Lecturenote 418728295text Book of Transformation Geometry
Lecturenote 418728295text Book of Transformation Geometry
TRANSFORMATION
GEOMETRY
Contents
CHAPTER- 1
TRANSFORMATIONS
1.1 Revision on Mappings .............................................................................................4
1.2 Types of Mappings ...................................................................................................5
1.3 Composition of Transformations and Their Properties ..........................................12
1.4 Identity and Inverse Transformations ....................................................................15
1.5 Fixed Points of Mappings and Involution ..............................................................19
1.6 Collineations and Dilatations .................................................................................21
Problem Set 1.1 ............................................................................................................24
1.7 Definitions and examples of Transformation Groups ...........................................28
1.8 Criteria for Transformation Groups .......................................................................30
Problem Set 1.2 ............................................................................................................33
CHAPTER-2
AFFINE GEOMETRY
2.1 Introduction to Affine Spaces ................................................................................36
2.2 Geometry in Affine Space ......................................................................................39
2.3 Lines and Planes in Affine space ...........................................................................44
2.3.1 Lines in Affine Geometry ...................................................................................44
2.3.2 Planes in Affine Space ........................................................................................53
Problem Set 2.1 ............................................................................................................54
2.3.3 Collinearity in Affine Space................................................................................56
2.4 The Classical Theorems .........................................................................................59
Problem Set 2.2 ............................................................................................................66
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CHAPTER-3
ISOMETRIC (ORTHOGONAL) TRANSFORMATIONS
3.1 Introductions ..........................................................................................................68
3.2 Definition and Examples of Isometries ..................................................................69
3.3 Properties of Isometric (Orthogonal) Transformations ..........................................72
3.4 Fundamental Types of Isometric Transformations ................................................76
3.4.1 Translation...................................................................................................76
3.4.2 Reflection ....................................................................................................82
3.4.3 Rotation .......................................................................................................95
3.3.4 Glide Reflection ........................................................................................109
3. 5 Orientation and Orthogonal Transformations .....................................................116
3.5.1 Orientation of Vectors ..............................................................................116
3.5.2 Orientation of Plane Figures .....................................................................121
3.5.3 Orientation Preserving and Orientation Reversing Isometries.................123
3.6 Fixed Points of Isometries ....................................................................................130
3.7 Linear and Non-linear Isometries.........................................................................132
3.8 Representations of Orthogonal (Isometric) .........................................................136
Transformation as a Product of Reflections .............................................................136
3.8.1 Product of Reflections on Two Lines........................................................137
Case I: When the two Lines are Intersecting .....................................................137
Case II: When the two Lines are Parallel ...........................................................144
3.8.2 Product of Reflections on Three Lines......................................................152
Case-I: When the three lines are concurrent ......................................................152
Case-II: When the three lines are parallel ..........................................................152
Case-III: When the three lines are neither parallel nor concurrent ....................156
3.8.3 The Fundamental Theorems of Isometries ................................................161
3.9 Equations of Orthogonal Transformations in Coordinates ..................................165
3.10 Equations of Even and Odd Isometries ..............................................................166
3.10.1 Equations of Even Isometries .................................................................166
3.10.2 Equations of Odd Isometries ...................................................................166
3.11 Test for Type of Isometries ................................................................................171
Review Problems On Chapter-3.................................................................................175
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CHAPTER-4
SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATIONS
4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................178
4.2 Properties of Similarity Transformations .............................................................180
4.3 Common Types of Similarity Transformations ...................................................182
4.3.1 Isometries ..................................................................................................182
4.3.2 Homothety (Homothetic Transformations) ...............................................183
4.4 Representation of Similarity Transformations .....................................................184
4. 5 Equations of Similarity Transformations in Coordinates ...................................190
4.6 Direct and Opposite Similarities ..........................................................................191
Review Problems on Chapter-4 .................................................................................195
CHAPTER-5
AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS
5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................198
5.2 Basic Properties of Affine Transformations ........................................................200
5.3 Types of Affine Transformations .........................................................................203
5.3.1 Line (Skew)-Reflections ...........................................................................203
5.3.2 Compressions ............................................................................................205
5.3.3 Shears ........................................................................................................206
5.3.4 Sililarities ..................................................................................................208
5.4 Affine Transformations and Linear Mappings .....................................................210
5.5 Matrix Representation of Affine Transformations ...............................................211
5.6 Orientation and Affine Transformations (Revisited) ...........................................217
5.7 Area and Affine Transformations ........................................................................220
5.8 Inverse of Affine Transformations .......................................................................225
Review Problems on Chapter-5 .................................................................................227
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................232
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CHAPTER- 1
TRANSFORMATIONS
This implies that the image of any point ( x, y) in R 2 is unique and hence g is
well defined and it is a mapping.
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h : Z S by h( x) x 2 . Is h a mapping or not?
Solution: Here, S { x Z : x 1 2} { x Z : 2 x 1 2}
{ x Z : 1 x 3} { 1,0,1,2,3}
As we see, x 1 is in S . But there is no integer in the domain such that
h( x) 1. This means x 1 has no pre-image. Hence, h is not a mapping.
Definitions:
a) One-to-one (Injective) mapping: A mapping f : X Y is said to be a one-
to-one (injective) mapping if and only if f sends distinct elements of X in to
distinct elements of Y. This means x y f ( x) f ( y). In other words, f is
one to one if and only if f ( x) f ( y) x y .
b) Onto (Surjective) mapping: A mapping f : X Y is said to be onto
mapping if and only if for every point y in Y , there exists an element x in X
such that
y f (x) . Or if the image of f is the whole of Y . That is every element of Y
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Solution:
a) i) One to one: Assume f ( x) f ( y) for any two numbers x, y in N . Then,
f ( x) f ( y) 2 x 2 y x y . So, f is one-to-one.
So, f is one-to-one.
ii) Onto: For each (m, n), n 0 in the co-domain of g , we can not find a
preimage in Z , such that g (m) (m, n) because the second coordinates of all
image members is zero, or of the form (m,0) .So, the map is not onto.
c) i) One to one: Here, h(m, n) h(a, b) 2 m.3n 2 a.3b 2 ma 3bn .
Since the basis are different, we have
2 ma 3bn m a 0, b n 0 m a, b n (m, n) (a, b) .
So, f is one-to-one.
ii) Onto: For each y in the co-domain of h , we can not find a pre-image in
N N , such that h(m, n) y . For instance if we take any natural number which
is not a common multiple of 2 and 3, like 1,5,7 and so on we cannot find a pre-
image. So, the map is not onto.
d) i) One to one: Using property of inverse,
f ( A) f ( B) A1 B 1 ( A1 ) 1 ( B 1 ) 1 A B . So, f is one-to-one.
ii) Onto: For singular matrix, we cannot find a pre-image in the co-domain
because only non-singular matrices have inverses. So, the map is not onto.
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Solution: Here, T { x Z : x 2 3} { x Z : 3 x 2 3}
{ x Z : 5 x 1} { 4,3,2,1,0 }
Solution:
a) Since f ( x) f ( x) , the map is not one to one.
For instance, f (2) f (2) 2 . But for every, positive real number x ,
So, y R , x ln y , h( x) e ( ln y ) 2
e ln y y . That means the map is onto.
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c) f : R 2 R 2 given by f ( x, y) ( x y, x y) d ) f : R R given by f ( x) e x
Solution:
a) Assume f ( x, y) f ( z, w) for any two points ( x, y) and ( z, w) in R 2 . Then,
(2 x, y 1) (2 z, w 1) . But from equality of order pairs, this equality is true if and
only if 2 x 2 z
x z, y w ( x, y) ( z, w) . So, f is one-to-one.
y 1 w 1
But, a
f ( x, y) (2 x, y 1) (a, b) 2 x a, y 1 b x , y b 1 .Thus, we can find
2
a a
( x, y ) ( , b 1) R 2 such that f ( x, y) f ( , b 1) (a, b), (a, b) R 2 .
2 2
So f is on to. Therefore, the given map is bijective.
b) Assume f ( x, y) f ( z, w) for any two points ( x, y) and ( z, w) in R2 . Then,
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But, ab a b .
f ( x, y) ( x y, x y) (a, b) x y a, x y b x , y
2 2
a b a b
This means we can find ( x, y) ( , ) R 2 such that
2 2
a b a b
f ( x, y) f ( , ) (a, b), (a, b) R 2 . So f is on to.
2 2
Therefore, the given map is bijective.
d) i) Assume f ( x) f ( y) for any twonumbers x and y in R .
Then, f ( x) f ( y) e x e y x y . Hence, f ( x) f ( y) x y.
So, f is one-to-one.
ii) Now for every positive real number y if x such that h( x) y the map
will be onto. However, f ( x) y e x y x ln y .
So, y R , x ln y, f ( x) e ln y y . That means the map is onto.
Therefore, the given map is bijective.
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Transformation Mappings :
Definition: Transformation is a one-to-one mapping from a set X onto itself.
In other words, the map f : X X is said to be a transformation if and only if it
is one to one and onto. This means that for every point P in the domain there is
a unique point Q such that f ( P) Q and conversely, for every point R in the
range there is a unique point S in the domain such that f (S ) R .
Examples
1. Let f : R R be given by f ( x) ax, a 0, a R . Show that f is a
transformation.
Solution: To show that f ( x) ax is a transformation, we need to show that it is
one to one and onto.
i) Assume f ( x) f ( y) . Then, ax ay x y , since a 0 . So, f is one-to-one
ii) Let y R be in the range of f . Then, if x R in the domain of f , such that
f ( x) y , then f is on to. But for a 0 , we can find x y / a R such that
b) f : R 2 R 2 given by f ( x, y) ( x, x y)
Solution:
a) i) Assume g ( x, y) g ( z, w) for any two points ( x, y) and ( z, w) in R 2 . Then,
( x y 1, x y 1) ( z w 1, z w 1) .
But from equality of order pairs, this equality is true if and only if
x y 1 z w 1 . This gives ( x, y) ( z, w) So, g is one-to-
2 x 2 z x z, y w
x y 1 z w 1
one.
ii) Let (a, b) R 2 be in the co-domain of g .Then, if ( x, y) R 2 in the domain of
g , such that g ( x, y) (a, b) , then g is on to.
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But, g ( x, y ) ( x y 1, x y 1) (a, b)
x y 1 a ab a b2
2x a b x , y
x y 1 b 2 2
Then, f ( x, y) f ( z, w) ( x, x y) ( z, z w) .
But from equality of order pairs, this equality is true if and only if
x z
x z, y w ( x, y) ( z, w) .
x y z w
So, f is one-to-one.
ii) Let (a, b) R 2 be in the co-domain of f .Then, if ( x, y) R 2 in the domain of f ,
such that f ( x, y) (a, b) , then f is on to. But,
f ( x, y) ( x, x y) (a, b) x a, x y b y a b .
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Thus, 2 x 2 2 x 1 f g g f .
Hence, composition of mappings is not commutative.
2. Let f : R R, g : R R be defined by f ( x) 3x 8, g ( x) 2 x k . Find the
value of the constant k such that g f f g .
Solution: Here, by definition of equality of transformations,
g f f g ( g f )( x) ( f g )( x), x R
6 x 16 k 6 x 3k 8
2k 8 k 4
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Proposition 1.2: The composition of transformations on the same set are again
transformations.
Proof: Let f : X X , g : X X be any two transformations on set X . We
need to show that f g is also a transformation. That means we need to verify
that f g is one to one and onto. By definition of composition f g is a
mapping from X into X . To show f g is one to one, let x and y be arbitrary
elements of X such that f g ( x) f g ( y).
Then, f g ( x) f g ( y) f ( g ( x)) f ( g ( y)) g ( x) g ( y) x y (because
both f and g are one to one). Thus, f g is one to one.
To show f g is onto, let t be any element in X (considering X as co-domain
of f ), since f is onto there exists an element y in X ( in the domain) such that
f ( y) t .
Thus, f g is onto. Hence, we have got that f g is one to one and onto on the
set X . Therefore, f g is a transformation whenever f and g are
transformations on X .
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Finding Inverse of a transformation: Now let’s see how can we find the
inverse of transformations. Since every transformation f is bijective, its
inverse denoted by f 1 always exists. But there is no hard and fast rule on how
to find f 1 from the formula of f . Any way, one can use the following hints on
how to find f 1 whenever the formula of f is given. Let f : S S be a
transformation such that Y f (X ) . Then, to find f 1 :
Step-1: Interchange X and Y in the formula of f
Step-2: Solve for Y (for coordinates of Y ) in terms of X (coordinates of X ).
Step-3: Equate f 1 ( X ) Y from Y f (X ) . That will be the formula of f 1 .
Examples:
1. Find the inverses of the following transformations
3e x 2
a) f : R R given by f ( x) 3 x 1 b) f : R R given by f ( x)
ex 4
1 x
c) g : R 2 R 2 , g ( x, y ) (2 x 1, y 5) d ) f : R R, f ( x) ln
1 x
Solution:
a) y f ( x) 3 x 1
Step-1: Interchange x and y .That is x 3 y 1
Step-2: Solve for y in terms of x .That is
3 y 1 x 3 y x 1 y ( x 1) 3 x 3 3x 2 3x 1
Step 3: Equate the value of y obtained in step 2 with f 1 ( x) .
That is f 1 ( x) x 3 3x 2 3x 1 .
b) Step-1: Interchange x and y .
3e x 2 3e y 2
That is y f ( x) x
ex 4 ey 4
Step-2: Solve for y in terms of x .That is
3e y 2 4x 2 4x 2
x 3e y 2 x(e y 4) e y (3 x) 4 x 2 e y y ln
e 4
y
3 x 3 x
Step-3: Equate the value of y in step-2 with f 1 ( x) .
4x 2
That is f 1 ( x) ln
3 x
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Solution:
a) S {x : f ( x) x} {x : x 3 3x x} {x : x 3 4 x 0}
{x : x( x 2 4) 0} {x : x( x 2)( x 2) 0}
{x : x 0, 2, 2} {0, 2, 2}
b) S {( x, y ) : g ( x, y ) ( x, y )} {( x, y ) : ( x 3 , y 3 ) ( x, y )}
{( x, y ) : x 3 x, y 3 y} {( x, y ) : x 3 x 0, y 3 y 0}
{( x, y ) : x 0,1, 1, y 0,1, 1}
{(0,0)(0,1), (0,1), (1,0), (1,1), (1,1), (1,0), (1,1), (1,1)
c) S {( x, y ) : f ( x, y ) ( x, y )}
{( x, y ) : ( x, x y 3) ( x, y )}
{( x, y ) : x x, x y 3 y}
{( x, y ) : x 3, y R} {(3, y ) : y R}
d ) S {( x, y ) : h( x, y ) ( x, y )} {( x, y ) : ( x , 3 y ) ( x, y )}
{( x, y ) : x x, 3 y y}
{( x, y ) : x 0, y y 3 0}
{( x, y ) : x 0, y 0,1, 1}
{( x,0), ( x,1), ( x,1), x 0}
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e) Here, t ( x, y ) ( x 1, y 1) ( x, y)
x 1 x, y 1 y 1 0, 1 0
Note: From the above examples, we can conclude that a given mapping can
have exactly one fixed point, finitely many fixed points or infinitely many
fixed points. On the other hand, part (f), shows that there are mappings that
have no fixed points.
Involution: A non-identity transformation is said to be an involution if and
only if 2 i . That means 2 ( x) ( )( x) ( ( x)) i( x) x for all
x in the domain of .
Examples: Verify whether the following transformations are involution or not.
a) : R R given by ( x) 1 x
b) h : R 2 R 2 , h( x, y ) ( x 7, y 2)
c) : R R given by ( x) x 3
d ) g : R 2 R 2 , g ( x, y ) ( x 3, y 5)
Solution:
a) 2 ( x) ( x) ( ( x)) (1 x) x i( x) 2 i .
So, is an involution.
b) h 2 ( x, y) h(h( x, y)) h( x 7, y 2) ( x, y) i( x, y) h 2 i .
So, h is an involution.
c) 2 ( x) ( ( x)) ( x 3) x 6 x i( x) 2 i is not an involution .
d ) g 2 ( x, y) g ( g ( x, y)) g ( x 3, y 5) ( x 6, y 10) ( x, y) i( x, y) g 2 i .
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Examples:
1. Let : R 2 R 2 be given by ( x, y) ( x 1, y 2) . Show that is a dilatation.
Solution: First let’s show that is a transformation. But, to show that is a
transformation, we need to show that it is one to one and onto.
One- to- one: Assume ( x, y) ( z, w) for any two points ( x, y) and ( z, w) in R 2 .
Hence we can say that is a collineation. Besides, l ' has the same slope to
that of l which means l ' is parallel to l . In other words, l // (l ). Therefore, is
a dilatation.
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Remarks:
1. The main difference between collineation and dilatation is that any
collineation maps a pair of parallel lines to a pair of parallel line but a dilatation
maps every line to a line parallel to the given line. This means a transformation
is a collineation if and only if for any two lines m and n,
line m , m // (m).
2. If ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where x' ax by h, y' cx dy k , then the necessary
and sufficient conditions on the coefficients of x and y such that to be a
transformation is that ad bc 0 .(This is known as transformation test).
Examples:
1. Define : R 2 R 2 by ( x, y)) ( y, x) . Show that is a collineation but not
a dilatation.
Solution: Clearly, is a transformation. Besides, for any two arbitrary parallel
lines m : ax by c 0 and n : ax by k 0 (Parallel lines differ by a constant),
m' (m) : ay bx c 0, n' ( n) ay bx k 0 . Still, m' and n' have the
same slope which means they are parallel. i.e m // n (m) // (n). Thus, is a
collineation. But, if we consider only the single line m : ax by c 0
separately, m' (m) : ay bx c 0 . In this case, slope of line m is ba while
that of m' is b
a which gives the product of their slope is 1. This means
i.e m (m) m'. In other words, m and (m) m' are not parallel lines.
Particularly, take the line m : 6 x 2 y 5 0 . Then, its image under is
(m) m': 2 x 6 y 5 0 . Consequently, is a collineation but not a dilatation.
2. Find the value of the constant t for which ( x, y) (4x ty 7,8x 6 y 2) will
not be a transformation.
Solution: By the second part of the above ramark, will bot be a
transformation if and only if 4.(6) 8.(t ) 0 24 8t 0 8t 24 t 3 .
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1*. Let Z, N and W be the set of integers, natural numbers and whole numbers.
a) Define f : Z N by f ( x) x 2 . Is f a mapping? If so, is it one to one?
b) Define g : N Z by g ( x) x 2 . Is g a mapping? If so, is it one to one?
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3
25. For what value (s) of k is ( x, y) (3k 2 1) y, x an involution?
22
Answer : k 5 / 3
1 2t
26*. Let : S R be a mapping given by (t ) where the set S is
2t 1 1
given by S t : 0 t 1.
Show that is a bijective mapping but not a transformation.
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For which pair (a, b) is a,b injective (one to one)? For which pair (a, b) is a,b
surjective (onto)?
Answer : a,b is injective for a 0, b Z , a,b is surjective only for a 1
30. Let M (a, b) and : R 2 R 2 be a mapping with the property that for any
point P in R 2 the mid point of P and (P) is M . Prove that is a
transformation with fixed point M itself.
31*. Let L be the set of all lines in the plane and let be a collineation in R 2 .
Then, is a transformation from L to L .
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Definition: Let G be the set of all transformations on a non empty set S . Then
the system (G,) is said to be a transformation group if and only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
i) For all f , g in G , g f is in G .
ii) For all f in G , g G f g g f i and denoted by f 1 g.
iii) For all f in G , i G f i i f f .
Examples
1. Let f ab : R R be defined by f ab ( x) ax b, a 0.
Let G { f ab / a, b R, a 0}. Show that (G,) forms a transformation group.
Solution: To check whether the elements of G are transformation or not, for
any f ab in G. f ab ( x) f ab ( y) ax b ay b x y and for each r R , there
r b
exists x , a 0 in R such that
a
r b r b
f ab ( x) f ab ( ) a( ) b r b b r . Thus, any element f ab in G is a
a a
transformation.
i) Taking a 1, b 0, we get f10 ( x) x, x R . So, i f10 which is the identity
transformation contained in G .
ii) For any f ab and f cd in G ,
f ab f cd ( x) f ab ( f cd ( x)) f ab (cx d ) acx ad b f ac,ad b ( x)
Since f ab and f cd in G , a 0, c 0 ac 0 . Thus, f ab f cd f ac,ad b G . This
shows closure property holds true.
iii) To have inverse for any f ab in G , we have to find f cd in G such that
f ab f cd f cd f ab i f10 .
But f ab f cd ( x) f ac,ad b ( x) f10 ( x) x acx ad b x .
1 b
So, acx ad b x ac 1, ad b 0 c a 1 , d a 1b .
a a
Since a 0 , c and d are defined and hence ( f ab ) 1 f a 1
, a 1b
because
f ab f a 1 a 1b ( x) f ab (a 1 x a 1b) a(a 1 x a 1b) b x b b x f10 ( x) .
Hence, ( f ab ) 1 f a 1
, a 1b
is the required inverse of f ab in G . Therefore, by
definition (G,) forms a transformation group.
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1 1
2. Consider the transformations f ( x) x, g ( x) x, h( x) , k ( x) defined
x x
on the domain R /{0} . Show that (G,) forms abelian group of transformation
where G { f , g , h, k} .
Solution: To show whether a finite set together with a binary operation forms a
group or not is simple by making a table called Cayley table. Each cell is filled
using the calculation as follow:
f f ( x) f ( f ( x)) f ( x) x f f f ,
f g ( x) f ( g ( x)) f ( x) x g ( x) f g g
1 1
g h( x) g (h( x)) g ( ) k ( x) and so on.
x x
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1
i) For any g a G, g a ( x) ax g a1 ( x) x a 1 x g a1 G.
a
ii) For any g a , g b G, g a g b ( x) g a ( g b ( x)) abx g ab ( x) g a g b g ab
Since g ab G ,and g a g b g ab , we get g a g b G . Hence, by test of
transformation group, (G,) forms a transformation group.
2. Let f a : R 2 R 2 ; f a ( x, y) (2a x, y), a R such that G { f a :a R} .
Using criteria of transformation group, determine whether (G,) is
transformation group or not.
Solution: For any f a G, f a ( x, y) (2a x, y) . First of all, we need to show
that every element of G is transformation.
Now suppose, f a ( x, y) f a ( z, w) .
f a ( x, y ) f a ( z, w) (2a x, y ) (2a z, w)
2a x 2a z , y w
x z, y w ( x, y ) ( z, w)
This means the second condition of the above theorem (test for a
transformation group) fails.
As a result, (G,) does not form transformation group.
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Proof: For , in G , 1 ( ) 1 1 G
Hence, the equation has a solution in G . For the uniqueness of this solution,
assume there are two different solutions say , , then
, (by Left cancellation)
Example: Let (G,) be a transformation group such that , , in G . If
( x, y) (3 x,5 y) , ( x, y) (3 2 x,5 3 y) . Find such that
Solution: By the above theorem, has a unique solution for in G
which is given by 1 .
But after some ups and downs we get 1 ( x, y) (3 x,5 y) .
Therefore, ( x, y) 1 ( x, y) 1 ( ( x, y ))
1 (3 2 x,5 3 y) (2 x,3 y)
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x' kx
5. Let k be a mapping for k 0 given by k ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where .
y' y
Show that G { k : k 0} forms abelian group of transformations with
composition. Give the identity element and the inverse of 5 ( x, y) (5x, y) in
this group. List the involution elements (if any).
1
Answer : Identity element, i 1 , Inverse of 5 is 1 ( x, y ) ( x, y ),
5
5
The set of all involution elements : 1 , 1
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CHAPTER-2
AFFINE GEOMETRY
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In any affine space W , its elements are called vectors. Most of the concepts
like norm, projection, cross product and other concepts of vectors in Euclidean
Geometry are similarly defined in affine geometry.
Examples:
1. Let V R 3 be the vector space with the usual operations. Determine whether
each of the following sets are affine spaces associated with V or not
a) W {( x, y, z ) : x y z}
b) W {( x, y, z ) : x y z 0}
c) W {( x,0,0) : x R}
d ) W {( x, y, z ) : x 2 y z 7}
Example: Show that the vectors a (3,1,5) and b (1,3,2) are orthogonal.
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Examples
1. Verify that the vectors a (2,1,3) and b (6,3,9) are parallel.
2. Let a (m,3,4) and b (2,n,8) . Find the values of m and n so that the
Proposition 2.1:
i) Parallelism relation denoted by // on vectors is an equivalence relation.
ii) If a and b are not parallel, then r , t R , the equation r a t b has a unique
solution r t 0
Proof:
the assumption that a and b are not parallel. Therefore r 0 and similarly by
assuming t 0 it can be shown t 0 .
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Since the elements of affine space are vectors, the geometric theorems that we
know are analyzed using vector analysis. Now, let’s analyze some theorems
and problems using vectors in order to understand affine geometry and affine
space.
Proposition 2.2:
1. The line segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side and its length is half of that side.
Proof: Consider ABC below (figure 2.1a) where M and N are the mid-points
of AC and BC .
Hence, MN // AB .
2. The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
AC a b, DB a b .
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Here, we have
b 2 a 2 2ab cos( C ) c 2
c 2 a 2 b 2 2ab cos C , cos( C ) cos C
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Proof: Let OA and OB be two unit vectors along the lines OL and OM making
angles of and with the x-axis respectively as shown in the diagram below.
Here;
a) OA cos .i sin .j, OB cos .i sin .j
b) MOL MOC COL
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That is OA.OB (cos .i sin .j).(cos .i sin .j) cos cos sin sin
Combining the two equations, gives us cos( ) cos cos sin sin
5. The sine Law: Suppose the sides of ABC are represented by the vectors
a b c
a, b and c where a a, b b, c c . Then, .
sin A sin B sin C
Proof: Consider ABC with A , B , C as shown in the diagram.
Now, observe that:
i) The angle between the vectors a and b is . (Do you see why?)
ii) The angle between the vectors a and c is . (Do you see why ?)
iii) The angle between the vectors b and c is . (Do you see why?)
iv) For any angle , sin( ) sin (Difference formula of angles)
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a b a b sin , 0 .
Hence,
AB BC AC BC AC AB . Thus,
2
c 2 BC BC .BC
( AC AB ).( AC AB )
2 2
AC 2 AB. AC AB
2 2
AC AB , AC . AB 0
a b
2 2
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From Euclidean geometry, we know that any two distinct points determine a
unique line whose equation can be determined using the concepts in coordinate
geometry. But, in affine space lines and planes are defined using the concept of
vectors. So our next discussion focuses on analysis of lines and planes in affine
space using vectors.
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Remarks: The case when one of a, b, c is zero gives the following equations.
y y0 z z0
i) If a 0, x x0 ,
b c
x x0 z z 0
ii) If b 0, y y 0 ,
a c
x x0 y y 0
iii) If c 0, z z 0 ,
a b
Examples: Give the vector, parametric and symmetric equations of the line
that passes:
a) Through the points A(2,1,1) and B(1,3,2)
b) Through the point A(1,3,0) and parallel to the vector u 2i 5 j 7k
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3
Or it could be .
4 4
2. For what value of k are the line l : x 2t , y 1 3t , z 2 7t and the line
m : X (2,3,5) r (3, k , 3) perpendicular in Affine space?
Solution: The direction vectors of the lines are u 2i 3 j 7k , v 3i kj 3k .
Then, the two lines will be perpendicular if their direction vectors are
perpendicular. So, u v u.v 0 6 3k 21 0 k 9 .
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3. Find the value of a if the cosine value of the angle between the lines
1
l : x y z and m : x 1 t , y at 5, z 4 2t is .
3
Solution: The angle between the two lines is the same as the angle between
their direction vectors u i j k , v i aj 2k
1 u.v 1 a3 1
So, cos a3 a2 5
3 u v 3 3 a 52
3
(a 3) 2 a 2 5 a 2 6a 9 a 2 5 a 2 / 3
4. Let l : A, B and m : C, D be two non-perpendicular intersecting lines in
AB xCD
affine space. Then, verify that tan where is the angle between
AB CD
the lines.
Proof: From the above definition, the angle between two lines in Affine Space
is the same as the angle between their direction vectors. Thus, as is the angle
between the lines, it is also is the angle between their direction vectors AB
AB CD AB CD sin sin
yields, tan .
AB CD AB CD cos cos
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Proposition 2.5: Given a line l and a point Q not on l . Then, there is exactly
one line m through Q parallel to l .
Proof: Let l : X P tu , then m : X Q tu for any point Q is parallel to l
(because by definition any two lines with the same direction vectors are
parallel). This proves the existence of parallel line to l .
Now suppose there is another line n through Q parallel to l . In this case, it is
given by n : X Q rv, m // n u // v .
Therefore, from m : X Q tu and n : X Q rv with u parallel to v we get
m n by the previous proposition.
Theorem 2.1(Length Ratio Theorem): Let l be a line passing through two
different points A and B given by l : P A r AB, r R . Then,
AP r AP
a) r b) , if P B
AB 1 r PB
c) P is between A and B if 0 r 1
d ) B is between A and P if r 1
Proof: a) From vector equation of the line l : P A r AB, r R , we have
AP AP
P A r AB, r R AP r AB AP r AB r AB r
AB AB
For 0 r 1 , AP r AB AP r AB AB AP rAB AB .
This shows P is between A and B . The rest parts of the theorem can be derived
from what we did here.
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Examples:
1. If A (5,0,7) and B (2,3,6) , then find a point P on the line A, B which
AP
satisfies 3.
PB
and yellow color the region PBCQ where the ratio of the length painted white
AP 3
to the length painted yellow is known to be . Find the coordinates of P
PB 2
where he should draw the dividing line to Q .
r AP
Solution: From Length Ratio Theorem, we have . But we need to
1 r PB
AP 3
find a point P which satisfies .
PB 2
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r AP 3 r 3
Thus, 2r 3(1 r )
1 r PB 2 1 r 2
2r 3 3r or 2r 3r 3 r 3 / 5 or r 3
B is given by l : P A r AB, r R.
3 3 3 13 27
Hence, using r , we get P A AB (2,3,1) (1,4,5) ( , ,2).
5 5 5 5 5
Moreover, if Q is any other point on the line, then CQ CP and hence P is the
point on l closest to C . Besides, the shortest distance from the line to the point
AC 2 AB 2 ( AC . AB ) 2 AB AC
C is given by d CP
AB AB
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Then, CP. AB 0 ( P C ). AB 0
( A t AB C ). AB 0
(CA t AB ). AB 0
CA. AB t ( AB. AB ) 0
AC . AB t ( AB. AB ) 0
AC . AB
t ( AB 2 AB )
2
,
AB 2
The uniqueness of point P follows from the unique value of the parameter t .
Now for any other point Q , the inequality CQ CP follows from Pythagoras
theorem. Because if Q is any other point on the line (on the either side of P ),
then CQ 2 CP 2 PQ 2 CQ 2 CP 2 CQ CP. Equality holds when P Q .
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2
CP 2 AC 2 AP 2 AC 2 t AB , P A t AB AP t AB
2
AC . AB
AC 2 AB 2
AB 2
AC 2 . AB 2 ( AC . AB ) 2
AB 2
AB ( AC AB cos ) 2
2 2
AC
AB 2
AB [1 cos 2 ]
2 2
AC
AB 2
AC 2 AB sin 2
2
, 1 cos 2 sin 2
AB 2
AC AB sin
2
AB 2
2
AC AB
AB 2
Taking square root both sides gives the required result.
Examples:
1. Let l be a line through the points A (2,1,3) and B (1,2,4) . Find a point P
on this line which is closest to the origin and calculate the shortest distance
from the line to the origin.
Solution: From the above theorem, the closest point on the line to a given point
AC . AB
C (not on the line) is given by P A t AB , where t .
AB 2
In our case, A (2,1,3) , B (1,2,4) and C (0,0,0) . Thus,
2,1,3 . 3,1,1 2
AC 2,1,3 , AB 3,1,1 , AB 11 t
11 11
2 16 13 35
P (2,1,3) 3,1,1 ( , , )
11 11 11 11
AC 2 AB 2 ( AC . AB ) 2 154 4 150
d CP d
AB 11 11
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given by A, B, C {X : X A r AB t AC , r, t R}
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AB CD
space. Then, verify that cot where is the angle between
AB xCD
the lines.
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1 r r t
If we assume t 1 , we have (1 t ) B (1 r )C (r t ) D B C D
1 t 1 t
1 r r t
This shows that B aC bD with a b 1 where a , b .
1 t 1 t
But this mean that B is on the line CD which implies that B, C, D are collinear
but this is a contradiction with the hypothesis that any three of the points are
not collinear. Hence, t 1 . Similarly one can get r 1 .
Therefore, AC t BD C A D B B A D C AB CD .
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OA OB AB
lines A, C and B, D intersect in a points O for which
OC OD CD
AC BD
and . Conversely, if the lines A, C and B, D intersect in a point
OA OB
OC OD
O such that , then AB // CD, AB CD .
OA OB
Proof: Consider figure 2.4.
(refer the figure above)and then consider OAB and OCD .In these triangles,
OAB OCD, OBA ODC (corresponding angles) as AB // CD.
OA OB AB
As a result, .
OC OD CD
Besides, from this result,
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OA OB OC OD
OC OD OA OB
OC OD
1 1
OA OB
OC OA OD OB
OA OB
AC BD
OA OB
Conversely, suppose the lines A, C and B, D intersect at some point O
OC OD OC OD
such that . Let k . Then, OC k OA, OD k OB .
OA OB OA OB
CD k AB . Therefore, AB // CD besides AB CD .
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BD CE AF
D, E and F are collinear if and only if . . 1
DC EA FB
Proof: Suppose D, E and F are points on the lines B, C , A, C and
A, B respectively such that D, E and F are collinear.
BD CE AF
We need to show that . . 1
DC EA FB
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DB PB FA EA
we get and .
DC EC FB PB
Multiplying these two equations, we get
DB FA PB EA DB FA EC
. . . . 1
DC FB EC PB DC FB EA
DB AF CE
. . 1, FA AF , EC CE
DC FB EA
BD AF CE
. . 1, BD DB
DC FB EA
BD CE AF
Hence, co linearity of D, E and F implies that . . 1 .
DC EA FB
Suppose BD CE AF
. . 1.....................................................................................(i)
DC EA FB
We need to prove that the points D, E and F are collinear. Consider line
D, E and suppose that F is not on this line.
Assume that F ' is another point on D, E such that D, E and F ' are collinear.
Then, by the forward part
BD CE AF '
. . 1................................................................(ii )
DC EA F ' B
So, from (i ) and (ii ) we get,
BD CE AF ' BD AF CE
. . . .
DC EA F ' B DC FB EA
AF ' AF
F ' B FB
F ' A FA
1 1
B F' BF
BA BA
B F' B F F' F
B F' B F
BD CE AF
Therefore, if . . 1, then the points D, E and F are collinear.
DC EA FB
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BD CE AF
and C, F are concurrent if and only if . . 1.
DC EA FB
Proof: Suppose the lines A, D , B, E and C, F are concurrent at a
point P . Draw lines through B and C which are parallel to the line A, D .
Extend the line B, E to a point Q and
C, F to a point R (Refer figure 2.6 below).
CE CQ AF PA
Since AP // QC, AP // RB and BR // CQ , we have , and
EA PA FB BR
BD RP BR
.
DC PC CQ
BD CE AF BR CQ PA
Now, multiplying the three equations yields, . . . . 1.
DC EA FB CQ PA BR
BD CE AF
Conversely, suppose . . 1.........................................(i)
DC EA FB
Let the point P be the intersection of the lines A, D and B, E . Assume
the line C, F does not pass through this point P . Then, we have another
point F ' on line A, B such that the line C, F ' passes through the point P .
BD CE AF '
Then, by the forward part . . 1................(ii ) .
DC EA F ' B
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BD CE AF
. . 1.
DC EA FB
Corollary 2.1: The three medians of any triangle are concurrent.
Proof: Consider ABC below (figure 2.7a) where AD, BE , CF are the medians.
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Similarly in BDA and BFC , ABD ABD (it is common angle) and
BDA BFC (Both are right angles). Hence, BDA ~ BFC by AA similarity
BD AB BD AB
theorem. But BDA ~ BFC . Finally, by considering
BF BC FB BC
CE BC
CEB and CDA , we get CEB ~ CDA . CEB ~ CDA
DC AC
BD CE AF
Multiply theses three ratios above will lead to . . 1.
DC EA FB
Therefore, by Ceva’s theorem the three altitudes are concurrent.
Corollary 2.3: The angle bisectors of a triangle intersect at a common point.
Proof: Use the same reasoning as above.
Desargue’s Theorem 2.6: Let ABC and DEF be given where their
respective (corresponding) sides are parallel. Then, the lines A, D , B, E
AB AC BC
and C, F are concurrent and .
DE DF EF
AB AC BC
scalars k , r , t such that k, r, t. Now we need to show that
DE DF EF
these scalars are equal in order to prove that the sides are proportional.
Using vector addition,
AB BC AC k DE t EF r DF r ( DE EF )
(k r ) DE (r t ) EF
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AB AC BC
Therefore, k where k is a constant. Here, there are two cases
DE DF EF
to be considered depending on the values of the constant k .
Suppose k 1 . In this case, assume the lines A, D and B, E intersect at
OA AB
implies ODE OAB, OED OBA ). So, . Similarly, suppose
OD DE
the lines A, D and C, F intersect at point P . This also gives
PA AC
PAC ~ PDF by AA similarity theorem which in turn implies .
PD DF
AB AC BC
But from the first result, we have .
DE DF EF
OA AB BC PA OA PA
Hence, .
OD DE EF PD OD PD
Besides,
OA PA OA PA
1 1
OD PD OD PD
OA OD PA PD
OD PD
AD AD
PD OD
OD PD
D P DO P O
AB AC BC
Finally, if the ratio k 1 , then from k , we
DE DF EF
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Proof: Consider the diagram below. Suppose the lines k and l intersects at
some point O (Refer figure 2.9b).
OE OD OC OB
and .
OA OB OE OF
OC OD
Multiplying these equations, gives .
OA OF
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4. Find the vector, parametric and symmetric equations of a line through the
2 2
intersection of m : y x and n : y 2 x which is parallel l : X t .
4 6
5. Let D, E and F be points on the sides B, C , A, C and A, B of
DB 3 CE 12 AF
such that and . Then, find
DC 4 EA 5 FB
a) If the points D, E, F are collinear.
b) If A, D , B, E and C, F are concurrent.
AG BD CE
A, B of ABC . If for any point G , . . 1 , prove that F G .
GB DC EA
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11. Suppose the medians AP, BQ, CR of ABC intersect at point T . Then,
TP TB TR
show that 1
AP BQ CR
12. Let ABC and DEF be triangles with the condition AB / DE AC / DF .
Show that BC || EF .
13 .Let D, E, F be points on sides BC , CA, AB of A BC respectively such that
the Cevians AD, BE , CF are concurrent. Show that if M , N , P are points on
EF , FD, DE respectively, then the lines AM , BN , CP are concurrent if and only
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CHAPTER-3
Orthogonal (Isometric)Transformations
3.1 Introductions
In order to introduce the concept of isometrics, first let’s consider the notion of
distance. Distance is a real valued non-negative function denoted by d ( P, Q)
which assigns to any pair of points in the plane or space a non-negative real
number satisfying the following conditions:
i) d ( P, Q) d (Q, P)
ii ) d ( P, Q) 0d ( P, Q) 0 P Q
iii ) d ( P, R) d ( P, Q) d (Q, R)
Here, the third property is known as triangle inequality and equality occurs if
and only if the points P, Q, R are collinear points.
Note: The notation d ( P, Q) stands to mean the distance from P to Q and
between P and Q which shows that line segment is the shortest path between
two points.
In Euclidean geometry, distance between two points P and Q in a plane is given
by d ( P, O) PQ ( x1 x2 )2 ( y1 y2 )2 , where P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 )
It can be easily verified that this distance formula satisfies the above three
conditions. Throughout this text, the writer uses f ( P) f (Q) to mean the
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In such cases, whenever f (v) v (That is the norm of the image vector is
equal to the norm of the vector before mapping) for any vector v and
f ( P) f (Q) PQ (That is the distance between the images of two points is equal
to the distance between the points) for any two points P and Q , we say that f is
norm, length or distance preserving. That is really what we mean isometric or
orthogonal transformations. Now let’s have the formal definition.
Hence, f is an isometry.
b) Here, if we take any two points P ( x, y), Q ( z, w) , we have
d ( P, Q) ( z x) 2 ( y w) 2 .
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d ( P, Q) ( z x) 2 ( y w) 2 .
Besides,
P' f ( P) (3x,3 y), Q' f ( Q) (3z,3w) and thus
d ( P' , Q' ) d ( f ( P), f (Q))
(3z 3z ) 2 (3w 3 y ) 2
9( z y ) 2 9( w x) 2
3 ( z y ) 2 ( w x) 2
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3. Prove that any isometry preserves dot product and conclude that an isometry
preserves angle.
Proof: Let v and w be any two vectors and f be an isometry. Since an isometry
f (v) f ( w) v w .
But f (v) f ( w) v w
2 2
f (v) f ( w) vw
2 f (v). f ( w) 2v . w
f (v). f ( w) v . w
Hence, f (v). f (w) v . w shows that f preserves dot product. Besides, if is the
angle between the non-zero vectors v , w and is the angle between the image
f (v ). f ( w) v.w
cos cos . (Why ?)
f (v) f ( w) vw
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Thus, if we assume B' is to the right of C ' , then A' C' A' B' AC AB
(Because A' B' AB, A' C' AC ).
But this contradicts with the hypothesis AB AC . Similar argument holds if
B' is assumed to be on the left of A' .
Hence, any isometry preserves betweeness.
Proposition 3.5: If three points A, B, C are collinear, then their images A' , B' , C '
are also collinear. This means any isometry preserves co linearity.
Proof: Apply Triangle inequality and proposition 3.4 to arrive at a
contradiction.
Proposition 3.6: An isometry maps lines into lines and parallel lines into
parallel lines.
Proof: Let l be any line and f be an isometry. Take any two distinct points
A, B on l such that f ( A) A' and f ( B) B'.
But A B f ( A) f ( B) A' B'. Hence, A' and B' are distinct points and
determine a unique line l '. Besides, since f preserves co-linearity for any point
P on l , f ( P) P' is on l '. Moreover; if l // m , then f (l ) // f (m).
A B f ( A) f ( B) . Thus, l // m f (l ) // f (m).
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Since f and g are isometrics, A' P' AP, A' P" AP.
From these two equations, we get A' P' A' P", which shows that A' is on the
perpendicular bisector of P' P" (If a point is at equal distance from the end
points of a line segment, then it lies on the perpendicular bisector of that line
segment).
Similarly, if we consider points B and C separately in the plane of A we get
that B' and C ' are also in the perpendicular bisector of P' P".
That means they all lie on the same line which yields that A' , B' and C ' are
collinear. But, this in turn implies that A, B, C are collinear because any
isometrics preserves co-linearity.
However, this contradicts the hypothesis that A, B, C are non-collinear.
Consequently, f g.
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Answer : a 3 / 5
3. Let P and Q be two points and be an isometry with ( P) P, (Q) Q .
Show that (M ) M where M is the mid point of P and Q .
4. Suppose is a mapping with the property that ( P) (Q) PQ for all points
P and Q . Show that is an isometry. (Hint: Simply show that is a
transformation)
5. Prove that any isometry preserves the Cauchy- Schwarz Inequality.
6. Using triangle inequality, prove that an isometry maps lines in to lines.
7. Let C be a circle with center O and radius r . Prove that if f is an isometry,
then f (C ) is a circle with center f (O) and radius r.
9. Prove that every isometry f preserves norm of a vector.
10. Prove that every isometry f preserves dot product and conclude that it also
preserves angle measures.
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3.4.1 Translation
x' x a
In other word, for P ( x, y), v (a, b), T ( P) T ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
y' y b
The vector v is called translator vector. The translation with translator vector
v is sometimes denoted by Tv . In translation problem, whenever any two of
( x, y), ( x' , y' ), or (a, b) (the pre image, the image or the translator vector) are
given, the third can be uniquely determined from the translation equation.
Examples:
1. Let T be a translation that takes the point (3,4) to (5,3). Find the equation for
the translation T.
Solution: Let v (a, b) be the translator vector. Then for any point P( x, y) , we
x' x a
have T ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where .
y' y b
Particularly, for (3,4) , we have
T (3,4) (3 a,4 b) (5,3) 3 a 5,4 b 3 a 2, b 1.
Therefore, T ( x, y) ( x 2, y 1) .
2. For any two translations Tv and Tw , if Tv (1,2) 2Tw (4,7) and
Tw (9,2) 3Tv (1,3), find the equations of these translations.
Solution: Let v (a, b) and w (c, d ) . Then, for any object ( x, y),
Tv ( x, y) ( x a, y b) , Tw ( x, y) ( x c, y d ). But,
Tv (1,2) 2Tw (4,7) (1 a,2 b) (8 2c,14 2d )
a 2c 7
.......................................................(i )
b 2d 12
Tw (9,2) 3Tv (1,3) (9 c,2 d ) (3 3a,9 3b)
c 3a 6
.............................................................(ii )
d 3b 11
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Collecting like terms together from (i ) and (ii ) , we get the following systems;
a 2c 7 b 2d 12
a 1, c 3 , b 2, d 5
c 3a 6 d 3b 11
v (a, b) (1,2), w (c, d ) (3,5)
Therefore, Tw ( x, y) ( x, y 5) .
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Remark: The important concept that students should bear in mind about
translation is that translation Tv can be applied to arbitrary shapes of object
point –by-point. Each point of a given shape S is translated by v and the
collection of these translated points gives the translated image S ' of S. This is
denoted by S ' Tv (S ). So, to determine the image S ' when S is a polygon it is
sufficient to translate its vertices. For instance, if PQRT is an arbitrary four
side polygon, where P, Q, R, T are its vertices, to find the image polygon
under a translation Tv , it suffices to determine only the images of the vertices.
i.e. Tv ( P) P' , Tv (Q) Q' , Tv ( R) R' , TV (T ) T ' . So that the image
quadrilateral is P' Q' R'T ' . This means that other points of the quadrilateral
between the vertices are assumed to be translated (moved) equal distance in the
same direction.
Examples: Let T be a translation by the vector (1,2) . Find the image of
a) ABC whose vertices are A(0,0), B(3,0) and C (0,4)
b) the line l : x 2 y 6 .
Solution: Let P ( x, y) by any object in the plane containing ABC . Then,
T ( P) T ( x, y) ( x 1, y 2) by definition of translation. Thus,
a) A' T ( A) (1,2), B' T ( B) (4,2), C' T (C) (1,6) . Hence, the image of
ABC under T will be A' B' C ' with vertices A' (1,2, ), B' (4,2) and C ' (1,6) .
b) This problem can be done using two methods.
Method I: Take two points A and B on l : x 2 y 6 .
Say A (0,3), B (6,0) .Then, find the images of these points under T .
T ( A) A' (1,1), T ( B) B' (7,2) .
Now form the equation of a line l ' passing through A' and B' . This line will be
the image of l under T . This is because from the previous explanation all
other points between A and B or on the line l will be translated the same
2 1 3 1
distance in the same direction. Hence, l ': y mx b , where m
7 1 6 2
1
l ': y x b . Taking either A' or B' on l ' we can determine b .
2
1 3 1 3
Using A' ,1 .1 b b . Thus, l ': y x x 2 y 3 .
2 2 2 2
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Method II: Take any arbitrary point P ( x, y) on l . Then, find P' . Finally,
substitute in the equation of l . P' ( x' , y' ) T ( x, y) ( x 1, y 2) . From the
general equation of translation, x' x 1, y' y 2 x x'1, y y'2 .
Subsisting these values in equation of l , we have
l : x 2 y 6 l ': ( x'1) 2( y'20 6 l ': x'2 y' 3
Note that it is advisable to use Method II. Because most of the time Method I
is subjected to arithmetic errors and is a bit longer than Method II. In this
1
example one can observe m' m which shows that l ' is parallel to l .This
2
will enable us to state the following proposition in general.
Proposition 3.8: Any translation is a dilatation.
Proof: In chapter 1, we have seen that to show a given transformation is a
dilatation, first we have to show it is a collineation and then it maps any line to
parallel line. Let Tv be arbitrary translation with translator vector v (h, k ) and
let l : ax by c 0 be any line. Now, for any point ( x, y) on this line,
x' x h
Tv ( x, y ) ( x' , y ' ) where . Solving for x and y in terms of x' and y '
y' y k
yields x x'h, y y'k .
Then, substitute these values in the equation of l ( Just using Method II)
l : ax by c 0 a( x'h) b( y'k ) c 0 ax'by'(c ah bk ) 0
But this is equation of a line which means that Tv is a collineation. Thus, for
any line l : ax by c 0 its image under a translation Tv is a line given by
Tv (l ) l ': ax'by'(c ah bk ) 0 .
Besides, comparing the equations of l and l ' , we observe that they do have the
same slope. This shows they are parallel which in turn implies that Tv maps any
line into a parallel line. Consequently, any translation is a dilatation.
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Proposition 3.9: For two given points, P and Q there is a unique translations
that take P to Q this is usually denoted by TP ,Q . Besides, the translator vector
is given by v Q P PQ .
Proof: Let T1 ( x, y) ( x a, y b), T2 ( x, y) ( x m, y n) be any two translations
such that T1 ( P) Q and T2 ( P) Q . We need to show T1 and T2 are identical.
But to show this it suffices to show that their translator vectors are equal. Let
P (c, d ), Q (e, f ) . Then, T1 ( P) (c a, d b) (e, f ) and
Corollary 3.1:
For any four points P, Q, R and S , if TP,Q ( R) S , then TP,Q TR,S .
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parallelogram.
3. Let f be a translation with translator vector v (a, b) . If f 4 (2,7) (6,5) ,
find the translator vector v and f (4,3)
4. Find the image of the circle C : x 2 y 2 4 y under a translation T which maps
(1,2) to (0,7) .
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3.4.2 Reflection
When we look at our selves through a mirror, it is common to see our face. At
this time, our true face is displayed through the mirror and the displayed face is
called our image under the mirror. But in the theory of Optics one can find that
this image is found to be at equal distance from the mirror as our real face. This
means that the distance between the image and the mirror is the same as the
distance between our face and the mirror and this is what we mean by the
concept of reflection.
Definition: Given a line l and a point P . Then P ' is said to be the reflection
image of P on the line l if and only if PP ' is perpendicular to l and
PM P ' M , where M is the point of intersection of PP ' and the line l . In
other words, P and P ' are located on different sides of l but at equal distances
from the line l . In this case, P ' is said to be the mirror image of P and the line
l is said to be line of reflection or axis of symmetry.
Notation: Reflection on l is usually denoted by Sl .
P, if P l
So, Sl ( P)
P ', if P l and l is the perpendicular bisector of PP '
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Example: If the image of the point (3,5) on a vertical line is (7,5) , find the
equation of the line.
Solution: Let the line be l : x a .Then, reflection on this line will have
equation S a ( x, y) (2a x, y) .
Particularly, S a (2,5) (7,5) (2a 3,5) (7,5) 2a 3 7 a 2 .
Hence, the line is l : x 2 .
Problematic situations: In solving reflection problems, there are three
possible situation:
I) Given the point P and line l , we need to find the image point P ' under Sl .
II) Given the image point P ' and the line l , we need to find the object point P .
III) Given and the objetc point P and its image point P ' , we need to find the
equation of l .
But, in each case, the basic definition of reflection can be used to determine
any of the required values.
Examples:
1. Find the image of the point (4,6) by a reflection on the line l : y 2 x .
Solution: Let the image point be P' ( x' , y' ) . Then, by definition, the midpoint of
the P and P’ is on the line of reflection.
x'4 y'6 y'6
That is ( , ) l x'4 y' 2 x'2..................(i)
2 2 2
A gain the line through P and P’ is perpendicular to the given line. Hence, its
1
slope must be m . Thus,usin P and P’, we have
2
y'6 1 x'
y' 8.....................................................(ii )
x'4 2 2
x' 12 34
From the two equations, we get 2 x'2 8 x' , y ' .
2 5 5
12 34
Therefore, the image point is ( x' , y' ) ( , ).
5 5
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2. Let the image of the point (2,5) by a reflection Sl be the point (5, 2) . Find
the equation of the line of reflection l .
Solution: Let P (2,5) , P ' (5, 2) and l : y mx b. Since PP ' is
perpendicular to l , the product of the slopes of l and the line through P and
P ' must be 1 . But the slope of the line through P and P ' is 1 . So, slope m
of l is 1 . Thus, l : y mx b y x b.
Again, since l is the perpendicular bisector of PP ' , l passes through the mid
P P ' (2,5) (5, 2) 7 7 7 7
point of P and P ' . That is, ( , ) l . Thus, ( , )
2 2 2 2 2 2
7 7
satisfies the equation of l . So, ( ) b b 0 .
2 2
Therefore, equation of l is y x.
Proposition 3.10: Properties of Reflection
a) For any two reflections, Sl and Sm , Sl Sm Sm Sl
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(S l S k ) 2 (S l S k ) (S l S k ) (S l S k ) (S k S l )
S l (S k S k ) S l S l i S l S l S l i
We need to show b c
(S l S k ) 2 i (S l S k ) (S l S k ) i
( S l S k ) ( S l S k ) ( S l S k ) 1 ( S l S k ) 1
( S l S k ) 1 S l S k
We need to show c a
(S l S k ) 1 S l S k S l S k S k S l , because
1 1 1
(S l S k ) 1 S k S l , S l S l , S k1 S k
a
As the slope of the given line is m , the slope of the line through P( x, y)
b
b
and P' ( x' , y' ) is m' .
a
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Thus, the equation of the line through P( x, y) and P' ( x' , y' ) is given by
y' y b
a( y' y) b( x' x)......................................................................(i)
x' x a
x x' y y '
Now, the midpoint of P( x, y) and P' ( x' , y' ) is on l means , is on l .
2 2
x x y y
So, a b c 0 ax'by' 2c ax by...............(ii )
2 2
Combining these two equations gives us
bx ay bx ay
...........................................................(iii )
ax by 2c ax by
Now, solve these equations for x' and y ' . In this equation, by multiplying the
first equation by 'b' , the second by 'a' and adding them we obtain,
a 2 x'b 2 x' b(bx ay a(2c ax by )
b(bx ay ) a(2c ax by )
x'
a2 b2
b 2 x a 2 x 2a 2 x 2aby 2ac
a2 b2
x(a 2 b 2 ) 2a(ax by c)
a2 b2
2a(ax by c)
x
a2 b2
Similarly, multiplying the first equation by 'a' , the second by 'b' and adding
the result gives,
b(2c ax by ) a (bx ay )
y'
a2 b2
a 2 y b 2 y 2b 2 y 2abx 2bc
a2 b2
y (a 2 b 2 ) 2b(ax by c)
a2 b2
2b(ax by c)
y
a2 b2
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Examples
1. Find the image of the point (2,3) by a reflection on the line l : 3x 2 y 5 0
Solution: Given ( x, y) (2,3) and from l : 3x 2 y 5 0, a 3, b 2, c 5 .
Then,
2a(ax by c) 6(6 6 5) 4
x ' x 2
a b
2 2
94 13
y ' y 2b(ax by c) 3 4(6 6 5) 59
a2 b2 94 13
4 59
Therefore, S l (2,3) ( , ).
13 13
2. Given S l (a, b) (2,5) where l : x y 1 0 . Find the value of the point (a, b).
Solution: Using the generalized reflection equation derived in the above
theorem,
2(a b 1)
2 a a (a b 1) b 3
1 1
S l (a, b) (2,5)
5 b 2(a b 1) b a b 1 a 4
11
3. Given the lines m : y 2 x 1 and n : y 2 x 3 . Find the image of the point
(1,1) by a product of reflection on line m followed by line n .
4(2 1 1) 3
x' 1 4 1 5
S m (1,1) ( x' , y ' )
y ' 1 2(2 1 1) 9
4 1 5
6 9
4( 3)
3 5 5 21
x' '
Now, S n S m (1,1) S n ( S m (1,1)) S n ( 3 , 9 ) 5 4 1 5
5 5 6 9
2( 3)
9 5 5 3
y ' '
5 4 1 5
21 3
Therefore, S n S m (1,1) ( , ) .
5 5
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3 1
tan 3 r 10 sin , cos
10 10
4 3
cos 2 cos 2 sin 2 , sin 2 2 sin cos
5 5
Here, one can check the correctness of the answer using direct formula of
reflection.
6(15 5)
x' 5 1
9 1
S l (5,5) ( x' , y ' ) ( x' , y ' ) (1,7) which agrees with
y ' 5 2(15 5) 7
9 1
our previous result.
Reflecting Geometric Figures: So far we saw how to find the image of a point
by reflecting on a line. But it is also possible to find the images of different
figures (like lines, circles, ellipse, rectangles) under a reflection. So, here under
let’s see some examples.
Reflecting a circle or an ellipse on a line:
To find the image of a circle under a reflection on a line l , we follow the
following procedures.
First: Identify the center O and radius r of the given circle C .
Second: Find the image O' of the center O of the circle by a reflection on l .
Third: Write the equation of the image circle using the center O' and the same
radius r . (Why we use the same radius? We use the same radius because
reflection is an isometry that preserves length)
We also use the same procedure to reflect an ellipse. That is first identify the
center of the ellipse and its minor and major axes, then reflect the center of the
ellipse, finally write the equation of the ellipse using the image center and the
same axes as the given ellipse. Please bear in mind that these procedure works
for all types of isometries.
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Third: Write the equation of the image circle using the image center and the
radius of the given circle.
That is the image circle is C ': ( x 2) 2 ( y 0) 2 4 x 2 y 2 4 x
x2 y2
In standard form, the ellipse is written as E : 4 x 2 9 y 2 36 1.
9 4
Thus, the major axis is a 9 , the minor axis is b 2 and the center is C (0,0) .
Besides, the image of the center is C ' (1,1) . Therefore, the image of the ellipse
( x 1) 2 ( y 1) 2
becomes E ': 1 4( x 1) 2 9( y 1) 2 36.
9 4
Reflecting a line on a line:
To find the image of a line m under a reflection on another line l , we follow
the following procedures.
First: Select any two points P and Q from line m .
Second: Find the image P' and Q ' of P and Q by a reflection on l .
Third: Write the equation of the line through P' and Q ' which is image of m .
These procedures work for any pairs of line m and l , even when they are
intersecting. Besides, these procedure works for all types of isometries.
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Third: Write the equation of the line through P' and Q ' which is image of m .
1
That is the image line is m': y x . Use similar argument to find image of n
2
Application (Shortest Path Problem): Suppose Kumlachew wants to fetch
water from a river on his way while he is going from his farm land (found at
location A ) to his home (found at location B ) as shown in figure 3.4 below.
Suggest the shortest path that takes kumlachew from his farm land to the river
and then to his home and prove that the path you suggested is really the
shortest path.
Solution: In this problem, any one can guess that Kumlachew should go
straight to some point on the river bank, fetch water and then go to his house.
But the problem is to what point of the river should he go so as to minimize the
length of the road. First of all assume that the river bank to which Kumlachew
wants to go forms straight line say L.
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Claim: Let B' be the reflection of B in L (straight side of the river bank) and
Find the coordinate of P that minimizes the total path of the ant.
Solution: This is a particular case of the shortest path problem. As in the
procedures of the above proof;
First: Find the reflection image of B (2,4) on the given line L : y x . Say, B'
Second: Form the equation of the line through A (1,5) and B' . Say,
m : y ax b
Therefore, the required point is P (3,3) . (If you use Calculus, you will get the
same result)
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5. Suppose an ant moves from the position A (0,2) to the position B (6,1) by
touching the x-axis at some point P . Find the coordinate of P that minimizes
the total path of the ant. Answer : (1 / 4,0)
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10. Let l be a line along the vector u and let Pu (X ) be the projection of X on l .
14. Can the product of two reflections ever be a reflection? Explain your
answer!
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3.4.3 Rotation
C , if P C
C , ( P)
P ', if P C , s.t. CP CP '
Theorem 3.3: A rotation through an angle of , about the origin which takes
each point P( x, y) in to P '( x ', y ') is given by O, ( x, y) ( x ' , y' ) , where
P( x, y) be any point such that O, ( x, y) ( x ' , y' ) . As shown in figure 3.5,
Then the angle from the positive x-axis to the segment OP ' will be . Let
r OP . From the definition of rotation OP OP ' , so we have r OP ' .
Examples:
1. Find the image of the point (1,1) and the line l : 3x 5 y 7 by a a counter
clockwise rotation through 90 about the origin.
Solution: From the above theorem, for any point P( x, y) , O, ( x, y) ( x ' , y' )
where x ' x cos y sin and y ' x sin y cos . So, using P(1,1) ,
90 , and C (0,0) , we get O, ( x, y) ( x ' , y' ) (1,1) .
Now, solving these equations for x and y and substituting in the equation of l ,
we get l ' : 3 y ' 5( x ') 7 5x ' 3 y ' 7 .
2. Find the image of the point ( 3,1) by a counterclockwise rotation about the
origin with 105 .
Solution: Here, we use angle sum formula to determine cos(105 ), sin(105 ) .
That is
cos(105 ) cos(60 45 ) cos 60 cos 45 sin 60 sin 45
1 2 3 2 2 6
. .
2 2 2 2 4 4
sin(105 ) sin(60 45 ) sin 60 cos 45 cos 60 sin 45
3 2 1 2 6 2
. .
2 2 2 2 4 4
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2 6 6 2 4 2
x' 3 cos(105 ) sin(105 ) 3.( )( ) 2
4 4 4 4 4
Thus,
y ' 3 sin(105 ) cos(105 ) 3. ( 6 2
)(
2
6
)
4 2
2
4 4 4 4 4
3 2
x' x cos y sin x' 5 13. 13 2 13. 13 15 4 11
( x' , y ' ) (11,16)
y ' x sin y cos y ' 5 13. 2 2 13. 3 10 6 16
13 13
Rotating a line and a circle : To find the image of a line or a circle under a
given rotation we use the same procedure as we did in reflection section. For
instance to find the image of a circle under a given rotation, first identify the
center and radius of the given circle, second find the image of the center under
the given rotation, finally write the circle using the image center and the same
radius as the given circle. (Please refer the procedures we use for reflecting a
line and a circle)
Theorem 3.4 (Generalized Rotation Theorem):
The image of any point P( x, y) under a rotation about arbitrary center C h, k
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Suppose the general equation of a rotation about any center C (h, k ) with
angle of rotation is given by C , ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
r t
h
2 2 tan 2
k t r
2 2 tan 2
r sin
h r (1 cos ) t sin
t 1 cos
1 cos r
k t (1 cos ) r sin
sin t
h r (1 cos ) t sin r sin r 2 sin 2 cos 2 r t
h t t
2(1 cos ) 2 2(1 cos ) 2 4 sin 22
2 2 tan 2
k t (1 cos ) r sin t sin t 2 sin 2 cos 2 t r
k r r
2(1 cos ) 2 2(1 cos ) 2 4 sin 22
2 2 tan 2
1 3
x' x y24 3
2 2
whose equations are given by . Find the angle and
y' 3 1
x y42 3
2 2
center of this rotation.
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Solution: Let’s use the formula for center of rotation given in the above
theorem.
1 3
Here, r 2 4 3, t 4 2 3 . Besides, cos , sin 60 .
2 2
r t 24 3 42 3
h
1 2 3 3 (2 3 ) 4
2 2 2 tan 30
2 tan
2
Hence,
k t r 42 3 24 3
2 3 3 (1 2 3 ) 8
2 2 2 tan 30
2 tan
2
Therefore, the center of the rotation is C (h, k ) (4,8) .
Theorem 3.6: Let R be a counter clock wise rotation by a given angle about
the origin. Then,
a) R R R , for any two angles
1
b) R R , the inverse of a rotation by is a rotation by -
c) R i 2n , n Z (Where i is identity rotation)
Proof: a) Let P( x, y) be any point. Then,
R R ( x, y ) R ( R ( x, y ))
R ( x cos y sin , x sin y cos ) ( x ', y '), where
x ' ( x cos y sin ) cos ( x sin y cos ) sin
y ' ( x cos y sin ) sin ( x sin y cos ) sin
Rearranging these equations and using angle sum theorem, we get
x ' x cos( ) y sin( )
...................................................(i)
y ' x sin( ) y cos( )
The above theorem reveals that the composition of two rotations R and R
about the point C is the same as a single rotation by an angle of about the
same point C . Besides, the order of the rotation is immaterial and we write this
relation as Rc, Rc, Rc, Rc, Rc, . On the other hand part (b) of the
rotation is the same as a rotation in clock wise direction by the same angle
through the same center. Besides, part (c)
shows that a rotation is identity rotation if and only if the angle of rotation is a
multiple of 2 , that is 2n , n Z .
Examples:
1. Find the image of the point (2,5) by a product of rotations through an angle
of 15 and 75 in counterclockwise direction about the same center
C (7,2).
x' (2 7) cos 90 (5 2) sin 90 7 4
3 1
x' x y
2 2 . Find the equations for the inverse, 1 , of this
are given by R
y' 1
x
3
y
2 2
rotation.
3 1
Solution: Here, cos , sin 30 .
2 2
These, by part (b) of the above theorem, we have
3 1
x' x cos(30 ) y sin(30 ) x y
2 2
R 1 ( x, y ) ( x' , y ' ) where
y ' x sin(30 ) y cos(30 ) 1 x 3 y
2 2
3. If R R , then what should be the possible values of ? Particularly for
0 2 .
Solution: Using part (c) of the above theorem, we have
R R R ( P) R ( P) R R ( P) R R ( P)
R2 ( P) R0 ( P) i( P) P R2 i
2 2n, n Z n, n Z
R R ( x, y ) ( y, x)
y ' x sin( 35 ) y ( 35 ) x
cos( 35 ) 0
35 90 55
sin( 35 ) 1
Half-turns
Definition: A half turn is a rotation by 180 . A half turn about a point P is
denoted by H P . If A is rotated by 180 about point P(a, b) , then A' P AP . In
other words P is the mid point of A and A' .
x' x
a
A' A
Thus using the midpoint formula, P 2 x' x 2a, y ' y 2b .
2 y ' y b
2
This will lead us to the formal definition of a half turn. Let P (a, b) . Then,
half turn H P about a point P is a transformation whose equation is given by
x ' x 2a
H P ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) , where
y ' y 2b
Examples:
1. Find the image of a point (2,7) by a half-turn about the point P (5,3) .
Solution: By definition,
x' x 10
H P ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where . Therefore, H P (2,7) (8,1).
y' y 6
2.If the image of (2,3) by a half-turn is (10,11) , find the center of the half-turn.
Solution: Let the center be P (a, b) . Then, using the definition, we have
H P (2,3) (10,11) (2a 2,2b 3) (10,11)
2a 2 10, 2b 3 11
a 4, b 7 P (4,7)
3. Let H P be a half turn about P (3,2). Find,
a) The image of the line l : y 5x 7
b) The pre-image of the line m : y 2 x 17
Solution:
a) Let ( x, y) be any point on the given line. Then,
( x' , y' ) H P ( x, y) ( x 6, y 4) . Solving for x and y from this equation
gives us x x'6, y y'4 . So, substitute these values in the equation of the
line so that the equation will be in terms of x' , y' and that will be the image
line. l : y 5x 7 l ': y'4 5( x'6) 7 l ': y' 5x'27
Therefore, H P (l ) l ': y 5x 27 . Here, the line l ': y 5x 27 is called the image
of l under H P and the line l : y 5x 7 is called the pre-image of l ' .
b) In this case the image of some line m is given we are required to find the pre
image m of this line. To do this problem we can use different methods. For
instance first calculate the inverse H P1 of H P and then find the image of the
given line under H P1 . That will be the pre-image of the given line. Since half
turn is an involution, every half turn is its own inverse.
So, H P1 ( x, y) ( x 6, y 4) ( x' , y' ) .
Using this equation we get the pre-image of the given line to be m : y 2 x 1 .
Proposition 3.12(Characterization Theorem of a half turn):
a) A Half turn H P fixes a line l if and only if P l .
b) A Half turn H P fixes a point A if and only if A P .
c) H P (Q) R if and only if P is the mid point of Q and R .
QR
That is H P (Q) R P .
2
d) Half turn is an involution. That is H 2 P H P H P i .
Proof:
a) Let l : ax by c 0 be any line and let P (h, k ) . Let ( x, y) be arbitrary point
on line l . Then, H P ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) ( x 2h, y 2k ) . Thus, solving for x and
y and substituting in the equation of l , we get,
ax by c 0 ax'by'c 2(ah bk c) 0.
But, the last equation defines equation of a line. Thus, the image of the line l
under H P is also a line l ' H P (l ) .
Hence, H P fixes a line l if and only if l l ' . But from equation of l and l ' ,
they will be the same line if and only if
2(ah bk c) 0 ah bk c 0 (h, k ) l P l.
Thus, H P fixes a line l if and only if P l .
b) Let A ( x, y) and P (h, k ) such that H P ( A) A . We need to show A P .
But,
H P ( A) A ( x 2h, y 2k ) ( x, y) x h, y k ( x, y) (h, k ) A P
Proposition 3.13: The composition of two half turns H P and H Q is a translation
by a vector 2 PQ in the direction from P to Q .That is H Q H P T2 PQ
Proof: Let A ( x, y) be any object point. Then,
( H Q H P )( A) H Q ( H P ( A)) H Q ( A 2 P)
(( A 2 P) 2Q) ( A 2 P 2Q)
( A 2(Q P)) A 2 PQ
T2 PQ ( A) T 2 P ,Q T2 PQ
Here one can observe that not only the composition of two half turns is a
translation but also any translation is the composition of two half turns and this
is left for the reader to justify.
Corollary 3.2: Let Q be the midpoint of the points P and R . If S is the
b) H B H A H C H B
c) H B H A H B H C
Proof: (a) (b). Suppose B is the mid point of A and C .Then,
H B H A HC H B H B H A H B HC H B H B
H B H A H B H C i, H B H B i
H B H A H B HC
H B H A H B HC H B H A HC H B
T2 AB T2 BC
2 AB 2 BC
AB BC
AC AB BC 2 AB 2 BC
Therefore, B is the midpoint of A and C . From this, we can infer that for any
three collinear points A, B, C , B is the midpoint of A and C if and only if
H B H A H C H B if and only if T2 AB T2 BC .
Then,
H R HQ H P HT
H R HQ H P (X ) HT (X )
H R H Q ( x 2, y 4) ( x 2, y 8)
H R ( x 10, y ) ( x 2, y 8)
( x 10 2a, y 2b) ( x 2, y 8) (2a 10,2b) (2,8)
(2a,2b) (12,8) (a, b) (6,4)
Answer : a 2
4. Find the image of the line l : y 5x 7 under a half turn H P with center
P(3,2) . Answer : y 2 x 27
9. Let P (2,3), Q (1,5), R (0,2) . Find a point T so that the product of the
half turns H P H Q H R is equal to a single half turn about T .
Answer : T (3,4)
15. Suppose H P and H Q are half turns about the points P and Q respectively.
b) If P(1,2), Q(6,2), T (1,4) , find the vertex R such that PQRT forms a
parallelogram.
2a(ax by c)
x ' x d
a2 b2
g ( x, y) Tv Sl ( x, y) Sl ( x, y) v ( x' , y' ) where
y ' y 2b(ax by c) e
a2 b2
Conversely, if g is a glide reflection given by g ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
x' ax by c
y ' bx ay d
Then, the axis of g is given by l : 2bx 2(a 1) y ad bc d 0 or 2 x c .
Examples:
1. Let g be a glide reflection with axis l : 3x 4 y 2 0 and glide vector
v (4,3) . Find the equation of g and calculate the image of the point (0,0)
2a(ax by c) 6(3x 4 y 2) 7 x 24 y 88
x' x d x 4
a b
2 2
9 16 25 25 25
y ' y 2b(ax by c) e y 8(3x 4 y 2) 3 24 x 32 y 91
a2 b2 9 16 25 25 25
Therefore the image of the point (0,0) is given by
7(0) 24(0) 88 88 24(0) 32(0) 91 91
g (0,0) ( x' , y ' ) where x' , y'
25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
88 91
Hence, g (0,0) ( , ).
25 25
2. Suppose g is a glide reflection with axis l : 5x ky 7 0 and glide vector
2a(ax by c) 4(2 x y 5) 3 4
x' x d x d x y4d
a b
2 2
5 5 5
y' y 2b ( ax by c ) 2( 2 x y 5) 4 3
e y e x y2e
a2 b2 5 5 5
3 4 4 3
That is for any point ( x, y) , g ( x, y) x y 4 d , x y 2 e
5 5 5 5
Particularly, g (0,0) (6,2) (4 d , 2 e) (6,2) 4 d 6, 2 e 2
d 2, e 4 v (2,4)
T2 v ( X )
g 2 ( X ) g g ( X ) T2 v ( X ), X
g 2 T2 v
Thus, for any glide reflection g , P and its image g (P) always lies on the axis
of the glide reflection, too.
Examples:
1. Suppose g is a glide reflection such that g 2 (3,5) (7,1) .Then, find the glide
vector of g .
Solution: Let the glide vector be v . Then, by the above proposition, g 2 T2v .
So, for any point P , we have
g 2 ( P) T2v ( P) 2v P g 2 (3,5) (7,1)
2v (3,5) (7,1)
2v (7,1) (3,5) v (2,3)
2. Suppose g is a glide reflection such that g (1,2) (3,4) and g (1,3) (5,7).
Then, find the axis of g .
Solution: For any glide reflection g , the mid point of any point P and its
image always lies on the axis of g . In particular, the mid point of (1,2) and
(3,4) , the midpoint of (1,3) and (5,7) lie on the axis of the glide reflection g .
Hence, the axis of g passes through the points (1,3) and (2,5) . Let the axis of
53 2
g be the line given by l : y mx b . Then, the slope is m .
2 1 3
2
So, l : y xb.
3
2 2 11
Taking one of the above points say (1,3) , y xb b 3b .
3 3 3
2 11
Hence, the axis of the glide reflection is l : y x 2 x 3 y 11 0 .
3 3
Proposition 3.20: The product (composition) of two glide reflections about the
same axis is a translation with translation vector of the sum of the two glide
vectors. That is if g and h are glide reflections with the same axis l and glide
vectors v and w respectively, then g h Tv w .
Proof: Suppose g and h are glide reflections with the same axis l and glide
vectors v and w respectively. That is g Sl Tv , h Sl Tw . We need to show
(Tv Tw )( P) v w P Tv w ( P) Tu ( P), u v w g h Tu
Example: Suppose g and h are glide reflections with the same axis such that
h 2 ( x, y) ( x 6, y 2) and ( g h)(3,7) (9,6) .Then, determine the glide
vectors of g and h .
2w ( x, y ) ( x 6, y 2)
2w (6,2) w (3,1)
through the point (2,7) . If g 2 (0,0) (4,12) , find the equation of the line l .
Answer : y 3x 1
5. For what value of the constant k will an isometry g be a glide reflection with
Answer :T ( x, y) ( x 2, y 2), g ( x, y) ( y 6, x 2)
3 0
11. Consider the line l : 2 x 3 y 2 0 and the points P , Q .
1 1
Then, give the equations of a glied reflection g Sl TP,Q .
5 12 31 12 5 38
Answer : g ( x, y) ( x y , x y )
13 13 13 13 13 13
12. Let g be a glide reflection with axis l : ax by c 0 and glide vector
b d
v (d , e) .Then, show that .
a e
x z
Consider a pair of vectors X and Y regarded as order pair ( X , Y ) .
y w
Denote the angle measured from X to Y in the counter clockwise direction by
where 0, as shown in the diagram below.
Then, with the help of these diagrams we will give the following definitions.
Definition:
a) The pair of vectors ( X , Y ) is said to be positively oriented if and only if
sin 0 . In this case, we say that the vectors X and Y have positive
orientation. The first diagram above shows how positively oriented vectors are
placed.
b) The pair of vectors ( X , Y ) is said to be negatively oriented if and only if
sin 0 . In this case, we say that the vectors X and Y have negative
orientation. The second diagram shows how negatively oriented vectors are
placed.
x z
Now, if we are given any two vectors X and Y , how can we
y w
determine whether they are positively oriented or negatively oriented simply by
using their coordinates x, y, z, w ?
The method how can we determine whether a pair of vectors is positively
oriented or negatively oriented from their coordinates is given below.
Theorem 3.7 (Orientation Test) :
x z
Let X and Y be any two non-zero and non- parallel vectors. Then,
y w
x z
a) X and Y are positively oriented if and only if det( X , Y ) 0
y w
x z
b) X and Y are negatively oriented if and only if det( X , Y ) 0
y w
This theorem is known as Orientation Test Theorem.
Proof: Consider the following diagram (figure 3.6)
Now, from the above definition the pair ( X , Y ) is positively oriented if and only
if sin 0 . But,
xw yz
sin 0 0
x y 2 z 2 w2
2
xw yz 0; x 2 y 2 . z 2 w 2 0
x z
0
y w
On the other hand, the pair ( X , Y ) is negatively oriented if and only if sin 0 .
But,
xw yz
sin 0 0
x 2 y 2 z 2 w2
xw yz 0; x 2 y 2 . z 2 w 2 0
x z
0
y w
Hence, the proof is complete.
x z
In general, the vectors X and Y are
y w
x z
a) Positively oriented if and only if sin 0 det( X , Y ) 0.
y w
x z
b) Negatively oriented if and only if sin 0 det( X , Y ) 0.
y w
Examples: Determine whether the following pair of vectors are positively or
negatively oriented.
1 0 2 5
a) X and Y b) X and Y
0 3 3 1
Solution:
1 0 1 0
a) For X and Y , det( X , Y ) 3 0 . So, the pair ( X , Y ) is
0 3 0 3
positively oriented. That means X and Y have positive orientation.
2 5 2 5
b) For X and Y , det( X , Y ) 17 0 . So, the pair ( X , Y ) is
3 1 3 1
Remarks:
i. Orientation is not defined for parallel vectors. Because for parallel vectors, if
x z tx
X and Y , then Y tX for some scalar t (definition of parallel
y w ty
x tx
vectors). Thus, det( X , Y ) 0 . But zero is neither positive nor negative.
y ty
ii. Orientation is not defined for three collinear points. For any three collinear
points A, B, C , their orientation is determined from the orientation of the
vectors AB, AC . But if the points A, B, C are collinear, then the vectors
AB, AC will be parallel and hence from the first remark their orientation is not
defined.
iii . A pair of vectors ( X , Y ) is assumed to have the same orientation with a pair
of vectors (Z ,W ) if and only if det( X , Y ) and det(Z ,W ) have the same sign.
If these determinants det( X , Y ) and det(Z ,W ) have opposite sign, then we say
that the pairs ( X , Y ) and (Z ,W ) have opposite orientation.
Examples:
1 2 0 3
1. Let X , Y , Z , W . Determine whether (Y ,W ) and
2 3 2 5
( Z , X ) have the same or opposite orientation.
2 3 0 1
Solution: Here, det(Y ,W ) 1 0, det(Z , X ) 2 0 .
3 5 2 2
x z
Since t 0 , the sign of det(tX , Y ) depends on the sign of det( X , Y ) .
y w
z z x z
det(Y , X ) (1) det( X , Y ).
w w y w
Here, we will see how to determine the orientation of a triangle and then the
orientation of other plane figures can be defined in the same way.
Definition (Orientation of Triangles): For any triangle ABC , there are two
possibilities for its orientation. If we move from A to B to C again to A in
ABC b) If det( AB, AC ) 0, then ( AB, AC ) will have negative orientation and so
is ABC
Example: Determine the orientation of ABC with vertices
1 3 4
A , B , C .
3 2 6
2 3 2 3
Solution: Here, AB , AC det( AB, AC ) 9 0.
1 3 1 3
This means the pair of vectors ( AB, AC ) has positive orientation which is the
orientation of ABC .
Thus, the pair ( X ' , Y ' ) is positively oriented, has the same orientation to the pair
( X , Y ) , which shows that g preserves orientation.
x z
b) Similarly as in part (a), X ' g ( X ) , Y ' g (Y )
y w
x z x z
det( X ' , Y ' ) xw yz yz xw 0
y w y w
Thus, the pair ( X ' , Y ' ) is negatively oriented, has opposite orientation to the pair
( X , Y ) , which implies that g reverses or changes orientation.
x ax by h
ii) In general, if g is given by g .
y cx dy k
a b
Then, g preserves orientation if and only if 0.
c d
x z
Proof: Suppose g preserves orientation and let X and Y be
y w
positively oriented vectors. Then,
x ax by az bw ax by az bw a b x z
X ' g , Y ' det( X ' , Y ' )
y cx dy cz dw cx dy cz dw c d y w
x
Since g preserves orientation, for any positively oriented vectors X and
y
z x z
Y , det( X , Y ) 0 implies X ' and Y ' are also positively oriented.
w y w
a b x z a b x z
Hence, det( X ' , Y ' ) 0 0 because 0.
c d y w c d y w
a b
Conversely, suppose 0 . Then, for any positively oriented vectors
c d
x z
X and Y , we need to show X ' and Y ' are also positively oriented.
y w
x z
But, ( X , Y ) is positively oriented implies that det( X , Y ) 0.
y w
a b x z
On the other hand, from 0 and det( X , Y ) 0 , we have that
c d y w
ax by az bw a b x z
det( X ' , Y ' ) 0 det( X ' , Y ' ) 0 .
cx dy cz dw c d y w
Thus,
a( z x) b( w y ) a(u x) b(v y )
det( A' B', A' C ') det
c( z x) d ( w y ) c(u x) d (v y )
a b z x u x
det (Using matrix multiplication property)
c d w y v y
a b z x u x
det det (Using the property,det (AB) det A.detB )
c d w y v y
a b z x u x
det det det( AB , AC ), (det det( AB , AC )
c d w y v y
a b
det( AB , AC )
c d
In our discussion of isometries, we have seen as there are four basic types of
isometries: Translation, Rotation, Reflection and Glide- reflections. Now, using
the above general orientation tests, let’s see which of those orthogonal
transformations are orientation preserving and orientation reversing (changing)
isometries.
I. Rotations:
Let RC , be a counter clockwise rotation with center C through an angle of .
x z
Then, for any vectors X and Y , the isometer RC , is given by
y w
x cos y sin z cos w sin
X ' RC , ( X ) and Y ' R (Y )
x sin y cos z sin w cos
Here, using the orientation test for vectors, we have
x cos y sin z cos w sin
det( X ' , Y ' )
x sin y cos z sin w cos
( x cos y sin )( z sin w cos ) [( x sin y cos )( z cos w sin )]
xw cos 2 yz sin 2 xw sin 2 yz cos 2
xw(sin 2 cos 2 yz (sin 2 cos 2 )
xw yz
x z
0 det( X ' , Y ' ) 0
y w
Thus, the pair ( X ' , Y ' ) is positively oriented for any positively oriented vectors
( X , Y ) . This means RC , preserves orientation.
Alternatively, using the above theorem,
x cos y sin h
X ' R ( X )
x sin y cos k
a cos , b sin , c sin , d cos
a b cos sin
c d sin cos
cos 2 sin 2 1 0
a2 b2 a2 b2 a2 b2
From, these equations we obtain the determinant of the coefficients as
b2 a2 2ab
a b 2 (b a )(a b ) 4a b (b a ) 4a b
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a2 b2 2
2ab a2 b2 (a 2 b 2 ) 2 (a 2 b 2 ) 2
a2 b2 a2 b2
(b 4 2a 2 b 2 a 4 ) 4a 2 b 2 [b 4 2a 2 b 2 a 4 )
(a 2 b 2 ) 2 (a 2 b 2 ) 2
[b 4 2a 2 b 2 a 4 ) (b 2 a 2 ) 2
1 1
(a 2 b 2 ) 2 (a 2 b 2 ) 2
P' Q' R' .The orientation of PQR is determined from det PQ, PR where
det PQ, PR 3 8
4 6
50 0 .Hence, PQR has positive orientation.
Similarly, the orientation of P' Q' R' is determined from det P' Q', P' R' where
det P' Q', P' R'
3 8
4 6
50 0 which shows that P' Q' R' also has positive
orientation. So, we have got that PQR and P' Q' R' have the same orientation.
As a result, is orientation preserving isometry. Therefore, is either a
translation or a rotation.
Now, to determine whether is a translation or a rotation, find the vectors
PP ', QQ', RR ' .
2 2 2
Here, PP ' , QQ' , RR ' . Thus, PP ' QQ' RR '.
1 1 1
x x 2
So, is a translation given by .
y y 1
(What happens if PP' QQ' RR' ? We will see the genral case in section 3.9)
x cos x
y , we get y 0 .
sin
Therefore, the only fixed point of a rotation R about the origin is P (0,0)
which is the origin itself.
ii) Two or more fixed points:
Any isometry that has two fixed points but not identity is a reflection over a
line and the whole points on the line of reflection are also fixed points.
As a result the line of reflection is a fixed line.
iii) Three non-collinear fixed points:
An isometry that has three non-collinear fixed points is an identity.
iv) No fixed poin:
Isometries that have no fixed point at all- This category includes translation
and glide reflection.
Examples:
1. An isometry has exactly one fixed point (5,1) and maps the point (7,2) into
(3,0) . Then, find the equation of .
Solution: An isometry with exactly one fixed point is a rotation where the
fixed point is the center itself.So, is a rotation with center (5,1) .
Hence, its equation at any point ( x, y) becomes C , ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
2. A non identity isometry fixes the points (3,5) and (1,4) . Then, find the
equation of .
Prepared by Begashaw M. 131
Text Book of Transformation Geometry by Begashaw M. For your comments, use -0938836262
Solution: A non identity two given fixed points is a reflection on aline through
the fixed points. So, is a reflection on a line through the points (3,5) and
9 9
(1,4) . Thus, the line of reflection has slope m . Hence, l : y x b but
4 4
(3,5) l .
9 27 7 9 7
That is y x b 5 b b y x 9x 4 y 7 0 .
4 4 4 4 4
Hence, you can find the equations of using general equations of a
reflection.
c) : R 2 R 2 given by ( x, y) ( 12 x 2
3
y, 2
3
x 12 y) is a linear isometry
Claim: is a linear isometry. Since Tv and are isometries and so is their
composition (as the composition of any two isometries is again an isometry) .
Hence, Tv is an isometry. Beside,
(0) Tv (0) Tv ( (0)) Tv (v) v v 0 . This means fixes the origin.
4. Let f be a CCW rotation about C (4,2) by an angle of . Find a
3
translation Tv and a linear isometry such that f Tv .
1 3 3 1
Answer :Tv ( x, y) ( x 2 3, y 1 2 3 ), ( x, y) ( x y, x y)
2 2 2 2
5. Let : R 2 R 2 be given by ( x, y) ( 12 x 2
3
y 1, 2
3
x 12 y 1) . Show that
is an isometry but not linear isometry. Find a translation Tv and a linear
isometry such that Tv .
1 3 3 1
Answer :Tv ( x, y) (1,1), ( x, y) ( x y, x y)
2 2 2 2
6. If S l fixes the points (1,4) and (5,0) ,then find the equation of line l .
Answer : l : 2 x 3 y 10 0
7. Suppose f is a non-identity isometry such that f ( 5,4) ( 5,4) and
f (0,1) (0,1) . Find the value of f (1,0) and explain how you know f (1,0)
must have that value. Determine the general equation of this isometry.
Answer : It a reflection on a line l : y 5 x 1
8. If an isometry is involution, prove that for any point P , the mid point of P
and (P) is a fixed point of .
9. Suppose f is a non-identity isometry which fixes (1,1) and (2,2) . Find the
equation of f and calculate f (1,0).
10. Prove that the inverse of any linear isometry is also linear isometry.
to investigate: ”Are these the only isometries or do any other exist?” In other
words, from the fact that the product of two isometries is again an isometry, it
is natural to ask ourselves whether the product of any of two isometries we
have seen so far results among one of those or a new one that we did not
discussed. By investigating, all of the possible combination products of
reflection, rotation and translation, we will find out that the result is any one of
these but not a new form of isometry. Finally, we will generalize that there are
no other isometries or our bag of isometries is complete. Besides, we will
conclude that reflections are the building blocks for plane isometries from the
result that every isometry is the product of three or fewer reflections. Further
more; if it is a rotation, then through what angle and with what center? If it is a
translation, what is the translation vector? If it is a reflection, what is the line of
reflection? and so on will be answered.
Proof: Consider the figure 3.9a: To prove this theorem, it suffices to show that
PQP" 2RQT and QP QP '' . In order to show these two conditions, let’s
consider two different cases:
Examples:
1. Let l : 2 x y 3 0 and m : 3x y 7 0. Then find the image of the point
(5,7) by the composite reflection S m S l using single rotation.
Solution: Since the two lines have different slopes, they must be intersecting
lines. So, to apply theorem 3.7, first let’s find the point of intersection and the
angle between them. The point of intersection is obtained as
2 x y 3 0
x 2, y 1 c (2,1) . Let be the angle between l and m .
3x y 7 0
m1 m2
Then, from coordinate geometry, tan where m1 and m2 are slopes
1 m1 m2
To calculate S m S l (5,7) determine which angle will be used. (Be careful here!
On how to determine the angle). Hence, S m S l (5,7) R( 2,1), 90 (5,7) (10,4) .
Solution: By Theorem 3.7, the equation S m S l (1,1) (3, 2), 90 (1,1) gives us the
two lines are intersecting at (3,2) and the angle between them is 45 . Then,
1 m
if m is the slope of l , we have that tan 45 1 m 1 m m 0 .This
1 m
means that the line l is a horizontal line passing through the point (3,2) .
Therefore, its equation is l : y 2 .
Corollary 3.2: Let l and m be two lines intersecting at c (a, b). Then,
S l S m c,2 where is the angle measured from l to m .
Proof: Consider figure 3.9b. Since the directed angle from l to m is , the
directed angle from m to l (in the same direction) is .
S l S m ( x, y ) c , 2 ( x, y )
( x a) cos(2 2 ) ( y b) sin( 2 2 ) a
( x a ) sin( 2 2 ) ( y b ) cos( 2 2 ) b
( x a) cos(2 ) ( y b) sin( 2 ) a
( x a ) sin( 2 ) ( y b ) cos( 2 ) b
c , 2 ( x, y )
Hence, S l S m c,2 whenever S m S l c, 2 . This result shows that if we
interchange the order of the composition the sign of the angle will also be
changed. So, S m S l c, 2 if and only if S l S m c,2 .
Corollary 3.3: Let l and m be any two lines intersecting at c (a, b) and the
angle measured from l to m being .
x' ( x a) cos 2 ( y b) sin 2 a
Then, S m S l ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
y' ( x a) sin 2 ( y b) cos 2 b
Proof: (Expand the result of theorem 3.7 using theorem 3.4)
Theorem 3.8 (Converse of theorem 3.7): Given a rotation C , . Let m and n
be any two lines intersecting at C so that the angle between them is . Then,
2
C , S n S m .
Proof: Given point C , lines m and n with (m, n) . Consider figure 3.10.
2
Let M and N be points on m and n so that d (C, M ) d (C, N ). Clearly, C, M
and N are non-collinear points. Now, let S m ( N ) N ' and S n (M ) M ' .
Since center of rotation is fixed under any rotation and bedsides C is on both
lines m and n , S m (C ) C and S n (C ) C which implies S n S m (C ) C.
m( M C , M 'C ) m( M C , N C ) m( N C , M 'C ) .
2 2
So, from d (C, M ) d (C, M ' ) and m(M C, M 'C) , we get C , (M ) M '.
C , ( N ' ) S n S m ( N ' ) S n ( N ) N .
the three point theorem (Theorem 3.1), any two isometries are equal if they
agree on three non-collinear points. Therefore, C , S n S m .
the product of two reflections on intersecting lines is a half turn about their
point of intersection if and only if the two lines are perpendicular.
Examples:
1. Find the equations of two lines m and n such that (2,4) is on m and
S n S m H P where H P is a half turn with center P (3,0).
Solution: From theorem 3.9, the product of two reflections is equal to a half
turn with center P if and only if the two lines are perpendicular at P . So, we
have to assume that the lines m and n are perpendicular at P (3,0) so as
S n S m to be a half turn about P . Let the equation of m be y ax b .
From the given, the points (3,0) and (2,4) are on m which implies that slope
40
of m is a 4.
23
So, m : y ax b y 4 x b and (3,0) m 0 12 b b 12.
Therefore, m : y 4 x 12 .
1 3 3
Now, m n n : y x c . Besides, (3,0) n 0 c c .
4 4 4
1 3
Therefore, n : y x .
4 4
2. Let m : y 2 x 1. Find the equation of line n such that S n S m is a half turn
about P (1,3) .
Solution: By Theorem 3.9, S n S m H P if and only if the two lines are
1
perpendicular at P . Now since the slope of m is 2 , the slope of n must be .
2
1
Thus, n : y x b .
2
1 1 7
Besides as P (1,3) is on n . y x b b 3 b .
2 2 2
1 7
Hence its equation n is y x .
2 2
Theorem 3.10: The composition of two reflections on two parallel lines l and
m is a translation by a vector 2v where v is a vector perpendicular to both l
and m . Conversely, if Tv is a translation, then there are parallel lines l and m
such that Tv Sl Sm , where l and m are parallel lines perpendicular to the
translator vector v and the distance between them is half the length of v .
Note that for any given vector v and any line l , there is a unique line m parallel
to l such that Tv Sl Sm . This can be justified as follow: If v is perpendicular
to both l and m , the relation holds true. Now, if l is perpendicular to v , then
take line m to be m : ( x, y) l 12 v M : M p 12 v, p l.
1
This is the translation of line l by v.
2
So, from the previous theorem, we can easily show that Sl Sm T 1 Tv
2( v )
2
Examples:
1. Given the lines m : y 2 x 1 and n : y 2 x 3 . Find the image of the point
(1,1) by a product of reflection on line m followed by line n using direct
formula, translation, half turn and compare the answers.
Solution: We need to find S n S m (1,1) . This problem can be done using three
methods:
Method I: Using reflection (Direct) Formula: First calculate S m (1,1) using
reflection equation as
4(2 1 1) 3
x' 1
4 1 5
S m (1,1) ( x' , y ' )
y ' 1 2(2 1 1) 9
4 1 5
6 9
4( 3)
3 5 5 21
x' '
Now, S n S m (1,1) S n ( S m (1,1)) S n ( 3 , 9 ) 5 4 1 5
5 5 6 9
2( 3)
9 5 5 3
y ' '
5 4 1 5
21 3
Therefore, S n S m (1,1) ( , ) .
5 5
Method II: Using Translation:
Since the given lines are parallel, the product of reflections on these lines is the
same as a translation by the double of the perpendicular vector pointing from
m to n. That means, S n S m (1,1) T2 MN where M m and N n such that
This is accomplished by taking any line that is perpendicular to the given lines
and it is simple to find the intersections of this line with the lines m and n.
1
Take l : y x . The intersection of this line with the lines m and n is found
2
as follow:
Intersection of l and m :
1 5 2 1
y 2 x 1 x x 1 x , y
2 2 5 5
2 1
M ( x, y ) ( , )
5 5
Intersection of l and n :
1 5 6 3
y 2x 3 x x 3 x , y
2 2 5 5
6 3
N ( x, y ) ( , )
5 5
8 4
Thus, the vector MN is found to be MN N M ( , )
5 5
16 8 21 3
Therefore, S n S m (1,1) T2 MN (1,1) (1 ,1 ) ( , )
5 5 5 5
Method III: Using Half turns: This problem can also be done using product
of half turns as S n S m (1,1) H N H M (1,1) where the centers of the half turns
M and N are as explained above.
So,
9 3 21 3
S n S m (1,1) H N H M (1,1) H 6 3 (H 21 (1,1)) H 6 3 ( , ) ( , ) .
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) 5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5 5 5
The use of different methods in solving the above example will help us to grasp
the relations among reflections, translations and half turns.
2. Suppose the line l : y 2 x 1 is parallel to the line m. If the point (9,2) is
on line m , then find S m S l (2,5) and S l S m (2,5) using a single translation.
Solution: Since, l and m are parallel, to do the problems, we need only two
point L on l and M on m where the line through L and M is perpendicular
to both l and m . But, M (9,2) m (Given).
Here, L (a, b) on l b 2a 1.
1
Again, LM l implies slope of a line a long LM is which gives
2
b 2 1
2b a 13 . Combining these two equations, we get
a 9 2
b 2a 1
a 3, b 5 L (a, b) (3,5)
2b a 13
So, S m S l (2,5) T 2 L,M (2,5) where T is a unique translation that takes L to M .
Let this translator vector be v (c, d ) . But,
T ( L) M T (3,5) (9,2) 3 c 9, 5 d 2 c 6, d 3 . Hence, the
get, S l S m (2,5) T LM (T LM (2,5) T LM (4,8) (10,11) . Once the points L and
M are determined, this problem can also be done using half turns about L and
M using proposition 3.13 and Theorem 3.10 as follow.
S m S l (2,5) H M H L (2,5) H M (4,5) (14,1) and
This means that from proposition 3.13 and Theorem 3.10 we can relate
reflections, translations and half turns as S l S m T2 ML H L H M where l // m
and the points L and M are on the lines l and m respectively such that the
vector LM is perpendicular to the lines.
3. Let l and m be two parallel lines. If S m S l (2,1) (8,7) , calculate
S m S l (3,4) and S l S m (3,4) .
Solution: Since the lines l and m are parallel, by Theorem, 3.10, we have
above theorem, we have S l S m T2v where v is a perpendicular vector directed
from m to l . So, for any point P ,
P' S l S m ( P) T2v ( P) 2v P P' .
Hence, S m S l (3,4) T2v (3,4) 2(5,3) (3,4) (7,10) . On the other hand,
S l S m T2v S m S l T2v .Thereofe,
Note: If the lines m and n are parallel and the points M and N are as
indicated in figure below, we always have the relation
S n S m T2 MN H N H M .
Here, we must give attention how to write the order of the subscripts in the
translation and half turns with the order of the reflections. For instance, if we
interchange the order of the product of the reflections, the order of the half
turns and the direction of the vector in the translation will also be changed. It
becomes S m S n T2 NM H M H N and the resulting image is also different.
Now we want to find a single isometry that will have the same effect as the
product RB, R A, . To investigate this, consider the two rotations R A, and RB ,
where A and B are different centers. Once we have two different points A and
B , we can determine a unique line AB . So, by the previous theorem there are
lines m and n through A and B respectively (Refer figure 3.11b) such that the
rotations R A, and RB , are expressed as RA, S l S m and RB, S n S l .
Answer : m : y x 2
8. Given the lines l : x y 3 and m : y x 1. Express S l S m using a single
rotation C , . Answer : S l S m C , where C (1,2),
9. If m n such that S m S n (1,2) (5,6) , then find S m S n (3,4) .
Answer : S m S n (3,4) (3,12)
10. Let l and m be any two perpendicular lines intersecting at the point (2,3) ,
calculate S l S m (2,7) and S m S l (2,7) . Are the results equal? Why?
Answer : (6,1)
11. If A (2,4), find equations of lines m and n such that (0,3) is on m and
H A Sn Sm . Answer : n : 2 x y 8 0, m : x 2 y 3 0
12. Let l be the line x 3 and P R 2 be the point (5,4). Show that S l H P is a
glide reflection by finding the axis of the glide reflection and the glide vector.
13. Given a line m : y x 3 . Find the equation of line l such that
a) C , S m S l where C (7,10), / 2 b) S m S l H P where P (2,5)
c) S m S l Tv where v (3,3) d ) S m (l ) l with P (2,7) l
Answer : a) l : y 10 b) l : x y 7 0 c) l : x y 6 0 d ) l :x y 9 0
Sn Sm Sq S p
Sn Sm S p Sq S p S p
Sn Sm S p Sq i
Sn Sm S p Sq
Theorem 3.12: Let l , m, and n be three parallel lines in a plane. Then there is a
unique line p parallel to the given lines l , m, and n such that Sm Sl Sn S p .
Equivalently S m S l S p S n .
Proof: Since l and m are parallel lines, from Theorem 3.10, Sm Sl Tv , where
v is perpendicular to both l and m . Similarly, as n is parallel to l and m , v
is also perpendicular to n .
Again, by the converse of theorem 3.10, there exists line p parallel to the
given line n such that Tv S p Sn . Thus combining the two results, we get
Sm Sl (Q) S p Sn (Q), for any point Q
( Sm Sl ) Sn (Q) ( S p S n ) S n (Q)
( Sm Sl ) Sn (Q) S p ( Sn Sn )(Q), because composition is associative
( Sm Sl ) Sn (Q) S p (Q), because S n Sn id , for any reflection Sn
S m Sl S n S p
From this theorem by considering one additional line q like that of p , we can
state a useful corollary.
Corollary 3.4: Let l , m, and n be three parallel lines in a plane. Then there exist
unique lines p and q parallel to the given lines l , m, and n such that
S m Sl S n S p S q S n
Proof: Consider the diagram below and look for the lines p and q from the
equation S m S l S n S p S q S n (This equation actually has unique solutions
for p and q ).
Let P and Q be unique points on line k such that the products of the half turns
with centers L, M , N , P, Q are equal as follow:
H M H L H N H P H Q H N . But, we know that a unique line can be drawn
through a point on a given line perpendicular to the line. So, let’s drop line p
through P and line q through Q both perpendicular to line k .
Now, l // m S m S l H M H L ,
n // p S n S p H N H P and q // n S q S n H Q H N .
S m S l S q S n , we get S m S l S n S q .
Remarks: The uniqueness of p and q is shown from the fact that reflections
on two lines are equal if and only if the two lines are equal.
That means S n S m n m.
So, if we assume there is another line h for which S n S p S n S h . Then,
S n S p S n S h S n S n S p S n S n S h S p S h p h.
1
Examples: Given the lines l : y 2 x 5, m : y 2 x , n : y 2 x 5 . Find the
2
lines p and q parallel to the given lines such that S m S l S n S p S q S n .
Solution: To do this problem, we use the analysis followed in the proof of the
above corollary. Since the given lines are parallel, take any line k
perpendicular to the given lines but the line k should be simple for analysis.
1
Let k be the line k : y x .
2
(Note the problem can also be done using any other line without affecting the
solution for p and q ). Now find the points L, M , N on the lines l , m, and n
respectively which are the intersections of line k with these lines.
Intersection of l and k :
1 5
y 2 x 5 x x 5 x 2, y 1 L ( x, y) (2,1)
2 2
Intersection of m and k :
1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1
y 2x x x x , y M ( x, y) ( , )
2 2 2 2 5 10 5 10
Intersection of n and k :
1 5
y 2 x 5 x x 5 x 2, y 1 N ( x, y) (2,1)
2 2
Now determine two points P and Q on line k which are the intersection of the
lines p and q with k respectively (as labeled in figure 3.12) such that
H M H L H N H P HQ H N .
Let P (a, b) and Q (c, d ). But, for any point ( x, y) ,
18 9
H M H L ( x, y ) ( x ,y )
5 5
H N H P ( x, y ) ( x 2a 4, y 2b 2)
H Q H N ( x, y ) ( x 2c 4, y 2d 2)
Thus,
18 9
H M H L ( x, y ) H N H P ( x, y ) ( x
, y ) ( x 2a 4, y 2b 2)
5 5
18 9
x x 2a 4, y y 2b 2
5 5
1 1
a , b
5 10
1 1
P ( a, b) ( , )
5 10
On the other hand, using the second equality H M H L H Q H N ,
18 9
H M H L ( x, y ) H Q H N ( x, y ) ( x , y ) ( x 2c 4, y 2d 2)
5 5
18 9
x x 2c 4, y y 2d 2
5 5
19 19
c , d
5 10
19 19
Q ( c, d ) ( , )
5 10
Since the lines p and q are parallel to the given lines, then they are also
perpendicular to line k .
Theorem 3.13: Let l , m, n be neither concurrent nor parallel lines (two may be
parallel). Then, S n S m S l is a glide reflection.
Proof: To prove that S n S m S l is a glide reflection, it suffices to find a line
p and a vector v with v // p such that S n S m S l Tv S p . Since all the three
lines are not parallel assume that m and n intersect at P. (Refer figure 3.13a).
Besides, l , m, n are not all concurrent, l does not pass through P . So, let k be a
line perpendicular to l through P . Here, m, n, k becomes concurrent at P .
perpendicular lines is a half turn about their intersection). Now, construct line
p perpendicular to t through Q and line q through Q parallel to t . Since t // q ,
S n S m S t S k , S k S l H Q and S t S q Tv , we get,
S n S m Sl St S k Sl
St H Q
St S q S p
Tv S p
two reflections on perpendicular lines commute and is a half turn through their
intersection. In general, for l // m , g H Q S m S l H P is a glide reflection if
and only if Q l and P m . This shows that glide reflection is the product of
three reflections on three neither parallel nor concurrent lines,
Or the product of a half turn and a reflection in either order where the center of
the half turn is not on the line like as P or Q above, Or the product of a
translation and a reflection in any order where the translation vector is parallel
to the line of reflection.
Examples:
1. Let m and n be parallel lines through M and N where M (1,8) and n is the
line y x 1 0 . If g S n H M H N S m is a glide reflection, find the
So, y x 1 x 9 x 4 N ( x, y) (4,5).
Hence, H N ( x, y) (8 x,10 y) .
Proof: Suppose f is an isometry that fixes only the point C. Let P be a point
different from C , such that f ( P) P' and let m the perpendicular bisector of
This means C is at equal distance from the two end point of the segment PP ' .
So, C is on line m (because if a point is at equal distance from the end points of
a line segment, then it is on the perpendicular bisector of the segment.). Thus,
S m (C ) C and S m ( P' ) P. Then, S m f (C ) S m (C ) C and
S m f ( P) S m ( P' ) P .
On the other hand, if S m f (P) has only P as a fixed point, then by theorem
3.12, there are lines l and n intersecting at P such that
S m f S l S n S m S m f S m S l S n f S m S l S n which is the
A' Q A' R.
Find equations of lines such that product of reflections on these lines takes
ABC to DEF .
Solution: Follow the procedure in the proof of the above theorem.
b) S q S p S m S n
In the previous sections, we have studied about types of isometries and their
properties.
Now let’s summarize and generalize their equations using coordinate geometry.
Equation of Rotations: Equation of rotation about any center C (h, k ) with
angle of rotation is given by C , ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
x' x c
which are the general equations of a translation.
y' y d
Otherwise, for 2n, a cos , b sin a cos( 2n) 1, b sin( 2n) 0 ,
the equations are equations of a rotation.
x' ax by c
Consequently; the equations , a 2 b 2 1 are the general
y ' bx ay d
equations of a translations and or rotations.
We discussed above that only translations and rotations are isometries that can
be expressed as a product of even number of reflections. Thus, for any even
x' ax by c
isometry, its equations are of the form , a 2 b 2 1.
y ' bx ay d
x' 53 x 54 y 4
y' 5 x 5 y 2
4 3
x' ax by c 53 x 54 y 4
y ' [bx ay d ] 5 x 5 y 2
4 3
So, x' ax by c 53 x 54 y 4 a 53 , b 54 , c 4
Using these values, we obtain d from the equations of y ' as follow.
y' [bx ay d ] [ 54 x 53 y d ] 54 x 53 y 2
To solve these equations we have two options either to use the plus sign or the
minus sign. If we use the plus sign the equation becomes
54 x 53 y d 54 x 53 y 2 54 54 , 53 53 , d 2 (by equating
coefficients)
which is the only logical option.
But from our previous discussions, these are equations of odd isometry and
hence is odd.
2. Let be an isometry whose equations are given by ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
x' 53 x 54 y 54
y' 5 x 5 y 5
4 3 2
Show that is an even isometry and conclude that is a rotation and find the
center of the rotation.
Solution:
An isometry is even if and only if its equations are given by
x' ax by c
, a2 b2 1
y ' bx ay d
In our case, x' ax by c 53 x 54 y 54 a 53 , b 54 , c 4
5
and
y' bx ay d 54 x 53 y 52 d 52 .
x' 53 x 54 y 54 ax by c
Hence, the equations of become
y ' 5 x 5 y 5 bx ay d
4 3 2
But, these are the forms of an even isometry and thus is even. Since the only
even isometries are rotation and translation, must be arotation because as
we see from its general equation, cannot be a translation. Now, if is a
rotation withcenter C (h, k ) , it must satisfy the equations
x' ax by c x cos y sin c
y' bx ay d x sin y cos d
From which we can get the equations to determine the intersection point
h(1 cos ) k sin c
C (h, k ) which is given as
h sin k (1 cos ) d
Thus, h and k can be solved as follow.
h(1 53 ) k ( 54 ) 54 2h k 1 k 1 2h
h( 54 ) k (1 53 ) 52 2h 4k 1
2h 4(1 2h) 1
h 12 , k 1 2h k 0
C (h, k ) ( 12 ,0)
Alternatively, one can also solve the values of h and k from the equation that
we derived earlier using a cos 53 , b sin 54 , r 54 , t 52 in the
equations we will get the same results.
r sin 4 4
2 1 1
h t 5 52 5
2 2(1 cos ) 2 2(1 53 ) 5 10 2
t sin 2 4 4
1 1
k r 5 5
0
2 2(1 cos ) 2 5 2(1 53 ) 5 5
(h, k ) ( 12 ,0)
Hence, we conclude that is a rotation which is the product of two
reflections on lines intersecting at the point ( 12 ,0).
3. Let be an isometry with (0,0) (2,1), (1,1) (1,0), (2,3) (5,1) .Then
find the equations of .
Solution: Let A (0,0), B (1,1), C (2,3), A' (2,1), B' (1,0), C' (5,1).
Clearly, A, B, C are non-collinear and so are A' , B' , C ' . But we know that there
is a unique isometry that takes three non-collinear points into three non
collinear points. Now, let this isometry be given by ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
x' ax by c
such that the constants a, b, c, d are to be determined from the
y ' bx ay d
given points and their images.
So, ( A) (0,0) (2,1) a.0 b.0 c 2,b.0 a.0 d 1 c 2, d 1.
Using these values c 2, d 1, the equation of becomes ( x, y) ( x' , y' )
x' ax by 2
where
y ' bx ay 1
a b 2 1
Again, ( B) (1,1) (1,0) b 1, a 0
b a 1 0
x' y 2
Hence, ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where .
y' x 1
If we use the minus sign, in the general equation we get the same result.
x' 3x 4 y 4
4. Let ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where .
y' 4 x 3 y 2
Verify that is not an isometry.
Solution: If the equations of represent equations of an isometry, it must
satisfy the following equations:
x' ax by c
( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where , a2 b2 1
y ' [bx ay d ]
Prepared by Begashaw M. 169
Text Book of Transformation Geometry by Begashaw M. For your comments, use -0938836262
From the observation on the type of isometries and their effects on orientation,
let’s develop a simple test for the type of isometry from the image of three
non-collinear points. Given three non-collinear points P, Q, R and their images
P' ( P), Q' (Q), R' ( R) . We need to determine whether is a
translation, rotation, glide reflection or reflection. Since an isometry maps any
three non-collinear points in to non-collinear points, P' , Q' , R' are non-collinear
points. Now, take PQR and P' Q' R' and determine their orientation. We know
that the orientation of PQR is determined from det PQ, PR and that of
P' Q' R' from det P' Q', P' R' .
Test-I: If PQR and P' Q' R' have the same orientation, then is orientation
preserving isometry. Thus, is either a translation or a rotation (Because
translation and rotation are the only types of orientation preserving isometries).
Furthermore, to determine whether is a translation or a rotation, find the
vectors PP ', QQ', RR ' . If PP' QQ' RR' , then is a translation, but if they
are different, is a rotation.
Test-II: If PQR and P' Q' R' have different orientation, then is orientation
reversing (changing) isometry. Thus, is either a glide-reflection or a
reflection (Because glide-reflection and reflection are the only types of
orientation reversing (changing) isometries). Furthermore, to determine
whether is a reflection or glid-reflection, find the equation of the reflecting
line using any of the points and its respective image.
If all the points are reflected on the same line, then is a reflection,
otherwise it is glide-rflection.
Example: Suppose is an isometry which maps PQR into P' Q' R' where the
vertices of the triangles are
4 1 12 1 3 5
P , Q , R , P' , Q' , R' .
2 2 4 3 0 11
Determine whether is a translation, rotation, glide reflection or reflection
and find its equation. Based on the type of , find the translator vector, center
and angle of rotation or line of reflection.
Solution: To apply the above test, first determine the orientation of PQR and
P' Q' R' .The orientation of PQR is determined from det PQ, PR where
det PQ, PR 3 8
4 6
50 0 .Hence, PQR has positive orientation.
Similarly, the orientation of P' Q' R' is determined from det P' Q', P' R' where
det P' Q', P' R'
4 6
3 8
50 0 which shows that P' Q' R' also has positive
orientation. So, we have got that PQR and P' Q' R' have the same orientation.
As a result, is orientation preserving isometry. Therefore, is either a
translation or a rotation. Now, to determine whether is a translation or a
rotation, find the vectors PP ', QQ', RR ' .
5 2 7
Here, PP ' , QQ' , RR ' . But PP ' QQ' RR '.
1 2 15
So, is not a translation. As a result, the only option for to be is a rotation.
Now, determine the equation of . We know that rotation is an even isometry.
So, we can determine the equation of from the general equations of even
x x' x' ax by c
isometries where , a2 b2 1.
y y' y ' bx ay d
4a 2b c 1 a 2b c 3
So, using ( P) P' , (Q) Q' , we get ;
2a 4b d 3 2a b d 0
x' 10 y
equations are given by . Find the angle and center of this rotation.
y ' x 30
Answer : (h, k ) (20,10)
x 2ax 4 y 7
3. Suppose 4 5
is an odd isometry.Then, find the value (s) of
y 5 x 5 y 5
3
x 3 px 5
y
4. If 5 13
is an isometry, find the value (s) of the constant p .
y 13 x 13 y
12
Answer : p 4 / 13
3x 4 y 4x 3y
5. If x' and y ' are equations for a reflection S m , then find
5 5 5 5
x 3 4 3
x' y
S m S l ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where 2 2 13
y' 3 x 1 y 4 3
2 2 13
11. Let g be a glide reflection with axis l : y x 1 and glide vector v (1,1)
Then, find the image of the point (3,2) . Answer : (2,5)
v (2,2) . Then, find the general equation of g and calculate the image of the
v (4,4) . Then, find the general equation of g and calculate the image of the
14*. Let m and n be parallel lines 13cm a part. A point A is 4cm and 17cm
from line m and n respectively. Suppose A is reflected across line m , and then
its image A' is reflected across line n to create a second image A' ' .
Answer : d 26cm
a) Draw the diagram showing the position of A, A' , A' ' and find the distance
between A and A' ' . b) If the order of reflection is changed, repeat the
problem of part (a).
How do the answers to part (a) and (b) differ?
15. Suppose m and n are two distinct lines. Then, show that
S n S m ( P) P P m n .
21. Show that non-identity rotations with different centers do not commute.
22. What must be true of two rotations R A, and RB , if their product R A, RB,
is a translation?
23. Show that the composition of any two rotations is either a rotation or a
translation.
24. Let R1 and R2 be rotations. Then show that R1 R2 R11 R21 is a translation.
25. Prove that
a) The set of all isometries forms a transformation group.
b) The set of all rotation with fixed center forms abelian group of
transformations.
26. Suppose l intersects the lines m and n so that alternate interior angles are
congruent. Then, using the concept of isometry, prove that m and n are
parallel.
27. Show that the set of all rotations, all reflections, or all half turns does not
form a transformation group. State the reasons clearly in each case.
28. Suppose the lines l and m passes through the origin in R 2 make angles
and respectively with the positive x axis. Show that Rm Rl R2( ) . Where
CHAPTER-4
SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATIONS
4.1 Introduction
Consider a right angle triangle ABC with right angle at C and hypotenuse AB
as in the figure 4.1.
This shows that the three sides of the two triangles are proportional. Hence, by
Side-Side-Side similarity theorem, we get A' B' C' ~ ABC .
Here, A' B' C' ~ ABC in turn enables us to infer that the three interior angles of
ABC are congruent to the three interior angles of A' B' C ' (Because
corresponding angles of similar triangles are congruent).
So, the three interior angles of ABC are preserved and this will enable us to
state the following immediate corollary.
Proposition 4.4: Any similarity preserves angles.
Proof: Immediate from proposition 4.3.
Proposition 4.5: Any similarity preserves co-linearity, between ness and mid
point.
Proof: Let be a similarity with ratio k and let A, B, C be three collinear
points where B is between A and C . Then, AB BC AC since B is between
A and C . Now, whenever ( A) A' , ( B) B' , (C ) C' , we have that
A' B' kAB, B' C' kBC, A' C' kAC. As a result,
A' B' B' C' kAB kBC k ( AB BC ) kAC A' C' A' B' B' C' A' C'
But, this is true if and only if the image points A' , B' , C ' are collinear and B' is
between A' and C '. Besides, if B is the mid point of A and C , then
AB BC A' B' kAB kBC B' C' which implies B' is the mid point of A' and
C '. This result tells us that the images of any three or more collinear points are
again collinear. If we consider, the proposition in detail, it further implies that
any similarity is a collineation.
Because if A' , B' are the images of the points A, B on a line l ,then for any
other point P on l , P' is on a line determined by the image points A' , B' (As
similarity preserves co linearity and between ness). Thus, one can use those
ideas together in order to conclude that the image of a line under a similarity is
again a line.
Theorem 4.1: A similarity with at least two fixed points is an isometry.
Proof: Let be a similarity with ratio k such that ( A) A, ( B) B . By
definition of similarity, for any two distinct points A and B , A' B' kAB . Then,
it follows that A' B' kAB AB kAB k 1 .This shows that for any other
points, P and Q , ( P) P' , (Q) Q' P' Q' PQ . (Any given similarity has
exactly one ratio). Hence, is an isometry.
Corollary 4.1: A similarity with ratio of k 1 is an isometry.
4.3.1 Isometries
that X ' C k XC .
Here, the fixed point C is called center of the homothety and the scalar k 0,1
is called ratio or factor of the homothety.
Such a transformation is denoted by H C ,k . Thus,
H C ,k ( X )C k XC C H C ,k ( X ) kC kX
H C ,k ( X ) kX (1 k )C
x' kx (1 k )a
where
y ' ky (1 k )b
Hence, all such types of transformations are named as homothety and they are
similarity transformations. Such type of similarity transformations are usually
called homothetic similarities.
Examples:
1. Find the equation of a homothety with center (2,4) and factor k 2 and
calculate the image of the point (3,5).
Solution:
x' kx (1 k )a
For any point ( x, y) , H C ,k ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
y ' ky (1 k )b
x' 2 x (1 2)2 2 x 2
H C , 2 ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
y ' 2 y (1 2)4 2 y 4
H C , 2 ( x, y) (2 x 2,2 y 4) . In particular, H C , 2 (3,5) (4,14)
2. A homothety takes the point (1,1) to (1,5) and the point (0,2) to (4,8). Find
the equation of this homothety.
Solution: Let H C ,k be a homothety with center C (a, b) and factor k . Then,
H C ,k ( X ) kX (1 k )C H C ,k ( x, y ) k ( x, y ) (1 k )(a, b)
H C ,k (1,1) k (1,1) (1 k )(a, b) (1,5) (k a ka, k b kb) (1,5)
H C ,k (0,2) k (0,2) (1 k )(a, b) (4,8) (a ak ,2k b bk ) (4,8)
k a ka 1 k b kb 5
,
a ka 4 2k b kb 8
k 3, a 2, b 1 C (a, b) (2,1)
Hence, H C ,3 ( x, y) (3x 4,3 y 2).
Proposition 4.6: Every homothety is a similarity transformation.
Proof: Let H C ,k be a homothety. Then, for any two points A and B ,
H C ,k ( A) A' kA (1 k )C , H C ,k ( B) B' kB (1 k )C
A' B' B' A' kB kA kAB
A' B' kAB
So, A' B' kAB for any two points A and B where H C ,k ( A) A' , H C ,k ( B) B' .
Hence, any homothety is a similarity.
1
center C and factor . From proposition 4.1 and 4.2, H C , 1 is a similarity
k k
1
with ratio .k 1 . But, a similarity with ratio of 1 is an isometry. Thus, let this
k
isometry be H C , 1 . So,
k
H C , 1 H C ,k H C , 1 H C ,k
k k
i H C ,k , H C , 1 H C ,k i
k
H C ,k
This means that any similarity with ratio k is the product of a homothety with
ratio k and any isometry.
Thus, A' B' k AB A' B' k AB A' B' k AB A' B' k AB.
This means A' B' and AB are not parallel. Thus, is not a dilation.
Hence, from this observation is a similarity but not a dilation which shows
that the converse of the theorem is not true.
A' B'
Let : W W be a dilation. Then, k (constant) for all A, B in W .
AB
Furthermore, if k 1, then is a homothety with ratio of k itself and if k 1,
then is a translation.
Proof: Assume that W is not a line. Let be a dilation such that
( A) C, ( B) D as shown in figure 4.3.
Now, suppose the points A, B, C, D are not collinear. Take any point X not
CD CY DY
Thus, by Desagrues Theorem, k . Since X is arbitrary,
AB AX BX
A' B'
k for all points A, B in W . Furthermore, if k 1 (refer figure 4.3), then
AB
OC CY OY
k . As a result,
OA AX OX
OY
k OY k OX
OX
O ( X ) k OX
( X ) O kX kO
( X ) kX (1 k )O
CY AX XY AC
X ( X ) AC
(X ) X C A
( X ) X AC
A' B'
Solution: Let be a dilation. Then, by the classification theorem, k , for
AB
all A, B . In particular, it is true for A (0,20) and B (10,5) .
Theorem 4.5: If A' B' // AB, then there is a unique dilation for which
( A) A' , ( B) B'.
Proof: Left as an exercise.
From this theorem, we are assured that the dilation that takes A, B to A' , B'
respectively exists and is unique whenever A' B' // AB . But, the main point is not
only to assure its existence but also how to find its equation. Now, the main
question is for a given similarity , how can we find the homothety H C ,k , and
Example: Let be a dilation where (1,2) (2,5) and (2,4) (5,11). Find a
homothety H C ,k and an isometry such that H C ,k .
Solution: From the given, A (1,2), B (2,4), A' (2,5), B' (5,11)
Clearly, A' B' // AB, because the line m through A' , B' and the line n through
A, B have the same slope 2. So, to find the decompositions of as a
part is always a translation rather we must investigate the case when A' B'
and AB are not parallel so as to make generalization. This follows with similar
procedures as above with a little modification and it is left to the readers to
develop the procedures.
So far we discussed about the classes of similarities. Now, we are going to see
the equation of similarities in details using coordinates. First let’s consider
special cases which help us to drive the general equations of similarities.
I) Equations of isometric similarities
We have already discussed that the equations of any isometry is given by
x' ( x h) cos ( y k ) sin h
( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
y' [( x h) sin ( y k ) cos k ]
x' x cos y sin r
Expanding the equations gives where
y ' [ x sin y cos t ]
r h(1 cos ) k sin
t h sin k (1 cos )
x x' x' ax by c
This can be generalized as where , a 2 b 2 1.
y y' y' (bx ay d )
Since any isometry is a similarity, this is one form of equations of similarities.
Any similarity in a plane has equations of the form ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
x' ax by c
, a2 b2 0
y ' [bx ay d ]
i) Direct Similarities
Proof: Let and be any two direct similarities given by the following
x' ax by c
equations. ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where , a2 b2 0
y ' bx ay d
x' mx ny p
( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where , m2 n2 0
y ' nx my q
We need to show that the product is also a direct similarity.
For any point ( x, y) , ( x, y) ( ( x, y)) ( x' ' , y' ' ) where
x' ' mx'ny ' p
m(ax by c) n(bx ay d ) p
(ma nb) x (mb na) y mc nd p
tx ly r , with t ma nb, l mb na, r mc nd p
y ' ' nx' my' q
n(ax by c) m(bx ay d ) q
(na mb) x (ma nb) y nc md q
lx ty s, with s nc md q
x' tx ly r 2 2
Hence, ( x, y) ( ( x, y)) ( x' , y' ) where , t l 0
y ' lx ty s
But by, these are equations of a similarity obtained by applying the plus sign in
the general equation of similarities. Hence, is a direct similarity whenever
and are direct. Similarly, show that the product of any two opposite
similarities is a direct similarity. Now, let’s proof the last part.
The product of a direct and opposite similarities is opposite similarity.
Where the constants l , t , s are as given in the first part. Besides, we showed
above that t 2 l 2 0 .
x' tx ly r
Thus, we got ( x, y) ( ( x, y)) ( x' , y' ) where , t2 l2 0
y ' lx ty s
So, these are equations of a similarity obtained by applying the minus sign in
the general equations of similarities. Hence, is an opposite similarity
whenever and are direct and opposite similarities.
Example: Let be a transformation given by ( x, y) ( x' , y' ) where
x' 3x 4 y 2
.
y' 4 x 3 y 2
Show that is a similarity and find the ratio k of this similarity. Finally,
determine whether it is direct or opposite similarity.
Solution: To show that is a similarity, it suffices to show A' B' k AB for
any two arbitrary points A, B and for some positive constant k .
x' 3x 4 y 2
Let A ( x, y), B ( z, w) . Then, A' ( A) ( x' , y' ) where and
y' 4 x 3 y 2
z ' 3z 4w 2
B' ( B) ( z' , w' ) where .
w' 4 z 3w 2
Thus,
5. A dilation maps the point (1,4) to (6,9) and the point (0,1) to (1,12) . Is it a
homothety or a translation? Write the formula for this dilation.
Answer : A homothety given by H ( x, y) (7 x 1,7 y 19)
x 13 x 83
7. Given a homothety H P ,k 1 . Then give the ratio k and the center
10
3
y y 3
x px 4 y q
8. Let be a similarity with ratio k 5 .
y 4x 3y r
2 8
If , then find the value of the constants p, q and r .
1 2
Answer : p 3, q 6, r 9
homothety.
(6,1) 1 3 1
Answer : By problem 7, the factor is k 5 and center C (6,1) ( , )
1 5 4 2 4
11. Let the mapping f ( x, y) (h g )( x, y) be defined by
f ( x, y) ( x, y) (6,2) . Then find
x' 5 x 7 y 2
16. If the transformation with equations is an opposite
y ' tx 5 y 4
similarity, then find the value of the constant t . Answer : t 7
find the value of the constant t .(Hint: Use problem 13). Answer : t 7
19. Let H o,k be homothety about the origin and let be any similarity with
1
factor . Show that U H o,k is an isometry.
k
20. If H 1 and H Q ,k are any two homotheties, then show that H Q,k H 1 TPR
P, P,
k k
CHAPTER-5
AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS
5.1 Introduction
In affine space, any three points A ( x, y), B ( z, w), C (u, v) are said to be
A 1 x y 1
collinear if and only if B 1 z w 1 0
C 1 u v 1
A' 1 1 12
4 1 0 1 0 4
B' 1 0 1
4 2 6 6 12 0 .
2 1 3 1 3 2
C' 1 3 2 1
Thus, A' , B' , C ' are collinear. Such transformations like g which maps
collinear points into collinear points are said to be affine transformations, but
mappings like f are not considered as affine transformation.
A' 1 x y x y 1 x x y 1 x y 1
Thus, B' 1 z w z w 1 z z w 1 z w 1 0 .
C' 1 uv uv 1 u uv 1 u v 1
definition and thus it is affine transformation but f is not of the form given in
the definition because the power of x is 3 and thus it is not affine
transformation.
Otherwise, if for at least one point Q on l , Q' g (Q) is not on l ' , Q ' will be
non-collinear with A' , B' which means g maps three collinear points A, B, Q
into non-collinear points A' , B' , Q' . But this is a contradiction with the
definition of affine transformation (as g is supposed to be affine
transformation)
2. An affine transformation maps parallel lines into parallel lines.
Proof: Let m and n be any two distinct parallel lines and g be an affine
transformation such that m' g (m), n' g (n) . We need to show that m' // n' .
Suppose they are not parallel. Then there exist at least one common point P' .
But, P' m'n' P m, Q n, g ( P) P' , g (Q) P' g ( P) g (Q) P Q.
Because g is one to one. This means, P' m'n' P m n, g ( P) P'. But
this is not possible as the lines m and n are parallel and distinct. Consequently,
m' // n' whenever m // n .
x x' x 1 x
Solution: Let be any point on the given circle. Then, g 13 .
y y' y 4
y
Solving this equation for x and y in terms of the images x' and y ' yields,
x 3 x' , y 4 y ' .
Now put these values in the equation of the circle to find the required image.
C : x 2 y 2 144
C ': (3x' ) 2 (4 y ' ) 2 144
C ': 9 x' 2 16 y ' 2 144
x' 2 y ' 2
C ': 1
16 9
Thus, the image is an ellipse.
3. The norm of a vector is not preserved under affine transformations.
4. Angle measures are not preserved under affine transformations.
5. Area and volume are not preserved under affine transformations.
6. Affine transformations do not preserve orientation of plane figures.
7. Right, Isosceles and equilateral triangles are not preserved under affine
transformations.
8. Rectangles are not preserved under affine transformations.
9. Generally, affine transformations do not preserve shape and size.
Proposition 5.1: Let g be an affine transformation that fixes two distinct
points A, B . Then g fixes the whole line through A, B point wise.
Proof: Given g ( A) A, g ( B) B . We need to show that g ( P) P for any point
on a line through A, B . Let P be any point on a line through A, B . Then,
A, B, P are collinear so that AP r AB . On the other hand as g preserves co
linearity, A' , B' , P' are also collinear. So, A' P' r A' B' . But A' A, B' B implies
AP' r AB . Thus combining AP r AB and AP' r AB , gives
AP' r AB AP P' A P A P' P
Hence, g fixes the whole line through A, B point wise.
Solution: Let the image of the point (2,1) be ( x' , y' ) . Then, the line through
(2,1) and ( x' , y' ) is parallel to the direction line l . As any two parallel lines
5.3.2 Compressions
Here, the line k is called axis of compression, the line l is called direction of
compression, the scalar t is called factor of the compression and the point Q is
called the critical point.
Example: Find the image of the point (1,4) by a compression on the line
k : 2 x y 3 0 in the direction of the line l : 3x y 6 0 with factor t 23
Solution: Let Q (a, b) be the critical point on line k such that the line QP is
parallel to l . Since parallel lines have the same slope, we have
b4
3 3a b 7 0 . On the other hand Q is on line k means it satisfies
a 1
the equation k : 2 x y 3 0 . Thus, 2a b 3 0 . Collecting these two
3a b 7 0
equations yields 5a 10 a 2, b 1 Q (a, b) (2,1)
2a b 3 0
But from the definition of compression, we have
C ( P) P' , QP' t QP P'Q 23 ( P Q) ( x' , y ' ) (2,1) 23 [(1,4) (2,1)]
( x' , y ' ) (2,1) ( 23 ,2) ( 43 ,3)
Note that to solve compression problems, the first task is to identify the axis of
compression and the direction line, then to find the critical point Q and finally
to find the image P' using QP' t QP where t is factor of the compression.
5.3.3 Shears
Definitions:
a) Horizontal Shears:
Shears in the x direction with factor k that sends each point ( x, y) parallel to
the x axis by an amount of ky to the point S x ( x, y) ( x ky, y) are known as
horizontal shears.
Under a horizontal shear points on the x axis are invariant or unmoved
because on the x axis y 0 so that x ky x 0 x .
But when we move away from the x axis, the magnitude of y increases, so
that points farther from the x axis moves a greater distance than which are
closer to or on the x axis.
b) Vertical Shears:
Shears in the y direction with factor t that sends each point ( x, y) parallel to
the y axis by an amount of tx to the point S y ( x, y) ( x, y ty ) are known as
vertical shears.
Under such types of shears points on the y axis are invariant or fixed and
points farther from the y axis moves a greater distance than closer points to
the y axis.
c) Total Shears (Simply called shears):
A total shear or simply a shear with factors k and t is a transformation that
maps any point ( x, y) to the point S ( x, y) ( x ky, y tx) .
Examples: Find the equation of a shear that maps
a) (2,3) to (8,3) b) (3,1) to (3,0) c) (2,6) to (8,2)
Solution: To find the equations, first identify the type of the shear from the
images.
a) Here, the x-coordinate is changed and the y-coordinate is fixed. Hence, the
shear is horizontal.
5.3.4 Sililarities
All isometries are affine transformations.Generally, all similarities
(Homothety and or Dilations) are affine transformations. All isometries are
similarities. But there are similarities that are not isometries. For instance,
homotheties are similarities but not isometries. All similarities are affine
transformations but there are affine transformations which are not similarities.
For instance, shears, line reflections and compressions are affine
transformations but not similarities.
x x'
Theorem 5.1(Characterization): Let g be affine transformation
y y'
x' ax by h
where , ad bc 0. Then,
y ' cx dy k
I. g is a similarity if and only if a 2 c 2 b 2 d 2 , ab cd 0 .
II. g is an isometry if and only if a 2 c 2 b 2 d 2 1, ab cd 0.
x z u zx
Proof: Let A , B , C be vertices of ABC .Then, AB
y w v w y
For the first part, g is a similarity if and only if A' B' r AB where,
AB ( z x) 2 ( w y ) 2 ,
A' B' (a 2 c 2 )( z x) 2 (b 2 d 2 )( w y ) 2 (2ab 2cd )( z x)( w y )
From these relations,
A' B' r AB
(a 2 c 2 )( z x) 2 (b 2 d 2 )( w y ) 2 (2ab 2cd )( z x)( w y )
r ( z x) 2 ( w y ) 2
a 2 c 2 r 2 , b 2 d 2 r 2 , 2ab 2cd 0
a 2 c 2 b 2 d 2 , ab cd 0
Thus, g is a similarity if and only if a 2 c 2 b 2 d 2 , ab cd 0 .
Finally, g is an isometry if and only if A' B' AB .
A' B' AB (a 2 c 2 )( z x) 2 (b 2 d 2 )( w y ) 2 (2ab 2cd )( z x)( w y )
( z x) 2 ( w y ) 2
a 2 c 2 1, b 2 d 2 1, 2ab 2cd 0
a 2 c 2 b 2 d 2 1, ab cd 0
x
Then, for any point ,
y
x x cos y sin
.
y x sin y cos
x 2x 3y
c) : R 2 R 2 given by is linear.
y 3x 2 y
x 2x
d) : R 2 R 2 given by is not linear.
y 3x 1
So far we have seen that any linear transformation f is given by the formula
x ax by
f , ad bc 0 . This formula can be equivalently expressed as
y cx dy
x a b x ax by a b
f . Now, denote the first matrix by M and
y c d
y cx dy c d
x
the second by X .Thus any linear transformation f is given by
y
f ( X ) MX . This is known as matrix Representation (formula) of linear
transformation and M is called the standard matrix of f .
From now onwards, we use the notation f ( X ) MX , but to use this formula
we have to see the method how to find the matrix M .
a b x ax by
The formula f ( X ) MX is true for a unique M and
c d
y cx dy
x 1 0
for any point X . In particular, this formula works for X , Y .
y 0 1
1 a b 1 a 0 a b 0 b
So, f , f .
0 c d 0 c 1 c d 1 d
1
This means the first column of M is obtained by calculating f and the
0
0 1 0 a b
second by calculating f so that M f f .
1 0 1 c d
Examples:
x 2x y
a) Let f : R 2 R 2 be given by f . Find the standard matrix M
y 3x 7 y
of f and write its matrix representation.
a b
Solution: Let M be the standard matrix of f . Then, from the above
c d
a 1 2 b 0 1 2 1
relation, f , f M .
c 0 3 d 1 7 3 7
b) Let be a rotation by an angle about the origin. Find the matrix M of
x
Solution: For any point X , a rotation by an angle about the origin is
y
x x cos y sin a b
given by so that for M ,
y x sin y cos c d
a 1 cos b 0 sin cos sin
f , f M
c
0 sin d 1 cos sin cos
x x y 3
Example: Represent the transformation g as
y 2x 5 y 2
g( X ) f ( X ) b .
0 3 x x y
Solution: Using b g , f , we get g ( X ) f ( X ) b .
0 2 y 2x 5 y
Proof: From theorem 5.2, for any affine transformation g , there is a unique
x x
Thus, from f g b ,
y y
a 1 1 b
0 0 a b
f g b ,
f g b so that M .
c 0 0 1 d 1 c d
x x y 3
Example: Let g : R 2 R 2 be affine given by g . Find the
y 2x 3 y 7
standard matrix of g and give its matrix representation.
a b x
Solution: Let the matrix representation be g ( X ) MX b b .
c d y
0 0 3
Now, find g from the formula of g ,that is b g .
0 0 7
Besides, from the above relations,
a 1 4 3 1 b
0 0 2 3 1
g b ,
f g b
c 0 5 7 2 d
1 1 4 7 3
a b 1 1
Consequently, the standard matrix is found to be M .
c d 2 3
Therefore, the matrix representation is given by
x x 1 1 x 3
g M b .
y y 2 3 y 7
How can we determine affine transformations from their images?
In our discussion of isometries, we have seen that any isometry is uniquely
determined from its effect on three non-collinear points. Likewise, any affine
transformation is uniquely determined from the images of three non-collinear
points. That means there is a unique affine transformation that sends three non-
collinear points into three non-collinear points. In other words, for any three
non- collinear points A, B, C , and any two affine transformations f and g if
g ( A) f ( A), g ( B) f ( B), g (C) f (C ) , then g f .
Equating components and collecting like terms from (i ) and (ii ) , we get
2a 5b 16
6a 3 a 12 , b 3
4 a 5 b 13
2c 5d 7
6c 24 c 4, d 15
4c 5d 17
a b 12 3
Hence, M 1
.
c d 4 5
x
Therefore, for any X , g ( X ) MX b gives
y
x 1 3 x 5 1 x 3 y 5 0 5
g 2 1 2 , and g .
y 4 5 y 8 4 x 5 y 8 0 8
1
pair ( X , Y ) and the pair ( g ( X ), g (Y )) have the same orientation, then g preserves
orientation. But, if they have opposite orientation, then g reverses (changes)
orientation. In this case, g is said to be orientation reversing (changing) affine
transformation.
Theorem 5.4 (Orientation Characterization Theorem):
Let g : W W be any affine transformation given by g ( X ) MX b . Then,
a) g preserves orientation if and only if det M 0.
b) g reverses (changes) orientation if and only if det M 0.
Proof: Whether a given transformation g preserves or reverses orientation is
determined from its effect on the orientation of a triangle. This means if g
preserves the orientation of any triangle ABC , then it is orientateon preserving
and if g reverses the orientation of ABC , then it is orientation reversing affine
transformation.
Now, having this fact as basis, let’s prove our theorem. Let ABC be arbitrary
triangle. Then its orientation is determined from the orientation of the vectors
AB and AC . Suppose ABC has positive orientation. That means det( AB, AC ) 0
On the other hand, let A' B' C ' be the image of ABC under g . Then, the
orientation of A' B' C ' is determined from the orientation of the pair ( A' B', A' C ') .
But from g ( X ) MX b ,
Thus,
det( A' B', A' C ') det[M ( B A), M (C A)] det[M ( B A, C A)]
det[M ( AB, AC )] det M . det( AB, AC )
det( A' B', A' C ') 0 det M . det( AB, AC ) 0 det M 0 because det( AB, AC ) 0
a(A' B' C ' ) 12 det( A' B', A' C ') 12 det(MB MA, MC MA)
12 det[M ( B A, C A)] 12 det M det(B A, C A) , det( XY ) det X det Y
12 det(B A, C A) det M , xy x y
12 det( AB , AC ) det M a(ABC ) det M , 1
2 det( AB , AC ) a(ABC )
a(A' B' C ' ) a(ABC ) det M where A' B' C ' is the image of ABC .
Examples:
1. Given ABC with vertices A (4,1), B (2,0), C (2,2). Let g be affine
x x 4y 3
transformation given by g . If A' B' C ' is the image of ABC
y 3x 7 y 2
under g , compute a(A' B' C ' ) .
Solution: First find the area of ABC so that to apply the area relation theorem.
In ABC , AB (6,1), AC (2,3). Thus,
6 2 1
a(ABC ) 12 det( AB, AC ) 12 det 2 18 2 8 sq.units
1 3
1 4
Now from the formula of g , its standard matrix is given by M such
3 7
that det M 5 . Therefore, from area relation theorem,
a(A' B' C ' ) a(ABC ) det M 8 5 40 sq. units.
2. Suppose a certain affine transformation g takes ABC into A' B' C ' such that
a(A' B' C ' ) 13 a(ABC ) .If g takes DEF into D' E' F ' where
Solution: For an affine transformation g , if A' B' C ' is the image of ABC
under g , then a(A' B' C ' ) a(ABC ) det M . But we are given that,
Thus,
a(D' E ' F ' ) a(DEF ) det M 7cm 2 a(DEF ) 13 a(DEF ) 21cm 2
a(A' B' C ' ) a(ABC ) det M a(ABC ) det M a(ABC ) det M 1 det M 1.
x x'
Theorem 5.8: Let g be any affine transformation where
y y'
x' ax by h
, ad bc 0. Then, g is equi affine if and only if ad bc 1 .
y ' cx dy k
x z u
Proof: Let A , B , C be vertices of ABC .
y w v
zx u x
Then, AB , AC so that
w y v x
z x u x
a(ABC ) 12 det( AB, AC ) 12 det .
w y v y
On the other hand, let A' B' C ' be the image of ABC under g , then
ax by h az bw h au bv h
A' g ( A) , B' g ( B) , C ' g (C )
cx dy k cz dw k cu dv k
a ( z x ) b( w y ) a(u x) b(v y )
A' B' , A' C '
c( z x) d ( w y ) c(u x) d (v y )
Hence, using the general area formula for the image A' B' C ' , we have
a( z x) b( w y ) a (u x) b(v y )
12 det
c( z x) d ( w y ) c(u x) d (v y )
a b z x u x
12 det
c d w y v y
a b z x u x
12 det det
c d w y v y
z x u x a b
12 det det
w y v y c d
a(ABC ) ad bc a(A' B' C ' ) a(ABC ) ad bc)
d b
Step-2: Calculate M 1 using M 1 1
ad bc
c a
Step-3: Compute g 1 using inverse characterization theorem.
g 1 ( X ) M 1 X M 1 b
x x 2y
1. Suppose T is an affine transformation given by T .Then, find
y x 2y
a) the image of the y -axis under T
b) the image of the line x y 1 under T
c) the image of the circle x 2 y 2 1 under T
Answer : a) y x b) x 3 y 4 0 c) 4( x y) 2 ( y x) 2 16
x x
g 6y
y 9
Answer : x 2 y 2 1/ 9
3 1
4. Suppose is a linear transformation with standard matrix M .
2 1
Find the image of the line l : y 2 x 1 under . Answer : 4 x 5 y 1 0
2 2
5*. Suppose g is an affine transformation with standard matrix M .
1 0
0 4
If g , find the image of l : y 3x under g . Answer : x 8 y 20 0
0 2
6. Let S l and S m be a reflections on lines a long the vectors u (1,1) and
v (1,2) . Then, find the equations of S l S m and give its standard matrix.
4 3 3 4 4 / 5 3/ 5
Answer : S l S m ( x, y) ( x y, x y), M
5 5 5 5 3 / 5 4 / 5
x 3x 2 y
7. Let T : R 2 R 2 be defined by T .
y 4x 3y
a) Find the matrix representation of T .
b) Determine whether T preserves or changes orientation.
c) Find the formula for T 1 .
d) If A' B' C ' D' is the image of the parallelogram ABCD under T where a
A(1,1), B(4,1), C (4,3), D(1,3) , calculate the area of A' B' C ' D' .
8. Let g be a reflection on the line l1 : 2 x y 0 in the direction of the line
l 2 : 12 x 3 y 2 0 . If l : tx 3 y 5 0 is the fixed line of g , then find t
9. Let S be a shear which takes the point (2,6) to (5,6) . Then find S 1 (3,2)
10. Let T : R 2 R 2 be a one to one linear transformation. Then,
2x 6 0 , x
a) If T then find the point
3y 9 0
y
b) If 2 3 16
T , then find the image T
3 5 24
a) Find the formula for the linear mapping f (x) associated with g (x)
b) Find the matrix representation of g (x)
c) Give at least three fixed points of g
d) Is the line l : 6 x 3 y 12 0 a fixed line of g ?
12. If the image of the (1,3) under a compression C on a line k : y 2 x 3 in the
direction of the line l : 2 x y 2 0 is the point P' ( 34 , 72 ) , find the image of the
line m : x y 1 0 under this compression.
14. Let be a shear such that (1,4) (7,11) . Then, find the equations of .
Answer : ( x, y) ( x 2 y, y 7 x)
x x
23. Every affine transformation given by f M b is a similarity if and
y y
x x x
only if there exists k 0 such that M k for all vectors in R 2 .
y y y
24. In the cell of the following table, put “ ” if the geometric concept will
be preserved or if it will be changed under the given type of
transformations in general.
constants. Show that T is affine transformation and find the formula for T 1 .
1
Let be a plane with area A . Give the area of T () ? Is T equi-affine?
16
Is T orientation preserving or reversing?
28. Determine the orientation of ABC whose vertices are given as follow
4 1 1
A , B , C
1 1 3
x 3x 4 y 2
29. Given f
y 4 x 3 y 1
a) Show that f is an affine transformation
b) Show that f is a similarity
c) Find a dilation , a rotation R and a translation
Tv such that f Tv R
d) Is f orientation preserving?
30. Classify the following affine transformations as orientation preserving and
orientation changing.
a. Dilation
b. Line reflection
c. Shears
d. Compression
x2 y2
31. Show that the ellipse 2 2 1 is the image of the circle x 2 y 2 1 under
a b
some affine transformation.
32. If 2 x' 3x y 2 and 2 y' x 3 y 1 are equations of a rotation, then
find the center and angle of the rotation.
33. Let be an isometry with (0,0) (2,1), (1,1) (1,0), (2,3) (5,1) .Then
find the equations of . Determine whether even or odd isometry?
REFERENCES