the back of a power supply

Below is a list of parts you may find on the back of the power supply.

 A connection for the power cord to the computer.

 A fan opening to heat out of the power supply.
 A red switch to change the power supply voltage.
 A rocker switch to turn the power supply on and off.

On the front of the power supply, which is not visible unless the computer
is opened, you find several cables. These cables connect to the
computer motherboard and other internal components. A power supply
connects to the motherboard using an ATX style connector and may have
one or more of the following cables to connect power to other devices.

 Auxiliary connector
 Berg connector
 Molex connector
 P4 connector

Parts found inside a power supply

Below is a list of parts inside a power supply.

 A rectifier that converts AC (alternating current) into DC.

 A filter that smooths out the DC (direct current) coming from a
rectifier.
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  A transformer that controls the incoming voltage by stepping it
up or down.
 A voltage regulator that controls the DC output, allowing the
correct amount of power, volts or watts, to be supplied to the
computer hardware.

The order that these internal power supply components function is as

follows.

1. Transformer

2. Rectifier

3. Filter

4. Voltage Regulator

What items are powered by the computer PSU?

Everything contained in the computer chassis is powered by the power
supply. For example, the motherboard, RAM, CPU, hard drive, disc drives,
and most video cards (if the computer has one) are all drawing power from
the power supply. Any other external devices and peripherals, such as the
computer monitor and printer, have a power source or draw power over the
data cable like some USB devices.

Note

If the computer is a laptop or an All-in-One computer, the display is

powered by the computer power supply.

Does the fan always run on a power supply?

While the computer is on, the fan(s) inside a power supply should always
be running. If the fan is not running (spinning), either the computer is not
working or the fan has failed and the power supply should be replaced.

Note

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Some power supplies have variable controls that may increase or
decrease the speed of the fan depending on its temperature.
However, it should always be spinning.

Types of PSUs (Form Factors)

The type or form factor of a power supply will tell you key features about the unit,
including: its size and the features it supports.

Knowing these common form factors can help you choose the power supply you need.
These tips can help ensure your power supply will fit in your case and operate as efficiently
as possible:

AT-Style Connections to the Motherboard

A pair of almost identical connectors, designated P8 and P9, links the power supply to the motherboard

23
ATX
In the past, ATX power supplies featured a single 20-pin connector as the main power to
the motherboard,

but they now feature a 24 -pin power connector (which is still compatible with older 20-pin
motherboards)

The 24-pinslotted connector has two rows of 12 pins each, and the 20-pin slotted connector has two
rows of 10 pins each.

ATX power supplies also house an extra rail that is 3.3V. An example of a feature supported
by ATX is soft-off, which allows specific software to turn off the power supply.

ATX12V
ATX12V specification has surpassed standard ATX technically, but both power supplies share
the same physical shape and size.

Currently the most common form factor, ATX12V power supplies come in several versions
that have been upgraded over time.

ATX12V 2.1 and ATX12V 2.2 are the latest versions.

These versions feature a 24-pin main power connector and have been tuned to maximize
efficiency.

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SFF (Small Form Factor)
There have been a number of small power supplies designed for compact cases.

These power supplies are smaller than the standard ATX but still get the job done and can
be perfect for more economic builds concerned with desk space.

Examples of SFF power supplies are

 the CFX12V (Compact Form Factor),
 LFX12V (Low Profile Form Factor), and
 TFX12V (Thin Form Factor).

EPS12V
Designed to create a more stable environment for servers,

EPS12V power supplies feature an 8-pin CPU power connection in addition to the 4-pin that
is standard in ATX12V units.

However, as most common home PC components are NOT compatible with EPS12V form
factor power supplies.

Power Supply Connector Types

In addition to form factor, it’s important to understand the differences between the various
connector types featured on power supplies.

These are the ends of cables that come from your power supply and plug into all your
different components.

Each of your PC’s components uses specific cables.

Knowing which connections your PSU supports and which cables to use to connect
your components to your PSU can speed up the build process and help to prevent any
accidental damage.

When you choose your power supply, check for compatibility with your other components.
Here’s what you need to know:

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AT-Style Connections to the Motherboard
A pair of almost identical connectors, designated P8 and P9, links the power supply to the motherboard

ATX-Style Motherboard Connections (P1)

A 20-pin or 24-pin slotted connector is used to connect to the motherboard. The 24-pinslotted
connector has two rows of 12 pins each, and the 20-pin slotted connector has two rows of 10 pins each.

Molex connector
This is the most commonly used power connector. It provides both 12-volt and 5-volt power. Hard
disk drives, internal tape drives, CD-ROM drives, DVD (digital video disc) drives, and older.

Mini Molex connector.

Most power supplies provide one or more mini connectors. The mini is used primarily for 3.5-inch
floppy disk drives. It has four pin-outs and, usually, four wires. Most are fitted with keys that make it.

26
SATA Power
These cables provide power to SATA storage devices like 3.5" hard drives. Multiple SATA
connections are often found on one cable to eliminate the need to run excessive wiring.
Recently, SATA power has been adopted by other devices such as RGB hubs or fan
controllers as well.

4/8 PIN CPU

While the CPU is directly installed on the motherboard, the 24-pin connection does not
supply enough power for modern processors and other motherboard features. For this
reason, 4/8 pin connections are now used to power CPUs.

6/8 PIN GPU

6/8 pin GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) cables connect to your graphics card or GPU.
Different strength GPUs require specific configurations. For that reason, 6/8 pin connections
often come with multiple configurations on a single cable, such as 6, 8, 6+8, 8+6, and 8+8.

Rails
In a PC, different components use different voltage levels, and so a power supply must
take the electricity from the wall and split it into 12v, 5v, and 3.3v power.

A rail is simple a wire/path inside the PSU that carries electricity of a certain voltage.

Power supplies can have one or more rails, and individual rails can have different
amperage outputs.
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The rails on modular and semi-modular PSUs will look like rows of ports or cables that plug
into the various PC components.

While discussing rails and amperage can get incredibly technical and detailed, there is one
key fact to remember: a single +12V rail can provide power for all your PC's components
without issue.

The major difference is that when a single a rail system fails, every component is at risk.
When a multi-rail system fails, however, only the devices connected to the failing rail are at
risk, potentially saving other costly components.

To put it plainly, multi-rail power systems can provider better protection for
components from stray currents in the event of a failure.

Efficiency Rating
Knowing the efficiency specifications of your power supply can save you money on your
electric bill. Efficiency is so important when choosing a power supply that the entire industry
follows the same standard, called 80 plus. An 80 plus rating tells you valuable information
about the device and its capabilities. The lowest tier of 80 plus certification verifies that the
power supply provides 80% of its total wattage to your system while losing 20% to heat. As
the rating goes up, so does price and overall efficiency.

80 plus bronze is sufficient for most builds. Only when a high-end GPU and CPU are being
used is a higher efficiency rating truly needed.

Other Factors to Consider

 Making sure your power supply fits inside your case and
 has the proper cables to power your components is essential.

However, secondary factors that are not critical can greatly impact your satisfaction with your
PSU as well.

Noise
Fan noise is an issue for many users. When a power supply starts outputting significant
wattage, it heats up. Excessive heat will trigger a significant increase of the fan speed of the
PSU, and it can get loud. Paying attention to factors like efficiency and wattage limits, you
can find a PSU that will power your system without sounding like a leaf blower.

28
Cabling
Connectors on a PSU are critical to its function, and the cables connecting your PSU to your
computer’s other components have characteristics that can help simplify cable management
and personalize your PC.

All power supply cabling comes in three styles: modular, semi-modular, and pre-installed.

Modular power supplies: save space by allowing users to connect the minimum
amount of cables for each device.
 helps with cable management and adds an option for personalization with custom
cables.

Pre-installed or non-modular PSUs have all the necessary cables pre-installed on the
power supply, and they are NOT removable. These units can be more convenient to build
with but can often lead to dangling cables or unnecessary connectors causing clutter in
the case.

 Semi-modular power supplies are a combination of the two styles mentioned above,
with some of their cables pre-installed but space left for users to add more as desired.
 Have firewired /24-pin connector to the motherboard.

Fully Modular Semi-modular Non-modular

Determining Your Needs

Now that you know all the key terms and factors to pay attention to when purchasing a PSU,
it's also important to consider what your machine's daily workload will look like and how much
power that will require.

Once you know the core components you will be including in your build, you can use a third-
party tool to add and double-check their power consumption. Now that you know how much
29
power the machine is going to use, you can begin looking at PSUs and narrowing your
choices by wattage and efficiency.

Different equipment pulls considerably different amounts of power, so be careful. Say you
need to build a workstation PC that utilizes a powerful CPU and GPU. Those components will
draw significantly more power than a machine with integrated graphics and will thus require
more power from the PSU. Conversely, if you need to build a small form factor PC for basic
office use, a less powerful PSU can save you money while still getting the job done.

How to Choose a Power Supply

(Summary)
Power supplies can make or break a build. While not as flashy as other components,
selecting the right PSU is crucial. When choosing your PSU, details and specifications are of
the utmost importance, and you should always double-check your power supply and other
components to ensure they are compatible. Here’s a quick summary on how to choose your
power supply:

 Determine the amount of power your CPU, GPU, and other devices will need to run
properly.
 Ensure your PSU connections match your other components.
 Double-check to make sure your PSU will fit in your case.
 Consider long-term factors like acoustics, cable management, and upgradability.

30
31
The power good signal is a +5 volts signal that is generated by a switching power supply when the
supply has stabilized its output voltages and passed all its internal self-tests. The is usually generated
after s a period of between 0.1 seconds and 0.5 seconds after turning on the power supply.

32
2.4 Adapter Cards
Adapter card is a printed circuit card required to allow a computer to support a new device or enable
a computer to communicate with a peripheral; also called controller card

Adapter cards increase the functionality of a computer by adding controllers for specific devices or
by replacing malfunctioning ports.

2.4.1. Types of adapter card

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

A specification introduced by Intel that defines a local bus system that allows up to 10 PCI-compliant
expansion cards to be installed in the computer.

PCI video cards were replaced by the newer AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) Specifications:

AGP (Advanced Graphics Port)

The Accelerated Graphics Port (also called Advanced Graphics Port, often shortened to AGP) is a
high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a graphics card to a computer's motherboard,
primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. Some motherboards have been built
with multiple independent AGP slots. AGP is currently being phased out in favor of PCI Express.

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) is a set of standards for physically connecting and
transferring data between computers and peripheral devices.

The SCSI standards define commands, protocols, and electrical and optical interfaces. SCSI is most
commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but it can connect a wide range of other devices,
including scanners, printers, and optical drives (CD, DVD, etc.). The SCSI standards promote
device independence, which means that, at least in theory, almost any type of hardware can be
connected via SCSI.

Serial Port
A serial port is a serial communication physical interface through which information transfers in or out
one bit at a time. Data transferred through serial ports connected the computer to devices such as
terminals or modems. Mice, keyboards, and other peripheral devices.

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

33
Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is a computer standard designed to eliminate the guesswork in
connecting peripherals to a PC. It is expected to replace serial and parallel ports
 USB 1.1 standard supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.
 USB 2.0 (Also referred to as Hi-Speed USB) specification defines a new High-speed transfer
rate of 480 Mb/sec.

Parallel
A parallel port is a type of socket found on personal computers for interfacing with various peripherals.
It is also known as a printer port.
Like the serial port, the USB interface has replaced the parallel port. As of 2006, most modern printers
are connected through a USB connection.

Network Interface Adapters

A hardware device that provides a computer with access to a LAN. Network interface adapters can be
integrated into a computer's motherboard or take the form of an expansion card, in which case they are
called network interface cards or NICs. The adapter has one or more connectors for network cables, or
some other interface to the network medium.

Modem
Short for modulator/demodulator, a hardware device that converts the digital signals generated by
computers into analog signals suitable for transmission over a telephone line and back again. Modems
take the form of internal devices that plug into one of a computer's expansion slots, or external devices
that connect to one of the computer's serial ports.

34
2.5. Processor/CPU
• The brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes
called microprocessor), or central processing unit (CPU).
• It executes software instructions and carries out
arithmetic operations for the system.
• In today’s computers, the processor is the easiest
component to identify on the motherboard.
• It is usually the component that has either a fan or a heat
sink (or sometimes both) attached to it.
• is a complete computation engine that is fabricated on a
single chip.
There are several factors that affect the performance of a
processor.
• Among them are availability of a math coprocessor,
clock speed, internal cache memory, and supporting
circuitry.
Math Coprocessor (Numeric Processing Unit (NPU))
• What it does is increase the speed of calculations
that involve floating decimal point operations (such
as calculations for algebra and statistics). Since the
introduction of the 486, the math coprocessor has
been built into the processor.
• The math co-processor takes some of the workload
off the CPU. For example, it performs many of the

35
 large calculations that applications may require, such
as floating point arithmetic.
• Overall system performance increases because the
CPU can focus on logic functions while the math co-
processor executes complicated mathematical
functions.
Clock Speed
• The clock speed is the frequency (speed) with which
a processor executes instructions. This frequency is
measured in millions of cycles per second, or
megahertz (MHz) or billions of cycles per second or
Giga hertz (GHz).
Cache Memory
• Cache memory is a storage area for frequently used
data and instructions. It requires a small amount of
physical RAM that can keep up with the processor.
The Bus
• The computer’s bus moves information into and out
of the processor and other devices. A bus allows all
devices to communicate with each other.
• Data bus is the term used to define the pathway
between the processor and memory. The larger the
data bus, the more data can be carried from the CPU
to memory in one clock cycle.
• 32 bit processor means 32 bit of info at a clock cycle
• 64 bit processor means 64 bit of info at a clock cycle
Address bus

36
 • The address bus contains a set of wires to carry
information in and out of the processor, but the
information the address bus sends is addressing
information used to describe memory locations. This
location is used for data being sent or retrieved.
• System memory is organized like a spreadsheet, in
rows and columns. Storing information in one of the
blocks, requires reference to the location by address.
• As the number of address line/bus increases, the
processor can access even more possible addresses.
A 2-bit address bus can reference 4 (2x2) possible
addresses.
A 3-bit address bus can reference 8 (2x2x2) possible
addresses.
• Therefore, the address bus dictates how much
physical memory the processor can access.
• For example, an old 80286 processor has a
24-bit address bus, can access 16,777,216
24
(2 ) memory addresses, or 16MB of system memory.
Newer processors have 36-bit address buses,
68,719,476,736 memory addresses, or 64GB of memory
access is possible.
Registers
• are storage areas within the processor
used to store data temporarily for
manipulation later. They are used to
store and process data and perhaps write
back the result of the processed data.
The benefit of storing this information in
37
 the registers instead of in memory is that
the processor contains the information
and does not have to retrieve it from
memory — which takes time.
• Registers are measured in bits. A
processor with 16-bit registers has 16
containers into which a programmer can
choose to store information, while a
processor with 32-bit registers has twice
as many containers that it can use to
store information.
Cache memory
• When the processor retrieves information from
slower system memory, it then stores it in the
high-speed cache in case the processor wants to
access the information a second time. The
benefit is that the second time the data is
needed, it is sitting in the high-speed memory
located on the processor chip. The processor will
not need to sit around and wait for the data to
come from system memory — again increasing
overall performance.
• There are two types of cache memory:
L1 (Level 1) cache is built into the processor
L2 (Level 2) cache resides outside the processor. In the
past, L2 cache resided on the motherboard, but
newer processors have a bit of L1 and L2 cache in the
chip package. If you upgrade the cache memory on
38
 your computer, you are adding L2 cache to the
motherboard — you wouldn’t be able to upgrade the
L1 cache on the processor.
• The more cache memory a processor has, the
quicker (and more expensive) the system will be.

The function of the CPU

• Fetch instructions (from memory)
• Interpret instructions (decode them to
determine action)
• Fetch data (instruction execution may need
operands from memory)
• Process data (perform arithmetic operation)
• Write data (results are stored back in memory)
Characteristics of Processors
• Features affecting processor
performance and motherboards
System bus speeds the processor
supports
Processor core frequency
Motherboard socket and chipset
Multiprocessing ability
Memory cache
Amount and type of DDR, DDR2, DDR3
memory

39
 Computing technologies the processor
can use
Voltage and power consumption

Components of the CPU

1. Control unit (CU): which controls the processor in that it instructs other
parts of the processor telling them what to do, what data to work on, where
to find it and where to put the results.

2. Input/output (I/O) unit

 Manages data and instructions entering and leaving the processor.
3. Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU):
 a microprocessor can perform mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
 Modern microprocessors contain complete floating-point processors
that can extremely perform sophisticated operations on large floating-
point numbers.
 It also use comparative logic to give a true or false decision for a given
criteria.
4. Register: is the small memory units found in the CPU that are used to
store data and instruction before and after execution.
 Small holding areas on processor chip.
 Holds counters, data, instructions, and addresses ALU is currently
processing.
 A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another.
 A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of
instructions based on those decisions.

40
41
All CPUs do the same thing –
 control the pc and
 doing different operation,
 but physically, they differ in their Packaging
 Packaging is made from ceramic or plastic material to protect the core of the microchip
together with an arrangement of pins through which (Electronic) connection can be used.

CPU packages
1. Dual in-line pin package (DIPP)
 Some books call it DIP
 The earliest chips with pins down two long sides of the chip.
 Pressured was needed to push these into place, and pins could easily be damaged.

2. Pin Grid Array (PGA)

 The pins are arranged in concentric squares on the underside of the chip.
42
 CPGA (ceramic) and PPGA (plastic) versions were developed.
 Early Pentiums adopted the SPGA (staggered PGA) which fitted more.
 Pin damage became less common but could still happen, but then the ZIF (zero insertion force)
sockets solved this problem.
 Another alternative to PGA is the PBGA (plastic ball grid array) which doesn’t have mounting pins
under near the chip.

3. Single-Edge Contact (SEC)

 Has a continuous edge of connection and is mounted vertically on the motherboard (as with
expansion cards and memory modules)
 Apart from the lack of pins that could not be bent or damaged.

Sockets and slots

Two general types of mountings are used to mount processors to the
motherboard:
sockets and slots
Most processors are available in only one mounting style, disregarding
ceramic versus plastic.
Other processors, such as the Celeron, are available in either a PGA-type or
an SEC-type package.

Slots type:
Slot type connections use a single slot mounting on the motherboard that
mounts the processor in the same manner that is used for memory modules or
expansion cards.
43
Common CPU manufacturers
 Intel
 AMD
 Cyrix
Intel Products, some
1. Pentium: This processor features 32-bit multitasking and superscalar
architecture that executes two instructions in the same clock cycle. The
Pentium expanded the internal bus to 64 bits and high-speed internal
cache.

2. Pentium Pro: The Pentium Pro was developed as a network server

processor. It was specially designed to support 32-bit network operating
systems, such as Windows NT, and to be used in configurations of one,
two, or four processors, with 1 megabyte of advanced Level 2 (L2) cache

3. Pentium II: The Pentium II is the Pentium Pro processor with MMX
(Multi-Media Extensions) technology added. And it is excellent for
multimedia work that requires support for full-motion video and 3D
images

4. Celeron: Developed for use in desktop and portable computers, the

Celeron is a low-cost version of the Pentium II processor.

5. Pentium III: Although recently surpassed by the Pentium 4, the Pentium

III has been the highest-powered processor in the Intel. It features 9.5
million transistors, a 32K L1 cache, 512K of L2 cache, and clock speeds
of 450 MHz to 1 GHz.

6. Xeon: The Xeon processors, both Pentium II and Pentium III, are
successors to the Pentium Pro processors. The Xeon is a network server
processor that is capable of addressing and caching up to 64GB of memory
with its 36-bit memory address bus. Xeon processors can be configured
with four to eight CPUs in one server.

7. Pentium 4: Using the first totally new processor design since the Pentium
Pro, the Pentium 4 (P4) processor has clock speeds that exceed 2 GHz, or
about twice the speed of the Pentium III.

44
AMD processors
 American Micro Devices (AMD) is the manufacturer of the K6, Athlon,
and Duron processors, which compete with the Intel Pentium processors.

CPU types
The CPU is now available in the form of microprocessors which

comprises unit metal-dioxide-semiconductor in the integrated

circuits. Few systems employ multiple core processor enclosed in a

single socket termed as CPU cores.

Types of CPU
The leading manufacturers of CPU are AMD and Intel. In the past, the

processors are employed to find the right and robust processor.

The Intel 486 is rapid than 386, but after introducing the Pentium

processor, all the processors are named like Duron, Celeron, Pentium,

and Athlon. The various types of the processor are built in different

architecture like 64 bit and 32 bit with maximum speed and flexible

capacity. The major types of CPU are classified as single-core, dual-

45
core, Quad-core, Hexa core, Octa-core, and Deca core processor

which is explained below.

1. Single-core CPU
It is the oldest type of CPU which is available and employed in most

of the personal and official computers.

The single-core CPU can execute only one command at a time and

it’s not efficient in multi-tasking. It signifies that there is a markable

declination in performance if more than a single application is

executed. If one operation is started, the second process should

wait until the first one is finished. But if it is fed with multiple

operations, the performance of the computer is drastically reduced.

The performance of a single-core CPU is based on its clock speed by

measuring its power.

2. Dual-core CPU
It is a single CPU that comprises of two strong cores and functions

like dual CPU acting like one.

46
Unlike the CPU with a single core, the processor must switch back

and forth within a variable array of data streams and if or more

thread is executed, the dual-core CPU manages the multitasking

effectively.

To utilize the dual-core CPU effectively, the running programs and

operating system should have a unique code called simultaneous

multi-threading technology embedded in it.

Dual-core CPU is rapid than a single core but it is not robust as quad-

core CPU

3. Quad-core CPU
The quad-core CPU is a refined model of multiple core CPU features

and design with four cores on a single CPU.

Similar to dual-core CPU, that divides the workload in between the

cores, and quad-core enables for effective multitasking.

47
It doesn’t signify any single operation which is four times faster rapid

than others. Unless the applications and program executed on it by

SMT code will fasten the speed and becomes unnoticeable.

Such types of CPU are used in people who need to execute

multiple different programs at the same time as gamers, series of

supreme commander that is optimized in multiple core CPU.

4. Hexa Core processors

It is another multiple core processor which is available with six cores

and can execute the task which works rapidly than the quad-core and

dual-core processors. For users of the personal computer, the

processors of Hexacore is simple and now the Intel is launched with

Inter core i7 in 2010 with Hexa core processor. But here the users of

smartphones use only quad-core and dual-core processors. Nowadays,

smartphones are available with hexacore processors.

48
5. Octa-core processors
The dual-core is built with two cores, four cores are built-in quad-core,

Hexa comes with six cores where the octa processors are developed

with eight independent cores to execute an effective task that is

efficient and even acts rapidly than quad-core processors. Trending

octa-core processors comprises of a dual set of quad-core processors

that divides different activities between the various types. Many times,

the minimum powered core sets are employed to produce advanced

tasks. If there is any emergency or requirement, the rapid four sets of

cores will be kicked in. In precise, the octa-core is perfectly defined

with dual-code core and adjust it accordingly to give the effective

performance.

6. Deca-core processor
The processor with double core comprises two cores, 4 cores are

available with quad cores, six cores are available in hexacore

processors. Deca-core is available with ten independent systems that

49
are deployed to execute and manage the task that is successful than

other processors that are developed until now. Owning a PC, or any

device made with a deca-core processor is the best option. It is faster

than other processors and very successful in multi-tasking. Deca-core

processors are trending with its advanced features. Most of the

smartphones are now available with Deca core processors with low-

cost and never become outdated. Surely, most gadgets in the market

are updated with new processors to give more useful purposes to

people.

Mainstream processors of CPU

The mid-range processors are called mainstream processors which is

comparatively larger and manages high-performance tasks like

video editing, 3D gaming, and other multimedia oriented

applications. It is similar to budget-friendly processors that are

implemented to execute the fundamental task in a cost-effective

50
method. Such a CPU can be easily managed to operate office

programs, photo editing, web browsing, and other basic tasks.

CPU speed and Multipliers

All modern CPUs are clock multiplies. So in reality, every CPU now has two
clock speeds: the speed that it runs internally and the speed that it runs when
talking to the address bus and the external data bus. Multipliers run from 2X
up to almost 30X multipliers don’t expect always whole numbers, you may
find a CPU with a multiplier like 6.5x.

Note: the processor get its speed from the motherboard speed by multiplier.

CPU speed=MB speed × Multiplier

Example:
1). what will be the processor speed, if the external speed of your
motherboard is 133MHZ and the multiplier is 23X?
CPU speed =MB speed × Multipliers
Given: MB speed=133MHz and Multipliers=23X
CPU speed =133MHz × 23
=3059MHZ (to change to Mega Hz divide the result to 1000)
=3.059GHz
=3.06GHZ

Front Side Bus

Front side bus or system bus is a data bus that carries all information between
CPU and all other devices within the system: RAM, AGP Video Card, PCI
Expansion Cards, hard disk, etc. It is also called data bus. All devices are
connected to the bus. Because of this, any information placed on the bus is
available to all devices connected to the computer.

Fig 2 Front side Bus

51
 They operate at a speed of 66MHZ,
100,133,200,266,400,533,800MHZ or
1066MHZ. The speed of CPU is specified as:
CPU Cooling
Specialized cooling system became serious starting from 486. Earlier chips
ran at a low speed and contained relatively few transistors. Because of this
they needed no specialized cooling. Heat sinks conduct heat from CPU to
heat sink and then radiate it to air. Good cooling depends on the transfer of
heat between the CPU and heat sink. The heat sink and CPU should contact
each other to the maximum surface area possible. This allows heat to flow
easily.
There are two cooling mechanism:
Passive Heat Sink
Passive heat sinks have no moving parts. They are made up of aluminum.
An aluminum extrusion creates fins. They cool the CPU by using thermal
conduction and radiation. The heat sink draws heat from the CPU and air
flowing through the heat sink cools the heat sink itself.
Active Heat Sink
Active heat sink adds a small fan that blows directly onto the heat sink metal
to ensured direct air flow. An active heat sink cools better than passive heat
sink by forcing air flow. Unfortunately, the fans have short life span and
they are the first thing to fail in most PCs.
Overheated CPU causes:
 System crash
 Random reboot
 Memory errors
 Disk problems
 Application errors

2.6. Random Access Memory

52
What is RAM?
 Simply stated, Random Access Memory is a name applied to microchips
designed to store and address information while a computer is actually
using it.
 This is in contrast with the hard drive, which stores and accesses
information semi-permanently (that is, until it is deleted).
 Professionals refer to individual RAM modules as "sticks."
 RAM is volatile, which means that it needs a constant current in order for
it to retain information.
 Once the current is removed, the information disappears.
 This is why you have to save a document that you're working on before
you shut off your computer.
 When you hit "save," the document is transferred from the RAM
(temporary storage), to permanent storage (internal or external hard drive,
flush, CD-RW, etc.).
 This is also one reason why it's important to save long documents
periodically while you're working on them.
 If your computer experiences even a brief power interruption, all of the
information stored in RAM will be lost.

Memory Module Types

1. SIMM
A SIMM (single in-line memory module) is a type of memory module
containing random-access memory used in computers from the early 1980s to
the late 1990s. It differs from a dual in-line memory module, the most
predominant form of memory module today, in that the contacts on a SIMM
are redundant on both sides of the module
53
30 Pin SIMM

 The 30 Pin SIMM was the first generation of the SIMM memory
family.
 They are typically found in older Intel 286 and 386 desktop computer
systems.
 They come in both 8 bit and 9 bit (parity) configurations, with memory
ranges of 256K to 8 megabyte, 60ns to 80ns and are 5 Volts only.
 The DRAM types supported are mostly Page Mode and Nibble Mode
DRAM which comes in both DIP(dual in-line package), PLCC( plastic-
leaded chip carrier) and SOJ packages.


72 Pin SIMM

The 72 Pin SIMM was the second generation of the SIMM family.

 They are typically found in the Intel 486, 486DX, 586 and some early
Pentium desktop computer systems.
 They come in both 32 bit and 36 bit (parity) configurations, with
memory ranges of 4, 8, 16 and 32 megabytes.

54
  These were normally produced in two voltage, 5V and 3.3V, and theirs
speeds ranged from 60ns to 70ns.

Both Fast Page Mode (FPM) and Extended Data Out (EDO) were standard
DRAM types offered in 72 pin configurations.

2. DIMM

DIMM (dual in-line memory module) is a type of computer memory that is

natively 64 bits, enabling fast data transfer. DIMM is a module that contains
one or several random access memory (RAM) chips on a small circuit board
with pins that connect it to the computer motherboard.

168 Pin DIMM

The 168 PIN DIMM is what is found in most desktop computers today.
 Early on there were three memory types offered in the 168 Pin DIMM
form factor, FPM, EDO and Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM).
 Their configurations include 64bit, 72bit and 80Bit, ECC and Non-
ECC, and memory sizes included 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512 and 1024
megabytes.
 Available voltages included 3.3v and 5v for FPM and EDO, and 3.3v
for SDRAM.
 Features added to later versions of the168 Pin DIMM family were the
inclusion of a serial EEPROM called the "Serial Presence Detect"
which contains information about the module type.
 Some of the later versions of the SDRAM modules (usually higher cost
modules) could reach a maximum frequency of 150Mhz.
 Present day SDRAM technology has passed this 150 MHz range.
 Later generations of the 168 Pin DIMM became available as Registered
DIMM's or Buffered DIMM's for high-end workstations and servers
and Un-buffered DIMM's for most personal computers.
 There are many variants to be found with 168 Pin DIMM's, as they are
the current popular form factor.
 The post popular of these today are the PC 100 and PC 133 varieties.
55
72 Pin SODIMM

 72 Pin SODIMM's are typically found in Pentium II Laptop computer.

 They come in 64 bit configurations, with memory ranges of 8, 16 and
32 megabyte.
 These modules are designed around lower power consumption and
only one voltage is offered, FPM and EDO at 3.3v.
 FPM and EDO are the standard DRAM types offered and the packaging
is referred to as SOJ.

144 Pin SODIMM(Small outline Dual Input Memory Module)

 144 Pin SODIMM's are typically used in PC 66 and PC 100 SDRAM

Laptop compatible computers.
 It comes in both 64 bit and 72bit ECC versions and the memory ranges
were 16 to 256 megabyte.
 The SDRAM chips used in 144 Pin SODIMM's are typically SDRAM
in the form of TSOP packaging and available in 3.3v only.

100 Pin DIMM

 100 Pin DIMMs are primarily used in printers.

 It comes in both 64 bit and 72bit ECC configurations, and is available
in memory ranges of 16 to 128 megabytes.
 The SDRAM chips used on the 100 Pin DIMM are typically SDRAM
in TSOP packaging.
 Both FPM and EDO were/are used in 100 Pin DIMM.

56
184 Pin DIMM

 DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM) is the newest of
the memory types under development that will be available in the 184
Pin DIMM form factor.
 The principle difference between conventional SDRAM and DDR
SDRAM is its ability to read/write data on both edges of a clock,
therefore resulting in faster data transfer.
 DDR SDRAM will be available in two frequencies, 200 MHz and 266
MHz, and operational voltage is 2.5v.
 There is speculation (these have not been released to manufacturing as
of this writing) that these modules will be available in both 64 bit and
72bit ECC configurations, with memory ranges of 64 megabytes
through to 1 gigabyte.
 The DDR SDRAM chips used are of the TSOP package.

200 Pin SODIMM

 The 200 Pin SODIMM modules come in both 64 bit and 72bit ECC
configurations, with memory ranges of 64 megabyte through 512
megabyte.
 DDR SODIMM modules are slated for use in next-generation DDR
Laptop applications.
 The DDR SDRAM chips used on the 200 DIMM are typically in
TSOP packaging.

3. RIMM

184 Pin RIMM

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The 184 pin RIMM is used on motherboards using the latest Intel i820/i840
chipsets and is referred to as Rambus. The 184 pin RIMM module comes in
both 16bit and 18bit ECC configurations, operating frequencies of 600MHz,
700MHz and 800 MHz and are available with memory ranges of 64 through
512 megabytes. The Rambus packaging is referred to as the Ball Grid Array
(BGA) form factor. The Rambus modules only require 2.5 volts.
There is a 1 GHz Rambus chip under development that was slated for release
in 2001.

DIMM vs. SIMM

The main differences between DIMM and SIMM are:
 A DIMM is a double sided SIMM. SIMM can be installed in in-line
pairs while DIMM is independent of the side. Because a DIMM has
separate contacts on each side of the board, it provides twice as much
data as a single SIMM.
 SIMM can have a maximum 32-bit channel for data transfer. In
contrast, DIMM supports 64-bit channel.
 The amount of power consumed by SIMM is 5 volts and 3.3 volts for
DIMM.
 SIMM modules can store at maximum 64 bits. On the contrary, DIMM
offers up to 1 GB.
 SIMM is outdated technology. DIMM is used mainly because its
performance is better than SIMM.

Types of RAM
 RAM comes in different types and flavors to suit different needs and
budgets.
 There are many specialized types of RAM,
 but some of the more common types are:
 SRAM. Static Random Access Memory is very fast and very expensive.
o It is primarily used for memory caching (such as on processor
chips).
o Architecturally, it has multiple transistors for each memory cell.
o It does not need to be refreshed.
o It is rarely encountered except as a component of other devices.
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  DRAM. Dynamic Random Access Memory is slower than SRAM and
needs to be refreshed many times every second.
o Each memory cell consists of a capacitor and a transistor.
 DRAM is much less expensive than SRAM.

 SDRAM. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory is a special

type of DRAM that is synchronized to the system clock.
 Each chip contains internal registers that accept requests from the CPU,
thus freeing the cpu to do other things while the data is assembled.
 Since SDRAM is synchronized to the CPU, it "knows" when the next
cycle is coming, and has the data ready when the CPU requests it.
o This increases efficiency by reducing CPU waits states.
o SDRAM is available at speeds as high as 133 MHz.

168-pin SDRAM
 DDR-SDRAM. Double-Data Rate SDRAM works the same way as does
ordinary SDRAM, except it works twice as quickly by synchronizing to
both the rising and falling of the clock pulse (which makes it twice as fast
as ordinary SDRAM).
 DDR-SDRAM can also be installed in dual-channels if the motherboard
supports this arrangement. There is no difference in the actual RAM
modules used for dual-channel DDR, but the two sticks of RAM in each
channel must be a matched pair (same size and speed).
 DDR3 is the latest evolution in DDR RAM.

184-pin DDR SDRAM(DDR1)

DDR2 RAM
Stands for double data rate synchronous dynamic random access memory
interface. Every motherboard in a PC can work with either SDR, DDR or
59
DDR2 RAM memory systems. DDR and DDR2 Ram are not compatible
with each other. DDR2 RAM first appeared on the international scene in the
second quarter of 2003 at two initial clock rates: 200 MHz and 266 MHz,
Have 240 pins.

240-pin DDR2

. 240-pin DDR3
The difference between DDR2 and DDR3
On the appearance, both DDR3 and DDR2 use 240 pins and you can hardly
see any differences between them. The only difference is the position of the
key notch that prevents users from inserting the wrong type of RAM into
their motherboards. The shift in the position of the key notch also means that
DDR3 is not compatible with DDR2 and a separate DIMM slot has to be
used.

 RDRAM. RAMBUS Dynamic Random Access Memory is a very fast

type of RAM in which the chips work in parallel to produce very fast
speeds. However, because it is proprietary and very expensive, RDRAM
has been slow in catching on.

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 RDRAM
Cache Memory
 SRAM is used as cache memory to store the most frequently used data.
 SRAM gives the processor faster access to the data than retrieving it
from the slower DRAM, or main memory.
 The three types of cache memory are as follows:
o L1 is internal cache integrated into the CPU.
o L2 is external cache originally mounted on the motherboard near the
CPU. L2 cache is now integrated into the CPU.
o L3 is used on some high-end workstations and server CPUs.
2.7. Secondary storage devices
A storage drive reads or writes information to magnetic or optical storage media. It can be used to store
data permanently or to retrieve information from a media disk. Storage drives can be installed inside
the computer case, such as a hard drive. For portability, some storage drives can connect to the
computer using a USB port, a FireWire port, or a SCSI port.
These portable storage drives are sometimes called removable drives and can be used on multiple
computers.

 Floppy drive
 Hard drive
 Optical drive
 Flash drive
 Network drive
The following sections describe these storage drives in greater detail.

Floppy Drives
 A floppy drive, or floppy disk drive, is a storage device that uses removable 3.5-inch floppy disks.
 These magnetic floppy disks can store 720 KB or 1.44 MB of data.
 In a computer, the floppy drive is usually configured as the A: drive.
 The floppy drive can be used to boot the computer if it contains a bootable floppy disk.

Hard Drives
 Hard disk is the data center of PC. It is here that all your programs and data are stored.
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  A hard disk drive contains rigid, disk-shaped platters.
 The platters are usually constructed of aluminum or glass; so they can’t bend or flex unlike floppy
disk. The platters are coated by magnetic substance on both sides. Data is written to hard disk by
magnetizing and demagnetizing the surface of the platters. Data is stored on both sides of the
platter.

fig 2 Hard disk platters with read-write head

The stack of platters forms a hard disk. There is one head per platter side i.e. two head per platter.
These heads do not touch the platters during normal operation. If forceful contact with spinning platters
is created that is forceful enough to do damage, the event is called head crash. Dust and shock may
cause head crash. Head crash could be catastrophic depending on situationsdata loss, damage to
heads, damage to surface of disk, etc.

During rest, the read-write head rests on the platters. It is during spinning that they should not touch.
Hard disk is also divided into tracks and sectors like floppy disk.

Fig 3 hard disk sectors and track

Most hard disk spin at 3,600 RPM-approximately 10 times faster than floppy disk. Some hard disks
spin faster than this. Spinning rate affects data transfer rate.

Types of Hard Disks

Based on the connectors used to connect hard disks to motherboard, there are three types of hard disks:
 SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
 SATA (Serial ATA)
 IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) or ATA or PATA(Parallel ATA)

1) IDE

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It is also called ATA (AT Attachment). In IDE, the interface electronics or controller is built into the
drive itself; why it is called Integrated Drive Electronics. IDE is an evolutionary version of earlier
interfaces that used separate drives and controllers.
Today, IDE is used to connect not only hard disk, but also CD-ROM drives, tape drives, and high
capacity super Disk floppy drives.

2) SCSI
Stands for "Small Computer System Interface," and is pronounced "scuzzy." SCSI is a computer
interface used primarily for high-speed hard drives.

3) SATA
Serial ATA (SATA or Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) is a computer bus interface for
connecting host bus adapters to mass storage devices such as hard disk drives and optical drives.

Optical Drives
An optical drive is a storage device that uses lasers to read data on the optical media. Two types of
optical drives exist:
 Compact disc (CD)
 Digital versatile disc (DVD)
CD and DVD media can be prerecorded (read-only), recordable (write once), or rerecord able (read and
write multiple times). CDs have a data storage capacity of approximately700 MB. DVDs have a data
storage capacity of approximately 8.5 GB on one side of the disc. Several types of optical media exist:
 CD-ROM is CD read-only memory media that is prerecorded.
 CD-R is CD recordable media that can be recorded once.
 CD-RW is CD rewritable media that can be recorded, erased, and rerecorded.
 DVD-ROM is DVD read-only memory media that is prerecorded.
 DVD-RAM is DVD random-access memory media that can be recorded, erased, and
rerecorded.
 DVD+/-R is DVD recordable media that can be recorded once.
 DVD+/-RW is DVD rewritable media that can be recorded, erased, and rerecorded.

Flash Drives
 A flash drive, also known as a thumb drive, is a removable storage device that connects to a USB
port.
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 A flash drive uses a special type of memory that requires no power to maintain the data.
 These drives can be accessed by the operating system in the same way other types of drives are
accessed.
 The storage capacity of a flash drive varies from a couple of megabytes to 16 gigabytes.

Network Drives
A network drive is a connection to a remote computer’s storage for access to files, directories, and
applications. Network connections are covered in more detail in later chapters.

Types of Drive Interfaces

Hard drives and optical drives are manufactured with different interfaces that are used to connect the
drive to the computer. When you install a storage drive in a computer, the connection interface on the
drive must be the same as the controller on the motherboard. Some common drive interfaces are as
follows:
 Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE), also called Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA), is an
early drive controller interface that connects computers and hard-disk drives. An IDE interface uses
a 40-pin connector.
 Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE), also called ATA-2, is an updated version of the
IDE drive controller interface. An EIDE interface uses a 40-pin connector.
 Parallel ATA (PATA) refers to the parallel version of the ATA drive controller interface.
 Serial ATA (SATA) refers to the serial version of the ATA drive controller interface. ASATA
interface uses a seven-pin connector.
 Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is a drive controller interface that can connect up to 15
drives. SCSI can connect both internal and external drives. A SCSI interface uses a 50-pin, 68-pin,
or 80-pin connector.

2.8. Identify the Names, Purposes, and Characteristics of Internal Cables

Drives require both a power cable and a data cable. A power supply has a SATA power connector for
SATA drives, a Molex power connector for PATA drives, and a Berg four-pin connector for floppy
drives. The buttons and the LED lights on the front of the case connector the motherboard with the
front panel cables. Data cables connect drives to the drive controller, which is located on an adapter
card or the motherboard. Some common types of data cables are as follows:
 Floppy disk drive (FDD) data cable has up to two 34-pin drive connectors and one 34- pin
connector for the drive controller.
 PATA (IDE) data cable has 40 conductors, up to two 40-pin connectors for drives, and one 40-
pin connector for the drive controller.
 PATA (EIDE) data cable has 80 conductors, up to two 40-pin connectors for drives, and one 40-
64
 pin connector for the drive controller.
 SATA data cable has seven conductors, one keyed connector for the drive, and one keyed
connector the drive controller.

2.9. Ports and Cables

Types of Computer Ports and Their

Functions
A Computer Port is an interface or a point of connection between the computer and its
peripheral devices. Some of the common peripherals are mouse, keyboard, monitor or
display unit, printer, speaker, flash drive etc.

The main function of a computer port is to act as a point of attachment, where the
cable from the peripheral can be plugged in and allows data to flow from and to the
device.

65
A computer port is also called as a Communication Port as it is responsible for
communication between the computer and its peripheral device. Generally, the female
end of the connector is referred to as a port and it usually sits on the motherboard.

In Computers, communication ports can be divided into two types based on the type or
protocol used for communication. They are Serial Ports and Parallel Ports.

66
A serial port is an interface through which peripherals can be connected using a serial
protocol which involves the transmission of data one bit at a time over a single
communication line. The most common type of serial port is a D-Subminiature or a D-
sub connector that carry RS-232 signals.

A parallel port, on the other hand, is an interface through which the communication
between a computer and its peripheral device is in a parallel manner i.e. data is
transferred in or out in parallel using more than one communication line or wire. Printer
port is an example of parallel port.

PS/2

PS/2 connector is developed by IBM for connecting mouse and keyboard. It was
introduced with IBM’s Personal Systems/2 series of computers and hence the name
PS/2 connector. PS/2 connectors are color coded as purple for keyboard and green for
mouse.

PS/2 is a 6-pin DIN connector. The pin out diagram of a PS/2 female connector is
shown below.
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Even though the pinout of both mouse and keyboard PS/2 ports are same, computers
do not recognize the devise when connected to wrong port.

PS/2 port is now considered a legacy port as USB port has superseded it and very few
of the modern motherboards include it as a legacy port.

Serial Port

Even though the communication in PS/2 and USB is serial, technically, the term Serial
Port is used to refer the interface that is compliant to RS-232 standard. There are two
types of serial ports that are commonly found on a computer: DB-25 and DE-9.

DB-25

DB-25 is a variant of D-sub connector and is the original port for RS-232 serial
communication. They were developed as the main port for serial connections using
RS-232 protocol but most of the applications did not require all the pins.

Hence, DE-9 was developed for RS-232 based serial communication while DB-25 was
rarely used as a serial port and often used as a parallel printer port as a replacement
of the Centronics Parallel 36 pin connector.

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DE-9 or RS-232 or COM Port

DE-9 is the main port for RS-232 serial communication. It is a D-sub connector with E
shell and is often miscalled as DB-9. A DE-9 port is also called as a COM port and
allows full duplex serial communication between the computer and it’s peripheral.

Some of the applications of DE-9 port are serial interface with mouse, keyboard,
modem, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) and other external RS-232 compatible
devices.

The pinout diagram of DE-9 port is shown below.

69
The use of DB-25 and DE-9 ports for communication is in decline and are replaced by
USBs or other ports.

Parallel Port or Centronics 36 Pin Port

Parallel port is an interface between computer and peripheral devices like printers with
parallel communication. The Centronics port is a 36 pin port that was developed as an
interface for printers and scanners and hence a parallel port is also called as a
Centronics port.

Before the wide use of USB ports, parallel ports are very common in printers. The
Centronics port was later replaced by DB-25 port with parallel interface.

Audio Ports

Audio ports are used to connect speakers or other audio output devices with the
computer. The audio signals can be either analogue or digital and depending on that
the port and its corresponding connector differ.

Surround Sound Connectors or 3.5 mm TRS Connector

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It is the most commonly found audio port that can be used to connect stereo
headphones or surround sound channels. A 6 connector system is included on
majority of computers for audio out as well as a microphone connection.

The 6 connectors are color coded as Blue, Lime, Pink, Orange, Black and Grey. These
6 connectors can be used for a surround sound configuration of up to 8 channels.

Video Ports

VGA Port

VGA port is found in many computers, projectors, video cards and High Definition TVs.
It is a D-sub connector consisting of 15 pins in 3 rows. The connector is called as DE-
15.

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VGA port is the main interface between computers and older CRT monitors. Even the
modern LCD and LED monitors support VGA ports but the picture quality is reduced.
VGA carries analogue video signals up to a resolution of 648X480.

With the increase in use of digital video, VGA ports are gradually being replaced by
HDMI and Display Ports. Some laptops are equipped with on-board VGA ports in order
to connect to external monitors or projectors. The pinout of a VGA port is shown
below.

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Digital Video Interface (DVI)

DVI is a high speed digital interface between a display controller like a computer and a
display device like a monitor. It was developed with an aim of transmitting lossless
digital video signals and replace the analogue VGA technology.

73
There are three types of DVI connectors based on the signals it can carry: DVI-I, DVI-
D and DVI-A. DVI-I is a DVI port with integrated analogue and digital signals. DVI-D
supports only digital signals and DVI-A supports only analogue signals.

The digital signals can be either single link or dual link where a single link supports a
digital signal up to 1920X1080 resolution and a dual link supports a digital signal up to
2560X1600 resolution. The following image compares the structures of DVI-I, DVI-D
and DVI-A types along with the pinouts.

Mini-DVI

Mini-DVI port is developed by Apple as an alternative to Mini-VGA port and is

physically similar to one. It is smaller than a regular DVI port.

74
It is a 32 pin port and is capable of transmitting DVI, composite, S-Video and VGA
signals with respective adapters. The following image shows a Mini-DVI port and its
compatible cable.

Micro-DVI

Micro-DVI port, as the name suggests is physically smaller than Mini-DVI and is
capable of transmitting only digital signals.

This port can be connected to external devices with DVI and VGA interfaces and
respective adapters are required. In the following image, a Micro-DVI port can be seen
adjacent to headphone and USB ports.

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Display Port

Display Port is a digital display interface with optional multiple channel audio and other
forms of data. Display Port is developed with an aim of replacing VGA and DVI ports
as the main interface between a computer and monitor.

The latest version DisplayPort 1.3 can handle a resolution up to 7680 X 4320.

The Display Port has a 20 pin connector, which is a very less number when compared
to DVI port and offers better resolution. The pin out diagram of a Display Port is shown
below.

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Update: DisplayPort 1.4a is the latest (in production) version of DisplayPort
Specification with support for 4K (3840 x 2160) at 120 Hz or 8K (7680 x 4320) at 60
Hz. An improved DisplayPort version 2.0 specification is released in June of 2019 with
an increased bandwidth of 77.37 Gbps (approximately).

Mini DisplayPort

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Apple introduced a miniature version of DisplayPort and called it Mini DisplayPort
(mDP or Mini DP). Even though Mini DisplayPort has 20 pins, the physical size of the
connector is smaller than a regular DisplayPort and the pin out is also different.

Most laptops provide Mini DisplayPort as an additional video out option in addition to
HDMI.

RCA Connector

RCA Connector can carry composite video and stereo audio signals over three cables.
Composite video transmits analogue video signals and the connector is as yellow
colored RCA connector.

The video signals are transmitted over a single channel along with the line and frame
synchronization pulses at a maximum resolution of 576i (standard resolution).

The red and white connectors are used for stereo audio signals (red for right channel
and white for left channel).

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Component Video

Component Video is an interface where the video signals are split into more than two
channels and the quality of the video signal is better that Composite video.

Like composite video, component video transmits only video signals and two separate
connectors must be used for stereo audio. Component video port can transmit both
analogue and digital video signals.

The ports of the commonly found Component video uses 3 connectors and are color
coded as Green, Blue and Red.

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S-Video

S-Video or Separate Video connector is used for transmitting only video signals. The
picture quality is better than that of Composite video but has a lesser resolution than
Component video.

The S-Video port is generally black in color and is present on all TVs and most
computers. S-Video port looks like a PS/2 port but consists of only 4 pins.

Out of the 4 pins, one pin is used to carry the intensity signals (black and white) and
other pin is used to carry color signals. Both these pins have their respective ground
pins. The pinout diagram of an S-Video port is shown below.

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HDMI

HDMI is an abbreviation of High Definition Media Interface. HDMI is a digital interface

to connect High Definition and Ultra High Definition devices like Computer monitors,
HDTVs, Blu-Ray players, gaming consoles, High Definition Cameras etc.

81
HDMI can be used to carry uncompressed video and compressed or uncompressed
audio signals. The HDMI port of type A is shown below.

The HDMI connector consists of 19 pins and the latest version of HDMI i.e. HDMI 2.0
can carry digital video signal up to a resolution of 4096×2160 and 32 audio channels.
The pinout diagram of an HDMI port is as follows.

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Update: The latest version of HDMI is 2.1 with much improved bandwidth, resolution
and support from video card manufacturers. While HDMI 2.0 has a data bandwidth of
18 Gbps, the HDMI 2.1 has a staggering 48 Gbps of bandwidth. Coming to the display
resolution, HDMI 2.1 supports 4K and 8K at 120 Hz refresh rate. Most modern (at least
high end) graphics cards like Nvidia RTX 3090 provide at least a couple of HDMI 2.1
Ports to connect with monitors and TVs.
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Mini HDMI

With HDMI 1.3 Version, a new HDMI Port and Connector combination is released
called the Mini HDMI. Physically, it is smaller than a regular HDMI Port but has same
19 Pin. Intended for portable devices like laptops, cameras, camcorders, the Mini
HDMI Port isn’t that popular.

Micro HDMI

HDMI developers introduced a new HDMI Connector and Port called Micro HDMI with
HDMI Version 1.4. Micro HDMI also has 19 pins (just like regular HDMI and Mini
HDMI) but the pinout is different.

Micro HDMI is often used in cameras, single board computers (like Raspberry Pi 4),
etc. where physically it is difficult to include a regular HDMI port.

The size of Micro HDMI is significantly smaller than regular HDMI and has some
resemblance to a micro–USB Port (sometimes people confuse among the two). The
port on the left is a micro USB port and the one on the right is a micro HDMI Port.

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USB

Universal Serial Bus (USB) replaced serial ports, parallel ports, PS/2 connectors,
game ports and power chargers for portable devices.

USB port can be used to transfer data, act as an interface for peripherals and even act
as power supply for devices connected to it. There are three kinds of USB ports: Type
A, Type B or mini USB and Micro USB.

USB Type A

USB Type-A port is a 4 pin connector. There are different versions of Type – A USB
ports: USB 1.1, USB 2.0 and USB 3.0. USB 3.0 is the common standard and supports
a data rate of 400MBps.

USB 3.1 is also released and supports a data rate up to 10Gbps. Usually, but not all
the times, the USB 2.0 is Black color coded and USB 3.0 is Blue. The following image
shows USB 2.0 and USB 3.0 ports.

85
The pinout diagram of USB Type – A port is shown below. The pinout is common to all
standards of Type – A.

USB Type C

USB Type – C is the latest specification of the USB and is a reversible connector. USB
Type – C is supposed to replace Types A and B and is considered future proof.

86
The port of USB Type – C consists of 24 pins. The pinout diagram of USB Type – C is
shown below. The latest USB Specifications (USB4) is an USB-C only specification
i.e., only USB type C devices can be used with USB4 specifications.

In the latest USB4 specification, USB Type C Devices can support speeds up to 40
Gbps.

USB Power Delivery specifications allow USB devices to supply power to devices
connected to the USB Port. USB Type – C can handle a current of 5A at 20V (only
Power Delivery certified USB Type-C Ports).

87
This feature of handling high current is used in the latest Fast Charging Technology
where a Smart Phone’s battery will reach its full charge is very less time. So, USB
Type C Ports can provide up to 100W of power (which can be used for charging
mobile phones and laptops).

In fact, the latest Apple M1 Mac Books use 61W USB C Power Adapter.

RJ-45

Ethernet is a networking technology that is used to connect your computer to Internet

and communicate with other computers or networking devices.

The interface that is used for computer networking and telecommunications is known
as Registered Jack (RJ) and RJ – 45 port in particular is used for Ethernet over cable.
RJ-45 connector is an 8 pin – 8 contact (8P – 8C) type modular connector.

The latest Ethernet technology is called Gigabit Ethernet and supports a data transfer
rate of over 10Gigabits per second. The Ethernet or a LAN port with 8P – 8C type
connector along with the male RJ-45 cable is shown below.

The un-keyed 8P – 8C modular connector is generally referred to the Ethernet RJ-45.

Often, RJ-45 ports are equipped with two LEDs for indicating transmission and packet
detection.

88
As mentioned earlier, an Ethernet RJ-45 port has 8 pins and the following picture
depicts the pinout of one.

89
RJ-11

RJ-11 is another type of Registered Jack that is used as an interface for telephone,
modem or ADSL connections. Even though computers are almost never equipped with
an RJ-11 port, they are the main interface in all telecommunication networks.

RJ-45 and RJ11 ports look alike but RJ-11 is a smaller port and uses a 6 point – 4
contact (6P – 4C) connector even though a 6 point – 2 contact (6P – 2C) is sufficient.
The following is a picture of an RJ-11 port and its compatible connector.

The following image can be used to compare RJ-45 and RJ-11 ports.

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e-SATA

e-SATA is an external Serial AT Attachment connector that is used as an interface for

connecting external mass storage devices. Modern e-SATA connector are called e-
SATAp and stands for Power e-SATA ports.

They are hybrid ports capable of supporting both e-SATA and USB. Neither the SATA
organization nor the USB organization has officially approved the e-SATAp port and
must be used at user’s risk.

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The above image is of an e-SATAp port. It shows that both e-SATA and USB devices
can be connected.

USB Ports and Cables

The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standard interface that connects peripheral devices to a computer.
 USB devices are hot-swappable, which means that users can connect and disconnect the devices
while the computer is powered on.
 USB connections can be found on computers, cameras, printers, scanners, storage devices, and
many other electronic devices.
 A USB hub is used to connect multiple USB devices. A single USB port in a computer can support
up to 127 separate devices with the use of multiple USB hubs.

FireWire Ports and Cables

FireWireis a high-speed, hot-swappable interface that connects peripheral devices to computer. A
single FireWire port in a computer can support up to 63 devices.

2.10. BIOS
BIOS stand for Basic Input Output System. It is the lowest level software that acts between the
hardware and software (operating system). Your Pc can be described as series of layers that interface
with each other.

When you power on your PC, electricity flows into the pc and it wakes up.
 First, the power good wire wakes up the CPU.
 The CPU then starts a set of essential programs called the Basic Input/output Services (BIOS).
The beep codes for each PC vary according to the BIOS manufacturer, although you’ll find certain
codes on most PCs.
 A single beep at boot up signals all is well and the system is ready to load the operating system.

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 A long, repeating beep often signals a problem with RAM.
 A series of beeps one long and three short usually point t a problem with the video card or
connection.
BIOS perform the following four functions:
1. POST (power on self test): The POST tests your computer’s processor, memory, chipset, video
Adapter, disk controllers, disk drives, keyboard, and other crucial components.
2. Setup: System configuration and setup program. This is usually a menu-driven program activated
by pressing a special key during the POST, which allows you to configure the motherboard and
chipset settings along with the date and time, passwords, disk drives, and other basic system
settings? You also can control the power-management settings and boot-drive
3. Bootstrap loader: a routine that reads the disk drives looking for a valid master boot sector
4. BIOS (basic input/output system): this refers to the collection of actual drivers used to act as a
basic interface between the operating system and your hardware when the system is booted and
running. When running DOS or Windows in safe mode, you are running almost solely on ROM-
based BIOS drivers because none are loaded from disk.
The Booting Process

Booting is the process of starting a computer. When you turn on the computer, it passes through many
steps before becoming ready for use. All these processes are performed one after the other. This process
is termed as booting (boot process).
Most computers execute what is found in the ROM/ROM. But operating systems are stored on hard
disk. Who loads the OS from hard disk? This is what happens during starting your computer.
1) Electric power is turned on
2) The CPU starts executing ROM BIOS
3) The BIOS performs tests to verify basic system functionality. This test is called POST. Any error
during this stage is reported using “beep” sound because video is not initialized yet.
4) Any new device is installed and configured if they are plug and play compliant.
5) The BIOS performs Video ROM scan. BIOS look for video adapter BIOS found in video adapters. If
successful, video is initialized.
6) The ROM searches for boot records at cylinder 0, head 0, sector1. The BIOS loads Master Boot
Record form the specified location. MBR is part of the OS that loads the OS. The MBR in turn loads
the OS.
CMOS

CMOS is a memory area with battery backup used to store system configuration settings. The CMOS
chip retains configuration information such as the date and time, and specifics about components
common to all PCs, such as serial and parallel ports, keyboard settings, and more

Interrupt Requests
 Computer components use interrupt requests (IRQ) to request information from the CPU.
 The IRQ travels along a wire on the motherboard to the CPU.
 When the CPU receives an interrupt request, it determines how to fulfill this request.
 Today, most IRQ numbers are assigned automatically with “plug-and-play” operating systems and
the implementation of PCI slots, USB ports, and FireWire ports.

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Input/output (I/O) Port Addresses
 Input/output (I/O) port addresses are used to communicate between devices and software.
 The I/O port address is used to send and receive data for a component.
 As with IRQs, each component has a unique I/O port assigned.

Direct Memory Access

 High-speed devices use Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels to communicate directly with the
main memory.
 These channels allow the device to bypass interaction with the CPU and directly store information
in memory and retrieve it.

2.11. Expansion Bus and Cards

The components inside the computer talk to each other using a path that carries data. Most internal
components including the processor, memory, expansion cards, storage devices, talk to each other over
a bus. Bus is simply a channel over which information flows between two or more devices. There are
different types of bus:
 memory bus
 cache bus
 processor bus
 I/o bus(expansion bus)

Memory Bus
Used to connect chipset to RAM
Is second level bus

Cache Bus
This is the bus that connects the processor (CPU) with the cache memory. It is also called Back Side
Bus unlike Front Side Bus. It is high level bus.

Processor Bus
It is the highest level bus. It is used to send information to and from the processor.
Expansion Bus
Expansion bus provides connection between internally connected peripherals and system board
(motherboard).

There are different types of I/O buses. These are:

 ISA(Industry standard architecture)
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  EISA(Extended ISA)
 MCA(Micro Channel Architecture)
 PCI(Peripheral Component Interconnect)
 VESA(Video electronics Standard Association)
 USB(Universal Serial Bus)
 PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association)
Most modern PCs all have basic peripheral devices built into the motherboard. Still, we want to add
additional devices to our PC like sound card, network card, modem, video adapter, SCSI card, etc.
These cards are installed on expansion buses on the motherboard.

i) ISA
ISA stands for Industry Standard Architecture. It was introduced in 1981 with the IBM PC. There are
two types of ISA bus:
 8 bit ISA bus
 16 bit ISA bus
8 bit ISA Bus:
 Provides eight data lines
 Runs at 4.77 MHZ
 Introduced with the first IBM PC
16 bit ISA Bus:
 Provides 16 bit data bus
 Runs at 8MHZ (8.33 MHZ)
 Introduced by IBM in 1984

 ISA bus is black in color.

 In general, ISA buses have problems:
 Slow in terms of speed
 Configuration of cards is difficult-setting IRQ and other resources
 No intelligence like plug and play-manual set up, not automatic
ii) MCA
 Was introduced by IBM in 1986. The aim was to replace the ISA bus with something bigger and
better.
 32 bits wide
 It is proprietary
 It offers several significant improvements over ISA
 It is intelligent and self configuring (plug and play)
 Supports speeds of up to 10.33MHZ
 Incompatible with ISA. This affected its acceptance in the market

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iii) EISA
Stands for extended ISA. It was introduced by Compaq as a response to the introduction of MCA by
IBM- because of the proprietary nature of MCA. It was introduced in 1988-89. Provides 32 bit bus
width and 8.33MHZ speed
It is intelligent and self-configuring
It is compatible with ISA and it is nonproprietary. You can install ISA card on EISA bus (compatible).

fig EISA bus

iv) Local Buses

The I/O buses discussed so far are relatively slow in speed. As the need better speed GUI operating
system and graphics applications arises, the need for better speed bus was unquestionable.
To solve the problem of speed, engineers developed the local bus. Local bus connects special
peripherals to the system board through expansion slot and enables the peripherals to work at the speed
close to the microprocessor.
The major local buses are:
 VESA (Video Electronics Standard Association)
 PCI(Peripheral Component Interconnect)
 AGP(Advanced Graphics Port)
1) VESA
Introduced in 1992 by a group called VESA
It was introduced to improve video performance. It was developed for video adapters (cards).
It moves data 32 bits at a time, 33 MHZ speed
It worked best in 486 processors. It is obsolete today.

2) PCI
Introduced in 1992 by Intel. It has the same goals as VESA, solving speed bottlenecks. It is the most
popular today.
It has a lot of benefits:
 high performance (the highest performance I/O bus)
 low cost
 automatic configuration (plug and play)
 It runs at the speed of 33MHZ. Its advantage over VESA lies in the chipset that controls it. It has a
special chipset in the circuitry that is designed to control it.
 It supports a wide variety of cards compared to VLB (VESA). It supports video cards, SCSI
adapters, high speed network cards, etc. Hard disk drives are also connected to PCI bus on the
motherboard.
 PCI slots are white in color.

3) AGP
 Created by Intel as new bus specifically for high performance graphics and video support.
 It is based on PCI but contains a number of improvements over PCI. It is brown in color.
 Was developed in response to greater and greater performance requirements for video.
 runs at speed of 66MHZ (double that of PCI) base clock rate

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 AGP will allow the speed of video card to pace the requirements of high speed 3D graphics rendering
and full motion video on the screen.
4) USB
 stands for Universal Serial Bus
 Used to connect external peripheral devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, scanner, etc.
 You can connect any device to USB port and it supports it.

5) Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA)

This is a special socket in which you can plug removable credit-card size devices.
These circuit cards can contain extra memory, hard drives, modems, network
adapters, sound cards, etc. Mostly, PCMCIA cards are used for laptops, but many
PC vendors have added PCMCIA sockets to their desktop machines. The socket
uses a 68 pin interface to connect to the motherboard or to the system's
expansion bus.
There are three types of PC cards:
Type 1 slots are 3.3mm thick and hold items such as RAM and flash memory.
Type 1 slots are most often seen in palmtop machines or other handheld devices.
Type 2 is 5mm thick and I/O capable. These are used for I/O devices such as
modems and network adapters.
Type 3 is 10.5mm thick and used mainly for add-on hard drives. When buying PC
Card equipment, you must consider the size of the slot. In most cases, Type 3
can handle Type 2 and Type 1.

2.12. System resources

 System resources are the communications channels, addresses, and other signals hardware devices
use to communicate on the bus.
 They include
 Memory addresses
 IRQ (interrupt request) channels
 DMA (direct memory access) channels
 I/O port addresses

I/O Address
Bus system establishes a connection between CPU and expansion devices (cards). They provide a path
for flow of data. But the CPU has to know which device is sending data and which device should
receive data. This is done using I/O address.
I/O address is a unique ID given to devices for identification purpose. Everything in computer,
hardware or software, requires a unique name and address for the CPU to be able to identify what is
going on.
The CPU must identify the device before any data is placed on the bus. CPU uses two wires (bus wires)
to notify the devices that the address bus is not being used to specify memory address, but rather to read
or write to a particular device:
 Input/output Read(IOR)
 Input/output Write(IOW)
Though address bus has more than 20 wires (20 bits), when IOW or IOR has voltage, only 16 wires (16
bits) are relevant (monitored). These 16 wires are used to send the ID of the device that is involved in

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the communication. These wires carry I/O addresses of a device in another word. No two devices can
have the same I/O address
 I/O addresses are written in the form of hexadecimal number
 I/O address is written in capital letters(case sensitive
 0 is the first number in I/O addresses and it is ignored(you don’t have to write it) On AT
motherboard, the following input output addresses are available:
 220h-26Fh
 320h-32Fh
You can use these addresses for configuring expansion cards.
Configuration:
 using jumpers
 using switches
 using BIOS
IRQ (Interrupt Request)
The CPU does a lot of activities like running application programs, running the operating system, etc. It
has no time to give full attention to devices all the time. So when a device needs CPU attention, it sends
a request to the CPU. Then the CPU stops what it does and pays attention to Every CPU has a wire
called interrupt (INT). If voltage is applied to this wire, the CPU interrupts what it is doing and attends
to the device. E.g. mouse click causes interruption of what CPU does and listen to it. But CPU has only
one INT wire, but it handles many peripheral devices. A CPU is helped by a chipset to identify which
device is interrupting. This chipset is called 8259 chip. Every device that needs to interrupt CPU is
provided with a wire called IRQ.
0
System timer
1
Keyboard INT
2 CPU
Reserved
3
Serial device 8259
Serial device 4
5
Parallel device
6
Floppy drive
7
Parallel device
Fig interrupt number
The process of interrupt is:
1) Device applies voltage to 8259 chip through IRQ wire
2) 8259 informs the CPU that interrupt is pending through INT wire.
3) CPU uses wire called INTA to signal 8259 chip to send the I/O address of the device. This enables
the CPU know what device wants to talk to him.
4) The CPU runs BIOS related to the device
8088-one 8259 chip
80286-two 8259 chip

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 0
System timer
1
Keyboard INT
2 CPU
3
Serial device 8259
Serial device 4
5
Parallel device
6
Floppy drive
7
Parallel device

CMOS Clock 8
9
Available
10
Available
11
Available 8259
12
Available
13
Math processor
14
Primary HD(IDE1)
15
Secondary HD(IDE2)

The cascading removes IRQ 2. IRQ 9 is directed to the old IRQ 2 wire. Because of this IRQ 2 and IRQ
9 are the same.
IRQs 2/9, 10, 11, and 12 are available for you to use for configuration. The rest are preoccupied though
some of them can still be used. IRQs 3, 4, 5, 7, and 15 could be changed and used for other devices
listed above.
IRQ 3- COM2, COM4
IRQ 4-COM1, COM3
IRQ5-LPT2
IRQ 7-LPT1
IRQ 15-secondary IDE
 No two devices can have the same IRQ like I/O address. To avoid conflict, document the IRQs you
set for each device you install. This works for I/O address also.
Configuration:
 using jumpers
 using switches
 using BIOs
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
CPU has to move a lot of data using considerable CPU time and power for what is a simple task. This is
wastage of CPU resource. To reduce this wastage, a chip called DMA was installed to work with CPU.
The purpose of this chip is to move data. It handles data movement from peripherals to RAM and from
RAM to peripherals. It is numbered as 8237 chip.
Not all devices use DMA. The following devices use DMA:
 few SCSI controllers
 Sound Cards
 Network Cards
 Some CD-ROM drives
 No two devices can use the same DMA channel. DMA conflicts cause problem in the PC.
DMA Channel Function
0 available
1 available
2 Floppy disk controller
3 ECP parallel/available
4 First DMA controller
5 second sound card
6 SCSI/available
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 7 available
Configuration:
 use jumpers
 use switches
 use BIOS
To install any non-plug and play card:
 First read device manual
 Assign unique DMA, I/O address, and IRQ
 Document these configurations for future use
 To install plug and play card:
 Install the device (insert it into the motherboard)
 Turn on the PC and use it

Install different motherboard components

EQUIPMENT, TOOLS AND MATERIALS: computer with basic hardware components, Philips
screw driver, Antistatic rest strap, paper and pen

Activity
1: Examining inside the computer’s system unit
The following operation sheet will identify the internal components of a PC by removing the case and
looking inside it. You will then re-assemble the case.
Remove the case of the system unit.
1. Identify internal components inside the system unit.
2. Re-assemble the case of the system unit.

Examining inside the computer’s system unit

Part 1: Remove the case of the system unit
1. Turn off the computer.
2. Unplug the power cord from the wall outlet.
3. Disconnect the power cord from your computer.
4. Remove the screws from the sides and back of the system unit.
5. Remove the case of the system unit.
6. Put on your anti-static wrist strap and connect it to the chassis of the PC.
Part 2: Identify internal components inside the system unit
Sketch the inside of the system case. Your sketch should note the location of the following
components:
 Memory chips (RAM).
 Floppy disk drive
 Hard disk drive
 Motherboard
 CD ROM
 Power supply unit
 Graphics card
 Sound card
 Network interface card
 Power cable for the motherboard
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  Signal cable of the hard disk drive
 Signal cable of the floppy disk drive
 Signal cable of the CD ROM drive.
Part 3: Re-assemble the case of the system unit
1. Place the case over the system unit.
2. Secure all screws on the side and back of the system unit.
3. Connect the power cord to the system unit.
4. Plug the power cord into the wall outlet.
5. Turn on the computer and test to make sure that it is working.

Install, configure and test internal hardware components

Activity 2: Disassembling and reassembling a PC
This activity involves disconnecting internal peripherals from the motherboard, as well as removing the
CPU and memory module. The PC is then re-assembled. Specifically you will:
1. Disassemble the PC
2. Reassemble the PC
3. Install a power supply
4. Install a new motherboard
5. Install storage media
6. Install a range of controller cards (into bus slots).
Firstly, organize your tools and work area..
Then click on each of the above steps to get your instructions. Follow the steps in the order given.

Disassembling the PC
You should label all components as they come out of the PC. This is in case you forget where they go.
Try placing a number on a sticky note on each component and on its corresponding connections for
easy recall.

1. Boot up the PC and check that the PC is operational. This is fundamental; otherwise you won’t
know whether the PC worked in the first place when you reassemble it!
2. Disconnect power from your PC.
3. Disconnect all cables at the back of the PC (use sticky notes if needed to remember where they go).
4. Identify how the PC case comes off. If you have a manual that came with the PC, this will tell you.
If not, many cases are secured with screws, thumbscrews and others are simply secured using
latches.
5. Remove the PC case.
6. Disconnect all cables that go to the motherboard including hard disk drive (HDD) and floppy disk
drive (FDD), power, etc. Remember to label everything.
7. Remove the HDD, CD ROM, and FDD and any other storage device.
8. Remove all jumper-connected wires from the motherboard. For instance, HDD activity LED, Reset
switch, power switches and so on. Remember to label everything.
9. Undo any screws securing the main board. Some boards will have around six or more small screws.
Be careful not to damage any delicate components or to exert too much pressure on the board.
10. Remove the actual main board from the chassis. Be very careful when doing this. Try not to rub the
board against any other metallic components or edges as this could scratch the system board
causing damage to tiny printed circuitry. Place the board on a large anti-static bag (the bags
motherboards come in) or a soft, packing foam sheet.
11. Remove the memory module from the main board.
12. Remove the CPU from the main board. Some CPUs are easily removed by simply lifting a lever
and pulling the CPU out. However, some are held in place using very tight fittings.
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13. Inspect all the components and identify each of them.

Re-assembling the PC
Now you are going to carry out the previous procedure in reverse.
1. Mount the CPU (take great care!).
2. Mount the RAM.
3. Mount the main board on the case’s chassis. Use the same precautions as you did when removing
it.
4. Secure the board using screws. Make sure that the board aligns perfectly. Otherwise you could
be shorting out the board and potentially damaging it.
5. Install the HDD, FDD, CD ROM, other storage devices, etc.
6. Reconnect all jumper-connected wires to the board (eg HDD LED, Reset, etc).
7. Reconnect the power cable(s) to the main board.
8. Reconnect the data ribbons (cables) to the HDD and FDD controllers. You might also need to
reconnect serial and parallel data connections if using an older system.
9. Reconnect storage devices to their data and power connection.
10. Check that everything is connected correctly.
11. Check again.
12. Replace the case top but do not secure yet.
13. Re-connect cables and connections at the back of the PC.
14. Reconnect the power and turn on the computer.
15. Does it work? If it does, turn off the computer, disconnect the power, and secure the top with
screws.
16. If it does not work, revisit all of your steps. Pay attention to the POST screen. This screen will
give you valuable information.

Installing a power supply

These instructions include:
1. Removing the power supply unit
2. Installing the power supply unit.
PRECAUTIONS
 Disconnect the power source.
 Wear an anti-static strip.
 Don’t use force to connect and disconnect any cables.
1 Remove the power supply unit
1. Turn off the computer.
2. Unplug the power cord from the wall socket.
3. Disconnect the power cord from your computer.
4. Remove screws from the sides and back of the system unit.
5. Remove the case of the system unit.
6. Disconnect all power cables gently from each internal component inside the system unit such
as:
a. motherboard (connector P8 and P9)
b. cooling fan of the CPU if present
c. hard disk drive
d. floppy disk drive
e. CD-ROM drive
f. tape drive and/or other devices.
7. Disconnect the power cable from the power-on/off switch on the front panel.
8. Remove the screws of the power supply unit at the rear of the system unit.
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 9. Remove the power supply unit from the system unit.

2 Install the power supply unit

1. Place the power supply unit on the tab and align all screw-holes in the system unit.
2. Secure the screws of the power supply unit at the back of the system unit.
3. Connect power cable to the power-on/off switch on the front panel.
4. Replace the case to the system unit.
5. Secure all screws on the side and back of the system unit.
6. Connect the power cord to the system unit.
7. Plug the power cord into the wall outlet.
8. Turn on the computer and test to make sure that it is working.

Installing a new motherboard

PRECAUTIONS
 Disconnect the power source.
 Wear an anti-static strip.
 Place the new motherboard on an anti-static mat.
 Don’t use force to connect and disconnect any cables.

Install the new motherboard

1. Take the new motherboard out of the anti-static bag and set it on the anti-static mat.
2. Set jumpers on the motherboard to match the installed CPU according to the motherboard
manufacturer’s manual.
3. Find the holes in the motherboard for the metal spacers and plastic standoffs and then screw any
metal spacers into the computer case in the proper positions to align with the screw holes on the
motherboard.
4. Install the plastic standoffs into the motherboard from underneath until they are firmly snapped
into place.
5. Mount the motherboard into the computer case by placing it to ensure that all standoffs engage
the case.
6. Secure the screws and any plastic washers to fix the motherboard on the case.
7. Connect the power cable into both connectors P8 and P9.
8. Connect the power cable to the cooling fan of the CPU.

It is assumed that the motherboard has onboard I/O card, video adapter card and sound card. The
following steps show the connection of the signal cables of the floppy disk drive, the hard disk drive
and indicators in the front panel.
1. Connect the 34-pin floppy cable between the connector (marked FDD) on the motherboard and
the back of the floppy disk drive.
2. Connect the 40-pin IDE cable between the primary IDE connector on the motherboard and the
rear of the hard disk drive.
3. Connect the 40-pin IDE cable between the secondary IDE connector on the motherboard and
the back of the CD-ROM drive.
4. Connect the audio cable between the sound card and the back of the CD-ROM drive.
5. Connect the power cables to all internal components such as the floppy disk, the hard drive and
the CD-ROM drive.
6. Connect the power indicator LED cable from the front panel to the power LED connector on the
motherboard.
7. Connect RESET switch cable from the front panel to the RESET connector on the motherboard.
8. Connect hard disk drive access indicator cable to the connector on the motherboard.
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 9. Place the case over the system unit.
10. Secure all screws on the side and back of the system unit.
11. Connect the power cord to the system unit.
12. Plug the power cord into the wall outlet.
13. Turn on the computer and test to make sure that it is working.

Install storage media

In this step you will install a:
1. hard disk drive
2. CD-ROM drive.
PRECAUTIONS
 Disconnect the power source.
 Wear an anti-static strip.
 Place the new motherboard on an anti-static map.
 Don’t use force to connect and disconnect any cables.
 Be aware of the sharp edge of the metal drive bay in the computer case.
1 Install a hard disk drive
1. Turn off the computer.
2. Unplug the power cord from the wall outlet.
3. Disconnect the power cord from the computer.
4. Remove the screws form the sides and the back of the system unit.
5. Remove the case of the system unit.
6. Slide the hard disk drive into any available open drive bay in the system unit.
7. Secure the hard disk drive with two screws on each side of the bay.
8. Connect the hard disk signal cable to the hard drive.
9. Connect the power cable to the hard drive.
10. Place the case over the system unit.
11. Secure all screws on the side and back of the system unit.
12. Connect the power cord to the system unit.
13. Plug the power cord into the wall outlet.
14. Turn on the computer and reconfigure the BIOS updating the information for the new hard disk
drive.
15. Test the hard disk drive.
2 Install a CD-ROM drive
1. Turn off the computer.
2. Unplug the power cord from the wall outlet.
3. Disconnect the power cord from the computer.
4. Remove the screws form the sides and the back of the system unit
5. Remove the case of the system unit.
6. Slide the CD-ROM drive into any available open drive bay in the system unit.
7. Secure the CD-ROM drive with 2 screws on each side of the bay.
8. Connect the CD-ROM drive signal cable to the CD-ROM drive.
9. Connect the power cable to the CD-ROM drive.
10. Connect the audio signal cable between the connector on a sound card and the CD-ROM drive.
11. Place the case over the system unit.
12. Secure all screws on the side and back of the system unit.
13. Connect the power cord to the system unit.
14. Plug the power cord into the wall outlet.
15. Turn on the computer and reconfigure the BIOS updating the information of the new hard disk
drive.
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 16. Test the CD-ROM drive.
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting requires an organized and logical approach to problems with computers and other
components.
The troubleshooting process consists of the following steps:
1. Gather data from the customer.
2. Verify the obvious.
3. Try quick or less intensive solutions first.
4. Gather data from the computer.
5. Evaluate the problem and implement the solution.
6. Close with the customer.

Explain the Purpose of Data Protection

Before you begin troubleshooting problems, always follow the necessary precautions to protect data on
a computer. A backup is a copy of the data on a computer hard drive that is saved to media such as a
CD, DVD, or tape drive. In an organization, backups are routinely done on a daily, weekly, and
monthly basis.

Gather Data from the Customer

During the troubleshooting process, gather as much information from the customer as possible. The
customer will provide you with the basic facts about the problem.
Here is a list of some of the important information to gather from the customer:
 Customer information
 Computer configuration
 Manufacturer and model
 Operating system information
 Network environment
 Connection type
 Description of problem
 Open-ended questions
 Closed-ended questions

When you are talking to the customer, you should follow these guidelines:
 Ask direct questions to gather information.
 Do not use industry jargon when talking to customers.
 Do not talk down to the customer.
 Do not insult the customer.
 Do not accuse the customer of causing the problem.
When gathering information from customers, use both open-ended and closed-ended questions. Start
with open-ended questions to obtain general information. Open-ended questions allow customers to
explain the details of the problem in their own words. Some examples of open-ended questions are
 What problems are you experiencing with your computer or network?
 What software has been installed on your computer recently?

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  What were you doing when the problem was identified?
 What hardware changes have recently been made to your computer?
Based on the information from the customer, you can proceed with closed-ended questions. Closed-
ended questions generally require a yes or no answer. These questions are intended to get the most
relevant information in the shortest time possible. Some examples of closed ended questions are
 Has anyone else used your computer recently?
 Can you reproduce the problem?
 Have you changed your password recently?
 Have you received any error messages on your computer?
 Are you currently logged in to the network?
The information obtained from the customer should be documented in the work order
Verify the Obvious Issues
The second step in the troubleshooting process is to verify the obvious issues. Start with the obvious
issues before moving to more complex diagnoses. Verify the following obvious issues:
 Loose external cable connections.
 Incorrect boot order in BIOS.
 No bootable disk in floppy drive.
 Power switch for an outlet is turned off.
 Surge protector is turned off.
 Device is powered off.
If you find an obvious issue that fixes the problem, you can go to the last step and close with the
customer. These steps are simply a guideline to help you solve problems in an efficient manner. If the
problem is not resolved when you verify the obvious issues, you will need to continue with the
troubleshooting process.
Try Quick Solutions First
The next step in the troubleshooting process is to try quick solutions first. Document each solution that
you try. Some common quick solutions include
 Check that all cables are connected to the proper ports.
 Remove and reconnect cables.
 Reboot the computer or network device.
 Log in as a different user.
 Check computer for the latest OS patches and updates.
If a quick solution does not resolve the problem, document your results and try the next most likely
solution. Continue this process until you have solved the problem or have tried all the quick solutions.
Document the resolution for future reference.
Gather Data from the Computer
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The next step in the troubleshooting process is to gather data from the computer. You have tried all the
quick solutions, but the problem is still not resolved. It is now time to verify the customer’s description
of the problem by gathering data from the computer. To help gather information from the computer,
you will need to be aware of some of the most common utilities or features of a computer. These
utilities or features include the Event Viewer, Device Manager, BIOS information and beep codes, and
various diagnostic tools.
Event Viewer
When system, user, or software errors occur on a computer, the Event Viewer is updated with
information about the errors. The Event Viewer application, shown in Figure records the following
information about the problem:
 The problem that occurred
 The date and time of the problem
 The severity of the problem
 The source of the problem
 Event ID number
 The user who was logged in when the problem occurred

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Although this utility lists details about the error, you might still need to research the solution.
Device Manager
The Device Manager, shown in Figure 4-2, displays all the devices that are configured on a computer.
Any device that the operating system determines to be acting incorrectly will be flagged with an error
icon. This type of error is denoted as a yellow circle with an exclamation point (!). If a device is
disabled, it will be flagged with a red circle and an X.

Beep Codes
Each BIOS manufacturer has a unique beep sequence for hardware failures. When troubleshooting,
power on the computer and then listen. As the system proceeds through the power-on self test (POST),
most computers will emit one beep to indicate that the system is booting properly. If there is an error,
you might hear multiple beeps. Document the beep code sequence, and research the code to determine
the specific hardware failure.
BIOS Information
If the computer boots and stops after the POST, you should investigate the BIOS settings to determine
where to find the problem.
Diagnostic Tools
There are many programs available that can help you troubleshoot hardware. Often, manufacturers of
system hardware provide their own diagnostic tools. A hard drive manufacturer, for example, might
provide a tool that can be used to boot the computer and diagnose problems with the hard drive when it
will not start Windows.
Evaluate the Problem and Implement the Solution
The next step in the troubleshooting process is to evaluate the problem and implement the solution.
When researching possible solutions for a problem, use the following sources of information:
 Your own problem-solving experience
 Other technicians
 Internet search
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  Newsgroups
 Manufacturer FAQs
 Computer manuals
 Device manuals
 Online forums
 Technical websites
 Divide larger problems into smaller problems that you can analyze and solve individually.
 You should prioritize solutions, starting with the easiest and fastest to implement.
 Create a list of possible solutions and implement them one at a time.
 If you implement a possible solution and it does not work, reverse the solution and try another.
Close with the Customer
After the repairs to the computer have been completed, finish the troubleshooting process by closing
with the customer. Communicate the problem and the solution to the customer verbally and in all
documentation. The steps to be taken when you have finished a repair and are closing with the
customer include
 Discuss the solution implemented with the customer.
 Have the customer verify that the problem has been solved.
 Provide the customer with all paperwork.
 Document the steps taken to solve the problem in the work order and in the technician’s journal.
 Document any components used in the repair.
 Document the amount of time spent to resolve the problem.
Verify the solution with the customer. If the customer is available, demonstrate how the solution has
corrected the computer problem. Have the customer test the solution and try to reproduce the problem.
When the customer can verify that the problem has been resolved, you can complete the documentation
for the repair in the work order and in your journal.
The documentation should include the following information:
 The description of the problem
 The steps to resolve the problem
 The components used in the repair
Identify tools, diagnostic procedures and troubleshooting techniques for personal computer
components

Assess a problem systematically and divide large problems into smaller components to be
analyzed individually
You can usually divide common PC problems into four categories hardware, software, user and
environment. Each of these problem areas can be broken down further.
Hardware
 Failure - One or more components fail inside the computer.
 Compatibility - A component is not compatible with another component.
 Configuration - The hardware has not been installed or configured properly.

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Software
 Configuration - Software (Operating System or Application Software) is not installed or
configured properly.
 Failure - Software glitch. (This can range from corrupted data to a flaw in the programming)
 Compatibility - Software may not be compatible with some hardware or other software.
Environment
 The location of the computer and its environment (temperature, air flow, dust, electromagnetic
interference ect).
User Error
 User hits the wrong keys. (sometimes as simple as the user hitting the zero (0) key rather than
the letter O)
 Is not familiar with the computer
 Is not familiar with the software.
Before replacing any components, you should do the following:
 Confirm that all cables and connectors are connected properly and securely
 Verify CMOS setup programs
 Update the BIOS
 Verify that all drivers are installed properly and that you have loaded the newest drivers
 Look for updated device drivers
After you fixed the problem, you should always thoroughly test the computer before returning it to the
customer or client. This will make sure that the problem did go away and that you did not cause another
problem when fixing the first problem.
Apply basic troubleshooting techniques to check for problems with components:
Use Windows XP Help and Support
If running Windows XP, there's a simple system health monitoring tool available. The tool can be
found in the Help and Support Center.
To monitor system health using Help and Support
1. Log on as a local administrator on your computer, click Start, and then click Help and
Support.
2. Under the Pick a task, click Use Tools to view your computer information and diagnose
problems.
3. In the Task pane, click My Computer Information, and then click View the status of my
system hardware and software.

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You can check what programs and hardware are installed on this computer, the amount of memory
available, or review diagnostic information about the health of the computer system.

2.14. Troubleshoot
2.14.1. Troubleshooting Motherboard
Major cause of Motherboard failure
Motherboard is the life line of pc. It controls virtually every component and handles the input and
output of data to and from each part. When a motherboard begins to fail it can be a serious problem that
can be expensive to fix and severely affect the usability of the machine. Here, we will look at some
common causes of computer’s motherboard failure.
 Extreme heat: extreme heat is usually caused by poor ventilation, which could be blocked vents on
the laptop or even a fan which is failing to cool the laptop correctly. Excessive heat can cause the
motherboard to warp, which can make components on the board fail. It can also loosen repair points
on the board, causing components to lose contact or short, causing main board failure. In nearly all
of these cases, a replacement of the main board is the required fix.

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 Electrical problem: an electrical problem such as a short or a static discharge. Computer
components are very sensitive to over-voltage or under-voltage problems. They are also very
sensitive to static electricity. Either of these issues can cause an electrical problem with the
motherboard that may lead to failure.
 Physical damage: motherboard can be damaged from improper disassembly/reassembly during
repairs or improper handling of the pc.
 ESD: This is the major cause of motherboard failure because most of the time users/Technicians do
not take care of pc components. Means they touch by their hand or put the motherboard with dust.
Motherboard troubleshooting
The motherboard must often be checked to ensure it is working properly, even if it is not to be the
cause of whatever is happening.
Usually, the problem is that the motherboard has been misconfigured or there is a failure with one or
more of the components that connect to it. Getting system disconnected cable is very common. In fact,
though, there are large possible causes for what may appear to be a motherboard failure.

1. First of all, if you have just recently installed this motherboard, or performed upgrades or additions
to the PC of any sort, may cause problems
2. Check the power supply power cord
3. Check the motherboard power interface
4. Plugged the system board power correctly
5. Plugged the PSU power supply power cord correctly
6. If the PC isn't booting at all, make sure you have at least the minimums in the machine required to
make it work: processor, memory, video card, and a drive. Make sure that all of these are inserted
correctly into the motherboard
7. Remove all optional devices from the motherboard, including expansion cards, external peripherals,
etc. and see if the problem can be resolved.
8. Double-check all the motherboard jumper settings, carefully. Make sure they are all correct. In
particular, check the processor type, bus speed, clock multiplier and voltage jumpers. Also make
sure the CMOS clear and flash BIOS jumpers are in their normal, default operating positions.
9. Reset all BIOS settings to default
10. Check the inside of the case to see if any components seem to be overheating.
11. Check the motherboard physically. Check to make sure the board itself isn't cracked; if it is look
here. Make sure there are no broken pins or components on the board; if there are, you will have
problems with whatever component of the PC uses that connection. Check for any socket
components that may be loose in their sockets, and push them gently
12. An overheated processor can cause system problems. Try troubleshooting the processor.
13. Troubleshoot the system memory. Memory problems are often mistaken for motherboard faults,
14. Try troubleshooting the video card or replacing it with another one, preferably a simple straight
VGA card that is known to work from being in another system that functioned properly.
15. Check the power supply you may have a power supply problem.
16. Try swapping/change the motherboard with another one and see if the problem resolves itself.
Malfunctioning Motherboards
Your motherboard routes power and data to components, such as the CPU (central processing unit) and
disc drives, which make your PC a useful device. That's why the very life of your system is at stake
when motherboard problems arise.
Typical Problems
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Here's a list of common motherboard problems that you may encounter, followed by steps you can take
to get your PC running again.

Problem: Every time you shut down your PC it loses date, time, and BIOS (Basic Input/output
System) settings.
Solution: Motherboards use a small battery that provides just enough power to retain hardware
configuration data, as well as the date and time. Many newer motherboards use a small battery that
looks much like the ones you'd find in a calculator or watch, and if you research the specifications on
your motherboard, you can determine the battery model and find a replacement. You may have to
open your PC to find out what kind of battery your motherboard uses.

You can open the case and look at the motherboard battery after you follow a few basic safety
precautions, which you'll want to use every time you open your computer. Remove the case, and
before you go poking around inside, touch a doorknob or other grounded metal to prevent static
electricity discharge, which can render your PC's sensitive parts useless.

Different motherboards use different types of retaining clips, but these are pretty basic. Just undo the
clip, remove the old battery, and pop in the new one.

Replace the case, reconnect the power cable, and start up your PC.

Problem: Your mouse or keyboard won't work, even after you disconnect and reconnect (or
even replace) them.
Solution: The PS/2 (Personal System/ 2) ports that let you connect your mouse and keyboard to the
motherboard aren't built to withstand many repeated insertions, and after months of heavy use, the
device connectors may actually come loose from the board. Attempting to resolve these connectors
may void your motherboard's warranty. Have a professional resolver loose PS/2 ports for you.

Problem: irregular problems occur after replacing motherboard components.

Solution: Experienced technical support personnel often attribute strange motherboard problems to
damage caused during component replacement. Usually this damage occurs when the tip of a
screwdriver or other tool slips and strikes part of the motherboard. Depending on the extent of the
harm, it may be necessary to buy a new board. To minimize the chances of damage, use a broad,
flathead screwdriver and a gentle touch when working inside your PC.

Problem: You install a new motherboard or modify settings on your old one and the board
doesn't work.
Solution: It's common for user error to cause motherboard malfunctions. If you installed a new
processor, double-check to make sure the processor is seated and aligned correctly. Check to make
sure your CPU fan and case fans are installed properly and also plugged into the power supply. Verify
that your power supply is connected to the motherboard and remember that newer Pentium 4 power
supplies have two power cables that must be connected to Pentium 4 motherboards.

If you installed new RAM, check the slot location of the chips and make sure that each chip is seated
all the way into the slot. Read the specifications for your motherboard and RAM to make sure your
new memory modules are made for use with your board.

One of the trickiest aspects of installing a new motherboard is connecting the panel cables, including
the power switch cable, LED (light-emitting diode), reset switch, and other cables. Check these cables
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to make sure they're positioned correctly. Make sure the cables are firmly attached because loose
cables may perform their functions intermittently or not at all.

Compare the placement of your motherboard's standoffs (the insulating spacers that go between a
motherboard and the case) with the motherboard documentation; omitting a standoff can cause a
number of odd motherboard problems. Be sure to use the same number of standoffs as your new
motherboard has holes. Your board needs standoffs to spread out the physical pressure you apply
during RAM chip and other device installation. Without the appropriate number of standoffs, your
board may develop tiny cracks that can cause irregular problems.

Problem: The PC sounds as if it's starting normally but nothing shows on your monitor.
Solution: If your PC's LEDs look normal, the hard drive spins up, and the fans are running, you may
have a video card problem. If you recently installed a new expansion card, you may have
unintentionally loosened the video card or a video cable. Make sure the card is firmly seated and
wiggle your cables to make sure they're connected tightly. If that doesn't work, try a working monitor
from another PC. If the second monitor works, you know the first one has a problem.

Problem: Your computer randomly crashes or restarts.

Solution: A number of factors can cause such problems, and a loose motherboard is one potential
culprit. Open the case and make sure the motherboard is securely fastened, and that each standoff hole
is filled.

Random restarts and crashes may also be a byproduct of excess heat. Your PC's case is filled with a lot
of data cables and power cables, and these cables may slow heat dissipation. Make sure your cables
aren't snagging any fans inside the case. Tie those cables together and put them out of the way to
prevent problems. You can also replace flat, breeze-killing cables with rounded IDE (Integrated Drive
Electronics) cables, which allow for better air movement inside your case.

Problem: Nothing happens when you push the PC's power button.
Solution: Work through this checklist to narrow the list of potential power problems. Take notes as
you diagnose the problem-notes will be helpful if you wind up needing technical assistance from a pro.

• Examine the board for signs of overheating. You may see scorch marks that are the hallmark of a
power surge or blown power components.
• Make sure the PSU (power supply unit) is providing power to the board. Most motherboards have
LEDs that show the board is receiving power.
• Verify the CPU fan is working. If it isn't, the PC may not start properly.
• Remove your system's expansion cards, such as the modem card and sound card, especially if you
just installed a new card. Leave the video card in place. On some motherboards, the components for
sound and modem functions may be integrated and thus unremovable. If your PC starts up without the
cards, replace the cards one by one until you determine which card is causing the problem.
• Swap the CPU and the memory chips with components you know work OK in another machine.

2.14.2. Troubleshooting power supply unit

Power Supply problems
Common power supply problems are spikes, surge, sags, and brownouts and black out affect the
stability and operation of the main power supply.

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Power supply Problem symptoms
 No Power supply fan sound (No fan rotation)
 The power supply case is unusually hot to touch
 Fan sounds rough or louder than usual
 Has a burning smell coming from it. Discard the power supply immediately if there is a burning
scent; it will need to be replaced entirely.

Power supply Trouble shooting

 If the computer is not powering up, it doesn’t mean the power supply is not doing its job
 First make sure the correct voltage set on the PSU.
 The red switch that can be set on 230V or 215V
 You must make sure all necessary power supply connectors are attached.
 Be sure to try plugging the power cable directly into a working properly grounded wall outlet.
 Is the fan on the power supply rotating?
 Use multi meter to check the PSU
 If voltage is seriously out of range or doesn’t exit the PSU is bad
 See if the power supply fan is clogged with dust. Spray the fan with canned air to remove the
debris. Reattach the power supply to the motherboard. Reassemble the computer and see if the
problem persists.

2.14.3. Troubleshooting RAM

When good RAM goes badly?
As it consists only of a handful of Silicon memory chips (called DRAM) soldered to a small circuit
board, computer memory is actually much more resistant to failure than most other computer parts.
Having said that, it is also produced and distributed in more volume than any other computer part so it
sort of evens out.
Memory DRAM chips are tested by their manufacturers before they are shipped and these weeds out
virtually all the 'defect' chips prior to sale. However, computer memory is also vulnerable to a variety
of situations that can turn your working sticks of DDR or SDRAM memory sour.
Electrostatic shock from improper handling can damage memory. Likewise, power surges or poor
power supplies can also damage your computer's memory, sometimes gradually.
If your computer is excessively dusty, or is located in a humid environment the contacts between the
memory module and the memory slot can be interfered with or corroded. Heat, either from other
components or the RAM itself can also cause gradual damage.

Signs of bad memory

The indicators of faulty memory are legion, but let's start with a few common ones. From the top:

1. Blue screens during the install procedure of Windows 2000 or XP. This is one of the surest
signs of faulty memory.
2. Random crashes or blue screens during the running of 2000 or XP. Note that heat can also be a
culprit in the case of general flakiness like this, so you should test for that possibility too.
3. Crashes during memory intensive operations. 3D games, benchmarks, compiling, Photoshop,
etc.
4. Distorted graphics on screen. This can also be related to the video card.
5. Failure to boot. This can be accompanied by repeated long beeps, which is the accepted BIOS
beep code for a memory problem. In this circumstance, you cannot test the memory with
diagnostic software, so your only option is testing by replacement, either at home or at your
computer dealer.
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Step by Step Troubleshooting RAM
Step 1: Start simple and analyze the problem.
* Have you added or replaced RAM? Is it installed properly?
* Have you moved the computer? RAM modules can come loose.
* Is it a new computer? RAM modules might not have been inserted properly.
* Have you installed any new hardware upgrades?
* Have you installed new software or might there be a virus problem?
* Have you changed or installed patches for your operating system?
* Do you have the correct RAM type?
* Is the RAM module connectors tin or gold?
* When your computer starts (boots) does it report the correct amount of RAM?
* Does your system properties report the correct amount of RAM?
* Are there any POST messages that indicate RAM problems?
* Does the system report Parity errors or address failures whilst the system is running?
* Do you get a Windows error message "exception error OE at>>0137:BFF9z5d0" or something
similar?
* You've tried everything else!!!
Any one of these can indicate a problem with the RAM module or something connected with it.
WARNING: Before you start troubleshooting remember that you are dealing with electricity that can
KILL. Only work inside the computer case when the power has been switched off and disconnected.
Never open the power source.

Step 2: Start by reading through this article to establish some ideas about what the problem might be
and how to resolve it. There is no absolute order for diagnosing problems it's equal parts science and
magic. If its hardware then you is probably going to have to open the computer case (steps 5 - 10 &
13). You may prefer to eliminate other problems first (steps 11-12).
Step 3: Gather all the documentation that came with your computer, memory modules or MOBO
(motherboard). You need information on make and model numbers, together with installation guides. If
you are missing anything visit the PC or MOBO manufacturer’s web site. Most have excellent online
documentation.
Step 4: Do you have the correct RAM? Check the MOBO or computer documentation for the type of
memory module you should be using. Compare this with the memory module you have purchased.
Look at the memory module; does the information on the module match with the sales invoice (have
they sent you the correct product)? If you bought a name brand computer has the RAM purchased been
tested on that particular computer? This can be an issue with Dell and other computers. You can check
compatibility issues online through useful tools on www.kingston.com, www.crucial.com or the
MOBO manufacturers own web site.
NOTE: Before the computer case is opened make sure that power is switched off and disconnected,
press and hold the power button for 30 seconds to ensure residual power is lost and make sure that you
are grounded to avoid damage due to static electricity. Use a grounding wrist strap or touch the metal
case to discharge static electricity.
Now open the computer case to check the following.
Step 5: Is the RAM installed correctly? Some MOBOs must have their slots filled in a special
sequence. Sometimes DIMMs must be in a specific sequence.
Step 6: Remove the memory modules from their slots. Take the opportunity to clean the slots on the
motherboards and the memory module connectors. Use compressed air to blow dust away and clean
contacts with a soft cloth. Don't use a vacuum cleaner if it touches any component it may create a short
and cause damage to the motherboard or other components. Don't use solvent that may attract dust and
never poke things like cotton buds in to slots. Check the memory module and memory slot contacts.
They are either tin or gold. The color will tell you which they are. Mixing tin and gold can result in
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corrosion that prevents proper contact. Look for any sign of physical damage to the memory module,
memory slots or the motherboard. With the last two you are looking at replacing the motherboard.
Step 7: Reseat the memory modules. You should hear an audible click when they are in place. Do not
use too much force to reseat the memory module in to the slot this can cause damage to the module,
slot or motherboard.
If you are still experiencing trouble try the following.
Step 8: Swap modules in to different slots. If you have more than one memory module try different
combinations or one at a time. This might identify a faulty component.
Step 9: If you have changed or upgraded the memory modules try taking your system back to its
original configuration. Does it still work? If yes then suspect a fault or compatibility problem. If no!!
Sorry but you may have damaged the motherboard.
Step 10: If your compute isn't recognizing your entire RAM it might be a problem with the BIOS.
Check with the motherboard or PC manufacturer’s web site for possible BIOS upgrades. Word of
WARNING - BIOS upgrades can seriously damage your wealth. Make double sure that you have the
correct BIOS update for your motherboard. Flash the wrong upgrade can result in needing a new
motherboard.
Step 11: Check for viruses with an up to date virus checker. Some viruses cause problems that look like
memory errors.
Step 12: Try removing recently installed hardware or software. Sometimes operating systems
misinterpret problems as memory related.
Step 13: If you have tried everything a still suspect a faulty RAM module there are several good
programs that will test your computer. Typically you must create a boot disk to use when restarting
your computer. This helps eliminate the possibility that it's operating system or other software
problems.

2.14.4. Troubleshooting CPU

Diagnosing CPU Problems
CPUs are generally trouble-free. The most likely problem is heat damage that can happen when the fan
wears out. The most common symptom of heat damage is a computer that starts out working normally,
but after awhile performs erratically. Eventually, the computer will lock up. When hearing a report like
this, with the power disconnected, open the case and check to make sure that the fan and heat sink are
in place put them in place if they aren't. Attempt to spin the processor fan by hand. The fan should spin
freely and continue spinning when you let go, and not make any noise. If you encounter resistance
and/or hear noise, replace the fan.
If the fan blades spin freely, the next step is to power on the computer and sees if the fan actually spins.
Some BIOS setup programs have CPU temperature gauges, and some motherboard manufacturers
provide Windows programs to monitor the CPU temperature, among other things. If the fan does spin,
you can check these gauges, if present, to determine if the processor's temperature is in the safe zone,
which will be indicated on the gauge. Another way to measure the processor temperature is to use a
laser temperature gauge. While the computer is running, aim the laser at the space between the
processor and heat. Compare your result to the processor documentation's temperature specifications. If
the temperature is too high, the processor isn't being cooled properly.
If there is any problem with the fan spinning, shut down the computer immediately and replace the fan.
Then, start up the computer and let it run for at least two hours. Next, open some programs and try to
use them. If the computer works normally, you can be reasonably sure that the processor didn't sustain
any major damage. If you still have problems, it is possible that the processor has been damaged, or
that the computer has other problems. If you have a used replacement available, and you are sure that
the CPU is now being properly cooled, temporarily replace the CPU. If the problems go away, there's a
very good chance that the old CPU has sustained damage and will need to be replaced. Products such as
Micro-Scope and its POST card can give you accurate diagnoses.
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If the power supply fan spins, but the computer won't otherwise power on, the problem could be a dead
or disconnected CPU or motherboard. If everything is connected, the only way to diagnose the
problem, after ruling out a bad power supply, is to swap a known good CPU or motherboard, one at a
time, with the original items. If the replacement device causes the system to work, then you have found
the problem.

How to Test a Faulty CPU

Identifying a defective, overheating or dead CPU can be difficult. Here is a guide on how to identify
symptoms of a faulty CPU. Without the CPU working there is no hope of much else happening on a
computer. While some of the symptoms of a faulty CPU can be caused by the failure of other
components, the symptoms that we outline below are good indicators that the CPU is malfunctioning,
failing or dead.

1. Unusual Fan Sounds and CPU Overheating

Moving parts are usually the first to fail on a computer. This is usually true of computer fans, of which
there are usually two in most machines: one for the power supply and another for the CPU. A sign that
your computer’s CPU fan is failing is a change in the sounds that it normally makes.
If the fan starts to make wining, clunking or groaning sounds, it is a sign that the fan is coming to the
end of its days. Once the fan stops working properly the CPU will not get the cooling it needs and will
start to malfunction. So, we can say that a dying fan is a sign that your CPU will soon start
malfunctioning.

2. Blue Screens & OS Error Messages

Another sign of a defective or overheating CPU are constant blue screens and Windows error messages.
If the CPU is not being cooled properly the computer may still boot-up, but soon after will start having
problems. The computer will usually freeze and then display a blue screen or some other Windows
error message. Fortunately, fixing the overheating problem may be as easy as reapplying thermal gel or
replacing the CPU fan. Thermal gel helps the CPU transfer heat from itself to the heat sink but the
thermal gel can become hard with the passage of time, though it usually takes years for this to happen.
You will need to remove the heat sink and reapply the thermal gel.

3. The PC Randomly Shuts Itself off or Freezes Randomly

A CPU may work normally until more processor intensive tasks are undertaken such as intense game
play, photo editing and video editing. While this could also be a sign that the CPU is overheating, a
computer that restarts randomly when it is put through its paces could indicate that something is wrong
with the CPU.

4. Signs of a Dead CPU – The Computer Fails to Power-up

Owing to the fact that the CPU is the brain of the computer, scarcely anything will work if the CPU is
dead. Signs that the central processing unit is dead or dying is a computer that doesn’t respond when
the power button is pressed. The fans may spin up, but the computer won't boot.

5. High Frequency Beeps – Beep Codes

Another sign that something is wrong with the CPU is the sounding, by the computer, of sequenced
beep codes or audio alerts. If the computer makes repeated high/low beeps as well as high frequency
beeps while the computer is running or just when it is turned, the CPU may need to be checked. BIOS
or motherboard beep codes are designed to diagnose hardware or configuration faults. Check the
motherboard’s manual or the manufacturer’s website to decipher what the beep codes mean in order to
determine what is actually wrong.
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While a failing CPU is not the only thing that can cause a computer to randomly restart, given blue
screen error messages or even high frequency beep codes, these are usually a symptom that something
is wrong with the central processing unit.

2.14.5. Hard Disk troubleshooting

Hard Disk Failure
Broadly speaking a hard disk can fail in four ways that will lead to a potential loss of data:
 Firmware Corruption / Damage to the firmware zone
 Electronic Failure
 Mechanical Failure
 Logical Corruption
Combinations of these four types of failure are also possible. Whether the data on the hard disk is
recoverable or not depends on exactly what has happened to the disk and how bad the damage is.
Please note that over time, all hard disks will develop bad sectors which can lead to data loss and drive
inaccessibility.
Firmware Corruption / Damage to the firmware zone
Hard disk firmware is the software code that controls, and is embedded in, the physical hard drive
hardware. If the firmware of a hard disk becomes corrupted or unreadable the computer is often unable
to correctly interact with the hard disk. Frequently the data on the disk is fully recoverable once the
drive has been repaired and reprogrammed.
Firmware failures - How to diagnose: Common Symptoms
 The hard disk will spin up when powered on, but be incorrectly recognized / not recognized at
all by the computer
 The hard disk will spin up & be recognized correctly by the computer but the system will then
hang during the boot process

Actions to take
 Recovering data from hard drives with firmware failure requires low level reprogramming /
manipulation of the hard drive. Data Clinic has specialist equipment that allows us to
successfully recover data from hard drives with firmware faults.
Electronic Failure
Electronic failure usually relates to problems on the controller board of the actual hard disk. The
computer may suffer a power spike or electrical surge that knocks out the controller board on the hard
disk making it undetectable to the BIOS.

Electrical failures - How to diagnose: Common Symptom

 The hard disk will not spin up when the drive is powered on - it will appear dead & not be
recognized by the computer
Actions to take
 Data Clinic can recover data from all types of electrical hard drive failure.

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Mechanical Failure
Mechanical hard disk failures are those which develop on components internal to the hard disk itself.
Often as soon as an internal component goes faulty the data on the hard disk will become inaccessible.
Mechanical failures - How to diagnose: Common Symptoms
 When powered on, the hard drive will immediately begin to make a regular ticking or clicking
sound
Actions to take
 Recovering data from hard drives with mechanical failure requires the drive to be worked on in
a clean room as the drive has to be taken apart and investigated in lab conditions. Data Clinic
have a fully equipped Class 100 clean room which we use to recover drives with mechanical
problems.

Logical Errors
Often the easiest and the most difficult problems to deal with, logical errors can range from simple
things such as an invalid entry in a file allocation table to truly horrific problems such as the corruption
and loss of the file system on a severely fragmented drive.

Logical errors are different to the electrical and mechanical problems above as there is usually nothing
'physically' wrong with the disk, just the information on it.

How do I find out when it’s going to fail before it fails?

That’s not always possible, and sometimes a hard drive will just die—but it’s still important to keep an
eye on the symptoms of an imminent hard drive so you have the chance to back-up your data and get
professional help.

Hard drives are incredibly sensitive bits of hardware, so don’t try to crack it open and have a look
inside unless you know what you’re doing. And most definitely ensure that if you do crack it open, the
platters don’t get exposed to the open air—hard drives can only be opened in Class 100 clean rooms or
they’re pretty much instantly destroyed by dust.

It’s a lot easier to back-up than to get your data recovered. Once you detect any of the signs of failure
you need to ensure that you have a back-up and if not, make one. Then when the drive dies, you can
claim your warranty if you still have it, or buy a new drive, and be on your way.

Recovery can cost thousands and thousands of dollars; it sure is a ridiculous amount to pay, but there’s
not much you can do but shop around and find the best price. The cost of transferring a back-up onto a
brand new drive is much cheaper than having a recovery specialist do the same for you.

Strange Noises
Sometimes hearing strange grinding and thrashing noises means your drive is beyond repair—for
instance, if you’ve had a head crash, it very often is. Or it could just be that the motor has failed or your
hard drive is grinding away because of noisy bearings. If you’re hearing strange noises then act very,
very quickly—you probably don’t have much time.
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2.14.6. Troubleshooting Display
General display problem
 Incorrect configuration. [check the brightness and contrast control]
 Adapter might not be seated properly in the expansion slot.
 Cable between the CPU and monitor may lose or fail.
 Software related problems.
 Failure in monitor’s display electronics and in monitor’s power supply.
 Incompatibility between software and display adapter.
Common symptom: NO display
Troubleshooting
 Check the power to monitor.
 Check the brightness control on the monitor.
 Check the data cable between the monitor and the video port on the system unit.
Problem
 When the system turns on, it sounds a single beep and shows the disk activity (light flashes) but
the display is blank.
Methods
1. Shutdown the PC [unplug the power cable] and press down the video cards firmly, restart the PC.
2. Is the monitor turned no? If not, check the monitor power Connector.
3. If the problem is on the monitor, use the replacement method.
4. Also check the connection (data cable) between the video card and the monitor.
5. Your adapter hardware may not work, so use the replacement method.
Problem
 The monitor shows only one bright vertical line in the center of the screen
Solution
 The monitor is unable to drag the ray (beam) to the horizontal side.
 There is a problem on the horizontal section of the monitor circuit board
 This symptom may also be the horizontal deflection coil or its connection opened. However, unsolder
the horizontal transistor from its board and measure it by using a multi-meter.
Problem
 The monitor shows only one bright horizontal line in the center of the screen.
Solution
 The monitor is unable to pull the beam to the vertical side.
 There is a problem in the vertical section [vertical IC]
 Cable between the CPU and monitor might fail or disconnected.
 Display adapter fault.
 Supply to vertical section is missing.
 Vertical deflection coil or its connection is opened.
Problem
 The monitor shows only one bright point in the center of the screen
Solution
 The monitor is unable to pull the beam to horizontal and vertical side of the monitor.
 Check the horizontal transistor and vertical IC.
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Monitor’s software related problems
1. Distorted or unreadable text appears on the screen.
2. The display corruption error.
3. The display shows “display problem. The program can’t continue…”
4. The computer redraws underlying areas of the screen incorrectly when you move or size windows.
5. Windows does not start due to video driver problem.
General Troubleshooting Method
Use the replacement method. If the other monitor shows the same symptom that you have before,
restart your computer in safe mode, re-install the drivers and adjust the display setting.

2.14.7. CD or DVD drive troubleshooting

Common symptom
 Your CD or DVD Drive does not read or write and is shown as disabled
 The media in your CD or DVD drive cannot be read
 The media cannot be written to by your CD or DVD drive
 You receive one of the following errors:
o A class specific or device specific driver is missing or corrupt
o A CD or DVD drive cannot be found or is not connected
o The CD or DVD drive is experiencing a problem that prevents it from working properly
o The CD or DVD drive is not accessible via an assigned drive letter
When you try to open a file or a program on a CD or on a DVD, you receive an error message that
notifies you that there is a problem with the disc, with the CD drive, or with the DVD drive.
Additionally, one or more of the following symptoms may occur:

 The disc label does not appear in Windows Explorer.

 The contents of the disc do not appear in Windows Explorer.
 When you insert the disc in the drive or when your computer tries to read the disc, the computer
stops responding.
 You cannot eject the disc from the drive.
 The computer takes a long time to read the disc.
You can follow these methods to try to isolate and resolve the problem. Use these methods in the
order in which they are presented.

Method 1: Clean the disc

When you have problems with a CD or DVD drive, always check the disc first to see whether it is
damaged or dirty. To clean the disc, follow these steps:
1. Remove the disc from the drive.
2. Clean the disc with a disc cleaning kit or by gently wiping the silver side of the disc from the
center outward with a dry, soft, lint-free, cotton cloth.
Note Do not use a paper cloth, and do not use a circular motion to clean the disc. These can
scratch the disc.
3. Reinsert the disc in the CD or DVD drive.
If the computer can read the disc, you are finished.
If the computer still cannot read the disc, go to step 4.
4. Try again to clean the disc by using a cloth dampened with water, or dampened with a
commercial CD or DVD cleaning solution.
5. Dry the disc thoroughly, and then reinsert it in the CD or DVD drive.
6. If the computer can read the disc, you are finished.
7. If the computer still cannot read the disc, go to method 2.

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Method 2: Check the disc for damage
If the disc is clean, check whether it is damaged. To do this, follow these steps:
1. Remove the disc from the drive, and then examine the disc for scratches or cracks.
2. If the disc is damaged, try another disc to see whether the CD or DVD drive can read it.
3. If the computer still cannot read a disc, there may be a problem with the drive. Go to method 3
to troubleshoot the CD or DVD drive.
If the computer can read the other disc, there is a problem with original CD or DVD. Contact
the manufacturer of the damaged disc to obtain a replacement.
Method 3: Try a different disc drive
If the disc is clean and undamaged, check whether there is a problem with the drive. To do this,
follow these steps:
1. If the computer has more than one disc drive, insert the disc in a different CD or DVD
drive to see whether it can read the disc.
If your computer does not have more than one disc drive, you can insert the disc in a
different computer.
2. If the other CD or DVD drive can read the disc, there may be a problem with your CD or
DVD drive. Go to method 5.
If the other CD or DVD drive cannot read the disc, the disc may not be compatible with
the drive. Go to method 4.
Method 4: Make sure that the disc is compatible with the drive
Check the following list to make sure that the disc that you are trying to use is compatible with your
CD or DVD drive.
 A DVD disc is incompatible with a standard CD drive.
 A CD-RW disc is incompatible with a CD drive that does not support CD-RW discs.
 A DVD disc is incompatible with a drive that does not have a DVD logo on the front.
If the disc is compatible, go to method 5.
If the disc is incompatible, use a compatible disc or contact the vendor for a compatible replacement.
Method 5: Use Windows Update to check for updated drivers
If the disc is compatible with your CD or DVD drive, check for updated drivers that the CD or DVD
drive may be missing. To check for driver updates that you can install, visit the following Microsoft
Web site:
If these methods do not resolve your issue, try the advanced troubleshooting steps in this article. If you
are not comfortable with advanced troubleshooting, you might want to ask someone for help, or you
might want to contact Support. For information about how to do this, visit the following Microsoft Web
site:
If methods 1 through 5 did not resolve the issue, you can follow these methods to try to isolate
and resolve the problem.
Method 1: Test the disc by using the command prompt to copy files
Try to copy files from the disc to the hard disk. If the hard disk cannot copy files, the disc might be
damaged. If the files are copied successfully, there may be file types on the disc that the hard disk
cannot read, or there may be a problem with the CD or DVD drive.
To test the disc by using a command prompt to copy files, follow these steps:
1. Create a test folder on the hard disk, and then give the folder a folder name such as "cdtest."
This is the folder to which you will try to copy files.
2. Click Start, and then click Run.
3. Copy and paste (or type) cmd in the Open box, and then press ENTER.
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 4. Copy the files from the CD or DVD drive to the test folder on the hard disk. To do this, type
xcopy DiscDrive:\*.* HardDiskDrive:\cdtest /v /e at the command prompt, and then press
ENTER. Make sure that you replace “cdtest” with the name of your test folder.
5. Note In this step, DiscDrive is the drive letter of the CD or DVD drive with which you have
problems. HardDiskDrive is the drive letter of the hard disk drive to which you want to copy
these files.
6. If you are asked whether cdtest specifies a file name or a directory name, press F.
If you successfully copied the files from the disc to the hard disk, the disc is not damaged. To
remove the copied files, type rd /s cdtest at the command prompt, and then press ENTER.
If you cannot copy the files, the disc may be damaged. Contact the manufacturer of the
damaged disc to obtain a replacement.
To continue trying to isolate the problem and test the CD or DVD drive, go to method 2.
Method 2: Test the CD or DVD drive in a "clean boot" state
If the disc is readable and undamaged, there may be some hardware or software that is interfering with
the CD or DVD drive. You can test this by inserting the disc into the drive after restarting your
computer in a clean boot state. This helps you determine whether any hardware or software is
interfering with the CD or DVD drive. To test this, follow these steps:
1. Restart the computer in a clean boot state.
2. After the computer is restarted, exit all programs and applications that may be using the CD or
DVD drive.
a) First, right-click each icon in the notification area, and then click Exit.
b) Note The notification area is located at the far right of the taskbar, near the clock. Some
programs that are listed in the notification area do not have an Exit command. Therefore,
you may have to click Quit, Close, or Disable, depending on the commands that are
available for that program.
c) Click Start, and then click Run.
d) Copy and paste (or type) taskmgr in the Open box, and then press ENTER. Windows
Task Manager opens.
e) Click the Applications tab.
f) If any programs appear in the Task list, click the name of the program to select it, and
then click End Task.
g) Repeat the previous step until the Task list is empty.
h) Close Windows Task Manager.
3. Reinsert the disc in the CD or DVD drive. If the CD or DVD drive can read the disc, there may
be other programs preventing the drive from reading the disc. Go to method 3. If the CD or
DVD drive still cannot read the disc, go to method 4. Or, if you are not specifically using a
DVD drive, you may want to contact Support. For information about how to contact Support, go
to the "Next Steps" section.
Method 3: Change the CD or DVD drive configuration
If there are programs that are preventing the drive from reading the disc, you can try to resolve this
issue by configuring the drive to run in direct memory access (DMA) mode. DMA mode is a high
performance mode for transferring data to and from devices. These include CD and DVD drives. To
configure the CD or DVD drive to run in DMA mode, follow these steps:
1. Configure the CD or DVD drive to run in DMA mode. For more information about how to
switch your computer's disc drive controller to DMA mode, click the following article number
to view the article in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
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 2. Reinsert the disc in the CD or DVD drive.
3. If the CD or DVD drive can read the disc, you are finished.

If the CD or DVD drive still cannot read the disc, try to troubleshoot DVD components by using
method 4. Or, if you are not specifically using a DVD drive, you may want to contact Support. For
information about how to contact Support, go to the “Next Steps” section.
Method 4: Troubleshoot DVD problems
If the advanced troubleshooting methods 1 through 3 do not resolve the issue, and you have problems
specifically with a DVD drive, follow these steps to try to isolate and resolve the problem.
Prerequisite
You must use a DVD drive with a DVD logo on the front, not a standard CD drive.
Step 1: Unplug any cables that are connected
a) Unplug any cables that are connected to the video outputs of the computer.
b) Reinsert the disc in the DVD drive.
c) If the DVD drive can read the disc, you may have problems with the video hardware installed
on your computer. Contact the manufacturer of the video hardware for support or for a
replacement.
If the DVD drive still cannot read the disc, go to step 2.
Step 2: Update the DVD driver
a) Contact the manufacturer of the DVD drive to obtain an updated driver for the DVD drive, and
then follow the manufacturer's instructions to install the driver.
b) Reinsert the disc in the DVD drive.
c) If the DVD drive can read the disc, the problem was caused by an outdated driver. You are
finished.
If the DVD drive still cannot read the disc, go to step 3.
Step 3: Obtain a hardware-based DVD decoder or software-based DVD decoder
a) Contact the manufacturer of the DVD drive to obtain a hardware-based DVD decoder or
software-based DVD decoder, and then follow the manufacturer's instructions to install the
decoder.
Note Many video adapters help decode DVD discs. However, the video adapter may not fully
decode a DVD movie.
b) Reinsert the disc in the DVD drive.
c) If the DVD drive can read the disc, the problem was caused by an outdated DVD decoder. You
are finished.
If the DVD drive still cannot read the disc, make sure that the sound card in the computer is
compatible with the DVD drive. To do this, contact the manufacturer of the sound card.
d) Reinsert the disc in the DVD drive.
e) If you still have problems with the disc, contact the manufacturer to obtain a new disc.
2.14.8. Adapter Card Troubleshooting
Modems:
No dial tone for modem:
 If it is a modem built into the motherboard, check the CMOS setup program to ensure that the
modem is enabled.
 Ensure that the appropriate drivers are loaded and working correctly.
 If it is an external modem, make sure the modem has power and is connected properly to the
PC.
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  Check that the phone line is active.
 Replace the phone cable.
 Replace the modem.
Receive an error message such as “Could not open port.”:
 Check for resource conflicts such as I/O addresses and IRQs.
 A program is loading in the Windows Startup folder that opens a COM port for some other use
other than the modem.
 Try rebooting to see if the port was opened by another program. Rebooting may correct the
problem.
PC or communication software refuses to recognize the modem.
 If it is an external modem, make sure the modem has power and it is turned on. In addition,
make sure the cables are connected to the serial port.
 If it is an internal modem, make sure the modem is seated properly in the slot.
 Check in the BIOS setup program that the modem and/or serial port is enabled.
 Check for resource conflicts such as I/O addresses and IRQs.
 Try the modem in another system.
 Try the modem in another system.
 Replace the modem.
Sound Problems:
Speakers do not produce any sound
 Check the volume control in Windows and the volume control in the application to see if the
sound has been muted or has been adjusted low.
 Check the volume control on speakers.
 Make sure the speakers are turned on and have power.
 Check the speaker cable is installed into the correct port on the back of the sound card.
 Check that the sound drivers are installed and functioning properly.
 Swap the speaker cables and power cable one at a time.
No audio when playing an Audio CD
 Check the volume control (specifically Master Volume and CD Player) in Windows and the
volume control in the application to see if the sound has been muted or low.
 Check the volume control on speakers.
 Make sure the speakers are turned on and have power.
 Check to see if the four-wire CD audio cable is connected between the CD drive and the sound
card.
When trying to play a high-quality audio file through a USB speaker system, you get an error message
saying “Out of bandwidth”
 Disconnect extraneous USB devices such as joysticks, scanners, and others.
 Purchase an additional USB controller and attach the speakers to it so that they can have sole
access to all of its bandwidth.
 Play the audio file at a lower playback quality or use a lower-quality version of the file.
When an expansion card is inserted into a system, it must be configured to use the proper resources.
The resources include I/O addresses (including COMx/LTPx), IRQs, DMAs and Memory addresses.
When configuring a card, one general rule should apply. No two devices can use the same resource.
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Therefore, two expansion cards should not be set to use the same DMA channel or the same I/O
address. If two devices are using the same setting, the devices will not work properly or not work at all.
To determine what the available resources are, use utilities, which come with the operating system such
as Windows Device Manager located within the control panel.

2.14.9. Trouble Shooting Input Devices

Keyboards
Keyboard fails to be recognized during boot up or the keyboard is completely dead and no keys appear
to function.
 Swap the keyboard; reboot the system when a keyboard is replaced.
 Use a multimeter to check the +5 V supply at the keyboard connector.
 Check to see if the motherboard has a fuse to protect the +5 V supply feeding the keyboard
connector.

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4 Apply maintenance procedure
4.1. Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is used to reduce the probability of hardware or software problems by
systematically and periodically checking hardware and software to ensure proper operation.
 Refers to performing proactive maintenance in order to prevent system problems.
 Is one of the most ignored aspects of PC ownership?

Purpose of Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is used to reduce the probability of hardware or software problems by
systematically and periodically checking hardware and software to ensure proper operation. Check the
condition of cables, components, and peripherals. Clean components to reduce the likelihood of
overheating. Repair or replace components that show signs of abuse or excess wear. Use the following
tasks as a guide to create a hardware maintenance program:
 Remove dust from fan intakes.
 Remove dust from the power supply.
 Remove dust from components inside the computer.
 Clean the mouse and keyboard.
 Check and secure loose cables.

The two types of preventive maintenance procedures are active and passive.
1. Passive preventive maintenance
Precautionary steps you can take to protect a system from the environment, such as using power-
protection devices; ensuring a clean, temperature-controlled environment; and preventing excessive
vibration. In other words, passive preventive maintenance means treating your system well and with
care.

2. Active preventive maintenance

An active preventive maintenance program includes procedures that promote a longer, trouble-free
life for your PC. This type of preventive maintenance primarily involves the periodic cleaning of
the system and its components, as well as performing backups, antivirus and antispyware scans, and
other software-related procedures.

Active Preventive Maintenance Procedures

How often you should perform active preventive maintenance procedures depends on the system's
environment and the quality of the system's components.

The following is a sample weekly disk maintenance checklist:

 Back up any data or important files.

 Run a full system antivirus and antispyware scan. Run the Windows Disk Cleanup tool,
which searches the system for files you can safely delete, such as

 Files in the Recycle Bin

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  Temporary Internet files
 Windows temporary files
 Install programs for previously downloaded and installed programs
 System restore points except the most recent restore point
 Optional Windows components you are not using
 Installed programs you no longer use
 Finally, run a disk-defragmenting program.

Passive Preventive Maintenance Procedures

Passive preventive maintenance involves taking care of the system by providing the best possible
environment both physical and electrical for the system.
Physical concerns are conditions such as ambient temperature, thermal stress from power cycling, dust
and smoke contamination, and disturbances such as shock and vibration.
Electrical concerns are items such as ESD, power-line noise, and radio-frequency interference.

Cleaning tools

 Cloth - A cloth is the best tool used when rubbing down a component; although paper towels
can be used with most hardware, we recommend using a cloth whenever possible.
 Water or rubbing alcohol - When moistening a cloth, it is best to use water or rubbing alcohol.
Other solvents may be bad for the plastics used with your computer.
 Portable Vacuum - Sucking the dust, dirt, hair, cigarette particles, and other particles out of a
computer can be one of the best methods of cleaning a computer.
 Cotton swabs - Cotton swaps moistened with rubbing alcohol or water are excellent tools for
wiping hard to reach areas in your keyboard, mouse, and other locations.

Computer Preventive Maintenance Schedule

With proper maintenance you can avoid trouble and keep your computer running at peek efficiency.
The basic steps are:

 Keep your operating system up-to-date with all the latest security releases.
 Run an anti-virus program regularly to keep your computer bug free.
 Run system utilities regularly to make sure your hardware is operating correctly.

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