LABORATORY

MANUAL EE047-

3.5-2-DE

Drilling Engineering

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Table of Contents Page

1.0 Introduction 3
2.0 Experiment 3
3.0 Group Division 3
4.0 Laboratory Rules and Safety 3
5.0 Laboratory Report Writing 5
6.0 Report Distribution Marks 7
7.0 The Handling of Testing Apparatus 8
8.0 Experiment 1: The Characteristics of Bentonite 12
9.0 Experiment 2: Mud Weighting Materials 14
10.0 Experiment 3: Mud Thinner 17
11.0 Experiment 4: Filtration Control Agent 19
12.0 Experiment 5: Drilling Mud Contaminations 22
13.0 Experiment 6: Synthesis of Water-Based Mud (WBM) 23

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The ability of petroleum engineer to understand the functions, properties, apparatus and testing
techniques, classification, mixing, and treatment of the drilling mud, are the basic requisite in drilling
engineering practices. This hands-on laboratory implementation was prepared to give an exposure to
imminent petroleum engineer to types of drilling mud, testing apparatus, testing technique, and mud
additives. With active participation in this laboratory works, student will be able to acquire good
understanding of procedures and basic apparatus handling of drilling mud testing.

2.0 EXPERIMENT
On the first week, students will be taught on how to use some of the testing apparatus in Drilling
Engineering Laboratory. On the following weeks, students are required to do their own experiments as
follow:
(1) The Characteristics of Bentonite
(2) Mud Weighting Material
(3) Mud Thinner
(4) Filtration Control Agent
(5) Drilling Mud Contaminations
(6) Synthesis of Water-Based Mud (WBM)

3.0 GROUPS
Student in each section will be divided into several groups, which would consist 3 - 4 students. Section
supervisor/lecturer will arrange division of groups. Please consult your lecturer if you have any problem
with the group members.

4.0 LABORATORY’S RULES AND SAFETY

4.1 General Rule
(1) Students are responsible for any laboratory apparatus used.
(2) Always cautious whilst conducting experiment in order to obtain good outcome of result
and preventing accident from happened.
(3) Working table and laboratory surrounding should always tidy and clean. Students should
clean and tidy back all laboratory apparatus used before leaving the laboratory.
(4) Students are forbidden from conducting an experiment after the stipulated time except
after getting permission from the supervisor.
(5) All special laboratory security directives must be obeyed. Students should not smoke,
drink or eat in the laboratory.
(6) Students should familiarize themselves with the position of emergency equipment in the
laboratory (e.g. fire extinguisher, etc).
(7) Any accident must be reported immediately to the officer on duty.

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4.2 Safety Attire
(1) Students are required of wearing “lab coat” whilst conducting an experiment. Failure to
comply will cause students barred from doing any experiment.
(2) Ensure of wearing shoes and use appropriate safety appliances (e.g. safety glasses, heat
resistance glove, etc.) whilst conducting experiment due to most experiments involving
chemical usage, and high temperature and pressure handling.

4.3 Laboratory Equipment

(1) Students are not allowed to use any laboratory equipment without getting permission and
complete explanation from the officer in charged. Handling complicated laboratory
equipment without supervision will endanger someone or anyone near the equipment, and
could cause damage to the equipment.
(2) Before using any laboratory equipment, ensure that the power source used is appropriate
for that particular equipment.
(3) Do not move sensitive equipment from its position; use it at its dedicated location.
(4) If the equipment is damage whilst in used, report immediately to the officer in charged.
Do not try to repair yourself.
(5) Students are prohibited from using any broken-down equipment.

4.4 Laboratory Waste Disposal

(1) After each experiment, students should ensure that all facilities and apparatus are put
back in order.
(2) All used muds should be discarded in the provided container. Do not dispose used mud or
any chemical waste into the sink.
Note: Failure to do so would result 20 % deduction of report mark for that particular experiment.

4.6 Gas Cylinder

(1) All gas resources, fuels, and gas relief valves must be closed before leaving the
laboratory and when not in used.
(2) Ensure that the pressure in the pipeline is zero by opening all valves.

4.7 Electrical Appliances

(1) Make sure electrical power source is off when not used.
(2) If an electrical appliance, which is on operation, have to be left alone, please ensure that
the equipment can operate safely. Student must also inform the officer on duty.

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5.0 LABORATORY REPORT WRITING
Effective scientific report writing is one of the compulsory practices for every engineer and
scientist. In research, written matter should enable other person to know about the work and
important discovery that have been carryout. In the field of engineering, documentation is
required to follow-up study, support for new study, and provide information to publish. As such,
student must produce a well-defined documentation, simple, professional, following format, and
have right grammatical use.
All reports must be prepared using Microsoft Word as word processing software. Various other
supporting softwares such as Microsoft Excel, PowerPoint, Mathtype, Matematica, Matlab,
Statistica, AutoCad and others can be used in preparing tables, graphs, mathematical equations,
and pictures.
In this module, the purpose of report writing is to summarise the methodology used in the
experiment, evaluate or interpret the findings from the experiment, comparing the discovery of
the experiment to theoretical studies or results that acquired from earlier research published in
journals or from other sources, which have been validated.
The report should be written in English and should not exceed 15 pages including pictures,
graphs, and tables. However, the stated number is excluding appendices. Use font type Times
New Roman, size 12, with 1.5 line spacing. The format of the report should follow the
arrangement below:

5.1 Front Page

This page consist of university logo, name of student, student ID, experimental subject, name of
lecturer, date of experiment, and date of report submission.

5.2 Abstract (Report Summary)

Abstract is prepared on separate page. The main purpose of abstract documentation is to
summarise the entire report, using 100 to 200 words. This section explains the system that had
been studied and the main experimental result. Abstract must be clear, short, and containing
quantitative statement that had been made, findings and its meaning. Abstract documentation is
the last part that has to be done after resolving the table of contents in report writing.

5.3 Table of Contents

This part shows the page location of each opening title and its fraction. The page number of the
figure, schedule, and appendix lists also needs to be included.

5.4 Introduction
Explanation of the background, objective and scope of the experiment has to be done in this part.
Introduction must done in stages, facilitate reader on the important of the experiment and it is
meaningful to read.

5.5 Theory or Literature Review

Theory part states briefly the general theory and equation that are used. Problems string, which
has been highlighted theoretically, may contain reaction equation, statement with particular
regards, validity level, and the equation used to analyse data. All equations must be numbered
sequentially. You do not have to define the variable used in the text but need to be stated in the
list of symbol section. The derivation of equation and complete calculating work has to be placed
in the appendices.

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5.6 Methodology
This part must contain complete information so that other reader can repeat the stated experiment,
but did not too elaborate as those occur in directive module experiment. State the important
method that has been done.

5.7 Results
This part must contain important data that are acquired, usually in tabular forms, graphs, and
pictures. Think the best means to present results of the study so that the objective of the study can
be achieved. Each table, graph, and picture must be numbered and associated with text. Make
sure that each graph axis is labeled properly. Information about the table or graph must clear.
Comparison between the experiment data with the theoretical data and the literature also could be
loaded in this part.

5.8 Discussions
This part comprises evaluation and interpretation of results, including the validity of evaluation
and the accuracy (error analysis) of the results. In the discussion, citation must take into account
on the question how, why etc. However, discussion should follow or approaching theory. (Note:
Results and discussions can be combined).

5.9 Conclusion
This part must contain important summary from the results and discussions. In fact, conclusion is
also a general statement about how and where the experiment you doing can be applied.

5.10 Suggestion
This part should consist idea or proposal which lies against theoretical and logical which could be
implemented to reduce error. In other words, this move can improve the outcome of the
experiment those carried out.

5.11 References
All references, which are quote from journals, books, standards, and laboratory manuals, have to
be listed in the references section. Reference writing system should follow UTM thesis
documentation format. Students are required to submit at least three main references related to the
experiment conducted.

5.12 Appendices
This part consist detailed analysis of the experiment, which includes raw data, error analysis of
data, material physical properties, and detailed example of calculations, figures and pictures,
which are not primary but are required to explain the content of the report.

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6.0 Report distribution of marks is as follows:
Marks
Contents
(%)
Ability to Practice Professional Behavior 10
Report Format 10
Introduction and Objective 10
Laboratory Procedure 20
Experimental Results 20
Discussion and Analysis 20
Conclusion 10
Total 100

7.0 THE HANDLING OF TESTING APPARATUS

7.1 Objective
To familarise the students in handling procedures of testing apparatus and testing the mud
properties apparatus according to API RP 13B standard.

7.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the experiment, the students will be able to:
(1) Prepare basic mud. (15 ppb).
(2) Recognise and understand the functions and objectives of every mud testing.
(3) Comprehend how to calibrate mud testing apparatus.

7.3 Theory
The main purpose of drilling mud testing is to test the mud properties according to the standard
procedures. (please refer to American Petroleum Institute, “Recommended Practice for Standard
Procedure For Testing Drilling Fluids (API RP 13B)”, Dallas, Texas). The mud properties which
are required to determine are:
(1) Mud density (ppg)
(2) Plastic viscosity (cp)
(3) Apparent viscosity (cp)
(4) Yield point (lb/100ft2)
(5) Gel strength (10 seconds and 10 minutes)
(6) pH
(7) Filtration (cc) for 30 minutes
(8) Mud cake thickness ( /32 in.).
(9) Mud resistivity (ohm-meter)
For calculation and mud preparation purposes, the following conversion factors can be use:
1 bbl = 42 gal
1 gm/350 cc = 1 lb/bbl

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7.4 Mud Preparation
7.4.1 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Graduated cylinder
(3) Mud balance
7.4.2 Consumable Materials
(1) Fresh water
(2) Bentonite
7.4.3 Procedures
(1) 25 ppb bentonite mud was prepared and then bentonite powder was weighted to 25g.
(2) Fresh water was measured to 350 cc (ml or cm3) using a graduated cylinder and was
later filled in the blender container.
(3) The container was placed on the blender and the stirrer was turned on.
(4) The bentonite was put in the blender bit by bit while stirring.
(5) It was Stirred thoroughly for 15 minutes.

7.5 Mud Density

7.5.1 Apparatus
(1) Mud balance
(2) Thermometer
7.5.2 Consumable Materials
(1) Mud sample
7.5.3 Procedures
(1) The instrument base was set on a flat level surface.
(2) Before performing any measurements, the instrument was calibrated first with fresh
water. The fresh water gave a reading between 8.3 ppg and 62.3 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3) at
70 oF (21 oC). If the value was different, the hole would have been unscrewed at the end
of the graduated arm. If necessary the amount of weight (sand, barite, etc) would have
been added or removed.
(3) The temperature measurement of the mud was recorded.
(4) The clean, dry cup was filled with the mud sample; The cap was put on the filled mud cup
and the cap was rotated until it was firmly seated. Some of the mud was expelled through
the hole in the cap in order to free any trapped air or gas.
(5) The cap on the mud cup was held firmly (with the cap hole covered), The cap was washed
and wiped from the outside of the cup until it is clean and dry.
(6) The beam was placed on the base support and was balanced by moving the rider along
the graduated scale. The Balance was achieved when the bubble was under the center
line.
(7) The mud weight at edge of the rider toward of the mud cup was read. Appropriate
corrections to a range extender was used.

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7.6 Plastic and Apparent Viscosities, Yield Point, and Gel Strength
7.6.1 Apparatus
(1) Rheometer
(2) Stop watch
(3) Thermometer
7.6.2 Consumable Materials
(1) Mud sample
7.6.3 Procedures
(1) A mud sample was placed in the container with the rotor sleeve immersed, exactly to the
scribe line. Measurements in the field were made with minimum delay (within five
minutes) and at a temperature as close as practical to that of the mud at the place of
sampling (not differing more than 10 oF)).
(2) The temperature of the sample was recorded.
(3) With the sleeve rotating at 600 rpm (Φ600), waited for dial reading to reach a steady
value (the time required was dependent on the mud characteristics). The dial reading for
600 rpm was recorded.
(4) Was Shifted to 300 rpm (Φ300) and had to wait for dial the reading to reach a steady
value. The dial reading of 300 rpm was recorded.
(5) To obtain plastic viscosity (μp), apparent viscosity (μa), and yield point (Yb), the
relationships below were used:

Plastic Viscosity (cP) μp = (Φ600) –

Φ300
Apparent Viscosity (cP) μa = Φ600/2
Yield Point (lb/100ft2) Yb = Φ300 - μp
(6) The drilling fluid sample was stirred for 10 seconds at high speed.
(7) The mud was allowed to stand undisturbed for 10 seconds. It was slowly and steadily
turned to the hand-wheel in the direction to produce a positive dial reading. The
maximum reading was the initial gel strength. For instruments having a 3 rpm speed, the
maximum reading attained after starting rotation at 3 rpm was the initial gel strength.
The initial gel strength (10 sec gel) in lb/100ft2 (Pa) was recorded.
(8) The mud was restirred at high speed for 10 seconds and then the mud was allowed to
stand undisturbed for 10 minutes. The rotation was started at 3 rpm and then The
maximum reading as 10 minutes gel in lb/100ft2 (Pa) was recorded.

7.7 Filtration and Mud Cake Thickness

7.7.1 Apparatus
(1) Filter press
(2) Nitrogen gas
(3) Stop watch
(4) Thermometer
(5) Vernier caliper
7.7.2 Consumable Materials
(1) Mud sample
(2) Filter paper

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7.7.3 Procedures
(1) Each part of the cell, particularly the screen, were ensured to be clean and dry, and the
gasket was not distorted of worn. The mud cell in the order of base cap, rubber gasket,
screen, filter paper, rubber gasket, and top cap was assembled. The base cap of the cell
was tighted.
(2) Pour the mud sample into the cell to within 1/2 inch to top. Tighten the top cap of the cell
and mount it on the frame.
(3) Place a dry graduated cylinder under the drain tube to receive the filtrate.
(4) Close the relief valve and adjust the regulator so that a pressure of 100 psi is applied in 30
seconds or less.
(5) Open the pressure relief valve and begins to record filtrate volume against time.
(recommendation: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes).
(6) At the end of 30 minutes, measure the volume of filtrate. Shut off the flow through the
pressure regulator and open the relief valve carefully.
(7) Report the volume of filtrate in cubic centimeters (to 0.1 cc) as the API filtrate, and the
initial mud tempearure in oF. Save the filtrate for appropriate chemical and resistivity
testing.
(8) Remove the cell from the frame, first making certain that all pressure has been relieved.
Using extreme care to save the filter paper with a minimum of disturbance to the cake,
disassemble the cell and discard the mud.
(9) Measure and report the thickness of the filter cake, using vernier caliper, to the nearest
1/32 inch.
(10) Although cake descriptions are subjective, such notations as hard, soft, tough, rubbery,
firm, etc., may convey important information of cake quality.
(11) Plot graph of filtrate volume against time.

7.8 pH (Hydrogen Ion Concentration)

7.8.1 Apparatus
(1) pH meter or pH paper
7.8.2 Consumable Materials
(1) Mud sample
7.8.3 Procedures
(1) pH paper: Dip the pH paper in the mud sample and record the reading.
(2) pH meter: Put in the pH meter probe in the mud sample and record the reading.

7.9 Mud Resistivity

7.9.1 Apparatus
(1) Resistivity meter
(2) Thermometer
7.9.2 Consumable Materials
(1) Mud sample
(2) Mud filtrate
7.9.3 Procedures
(1) Fill in the mud sample in the cell. Remove all air bubbles which may be trap in the cell.
(2) Put back the cell on resistivity meter.
(3) Adjust the resistivity button for the range between 0.01 – 2.0 ohm-meter.
(4) Record the resistivity reading.
(5) Clean the cell with distilled water.
(6) Repeat Procedure (1) to Procedure (5) using mud filtrate.

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8.0 EXPERIMENT 1: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BENTONITE

8.1 Objective
In this laboratory exercise, you will be studying the characteristics of bentonite in drilling fluids.

8.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the experiment, the students will be able to:
(1) Understand the physical properties, types and functions of bentonite.
(2) Observe the effect of water on the properties of bentonite.
(3) Observe the effect of salt on the properties of drilling fluids.
(4) Understand the effect of temperature on the properties of drilling fluids.

8.3 Theory
Water based drilling fluids commonly contains several types of bentonite. Some are purposely
added to the drilling fluids to build up certain properties of the drilling fluid. While some are
added to the drilling fluids as drilled cuttings as bentonite from the drilled formations.
The commonly occurring bentonites in drilled cuttings are montmorillonite, illite and kaolinite.
While bentonite purposely added to drilling fluids are bentonite and attapulgite.
Bentonite is added to the drilling fluids with the purpose for increasing the viscosity and gel
strength. The resulting minds are able to act as proper the hydrostatic column and increase the
carrying capacity of the mud. The resulting muds will also be able to increase its filtration
properties and mud cake forming capacity.
Attapulgite added to the muds will also function to increase the viscosity and gel strength. But
attapulgite do not have the capability to increase the mud filtration properties and the
corresponding mud cake forming capacity. Attapulgite are used for specific cases.
8.4 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Mud balance
(3) Rheometer
(4) Thermometer
(5) Filter press
(6) Graduated cylinder
(7) pH meter / pH paper
(8) Aging cell
(9) Rotating oven
(10) Vernier caliper
8.5 Consumable Materials
(1) Bentonite
(2) Soda ash

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8.6 Procedures
(1) A basic mud as drilling fluid was constructed.
(2) The amount of weighting material needed to increase the mud density by 2.5ppg was measured.
(3) The characteristics of the drilling fluid prepared was Measured and evaluated.
(4) The plots and tabulate were displayed with the appropriate results in comparison to
Experiment 1.
(5) The experimental work in the comprehensive report was Demonstrated and presented.

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8.7 EXPERIMENT 2: MUD WEIGHTING MATERIALS

8.8 Objective
In this laboratory exercise, you will be studying the effect of weighting material on mud properties.

8.9 Learning outcomes

At the end of the experiment, the students will be able to:
(1) Understand the physical properties, types and functions of weighting materials in the mud.
(2) Understand the effect of weighting material on mud density.
(3) Calculate and explain the procedures to increase and decrease the mud density.

8.10 Theory
Among the functions of mud is to give sufficient hydrostatic pressure to prevent the entry of gas,
oil and formation water into the wellbore. The pressure gradient of fresh water is 0.433 psi/ft.
Therefore, at 10,000 ft, the pressure will be 4,330 psi. If the formation pressure at 10,000 ft is
higher than 4,330 psi, the hydrostatic pressure of fresh water must be increased. The additional
pressure may be achieve by adding the suspended solids and/or dissolved materials in the water.
The dissolved salts such as NaCl, CaCl 2, KCl, Na2(CO3) may be used to prepare high density
solutions. However, these solutions are sometimes not compatible with most of the materials used
to prepare the mud and can also cause corrosion.
The other alternative is to add the solid materials in the mud. These solids can be a clay, drilled
solids, barite, hematite, etc. Clay and drilled solids will give high viscosity with limited density
value. Drilled solids are sometimes corrosive. In order to get higher mud density (> 11.5 ppg) and
lower viscosity, the clay content should be kept to the minimum. Therefore, barite is widely used
to increase the mud density.
Chemically, barite is barium sulphate (BaSO4). Barite has a specific gravity between 4.2 to 4.3
(specific gravity of water = 1 and clay = 2.5). Barite is not dissolve in the mud and has no
chemical reaction with clay or dissolved salts. In other word, it is inert material.
In order to get the desired mud density, the amount of barite that will be added must be
determined. An increased of the mud volume due to additional barite must also be calculated. The
amount of barite required can be determined by the following principle:
“If two materials with different densities were mixed, then the density of the mixture will be the
function of the quantity of the components from the mixture.”

To increase the mud density using barite, the following relationship can be obtained:
i Vi  bVb  f Vf

where,
Vi = Initial mud volume, bbl
Vb = Volume of barite, bbl
ρi = Initial mud density, ppg
ρf = Final mud density, ppg
ρb = Density of barite (35.4 ppg)

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 The equation can be rearranged as
follows:
Vi  f  i 
V 
b
b  f
During drilling operation, we sometimes need to reduce the mud density due to lost circulation,
encounter low formation pressure, etc. By reducing the mud density, the lost of mud can be
overcome.
Therefore, we need to add some water to get the desired mud density (lower density). The
following equation can be used to determine the amount of water that can be added:
i Vi  w Vw  f (Vi  Vw )
where,
Vi = Initial mud volume
Vw = Volume of water
ρ1 = Initial mud density, ppg
ρf = Final mud density, ppg
ρw = Water density (8.33
ppg)

By rearranging the equation, the following relationship can be obtained:

Vi  i  f 
Vw    
f w

8.11 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Mud balance
(3) Rheometer
(4) Thermometer
(5) Filter press
(6) Graduated cylinder
(7) pH meter / pH paper
(8) Resistivity meter
(9) Vernier caliper
8.12 Consumable Materials
(1) Bentonite 15ppb
(2) Barite 10gr + bentonite
(3) Barite 25gr + bentonite
8.13 Procedures
(1) A basic mud as drilling fluid was constructed.
(2) The amount of weighting material needed to increase the mud density by 2.5ppg was measured.
(3) The characteristics of the drilling fluid prepared was Measured and evaluated.
(4) The plots and tabulate were displayed with the appropriate results in comparison to
Experiment 1.
(5) The experimental work in the comprehensive report was Demonstrated and presented.

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10.0 EXPERIMENT 3: MUD THINNER

10.1 Objective
To study the effect of mud thinner on mud viscosity.

10.2 Learning outcomes

At the end of the experiment, the students will be able to:
a. Understand the functions and types of mud thinner.
b. Understand the effect of mud thinner on mud viscosity.
10.3 Theory
The viscosity of the muds must be control at certain level to make sure that mud can work at it
top performance. Too high viscosity can reduce the hydraulic efficiency, increase the pressure
wave and increase the swabbing effect. If viscosity is too low, it can reduce the hole cleaning
efficiency. Mud viscosity is the function of:
a. Base fluid viscosity
b. Measurement and volume of particles
c. Force between particles
Viscosity measurement which account for these three factors at certain flow condition is called
apparent viscosity measurement. The measurement can be done using marsh funnel or electronic
rheometer.
Normally the solid material is needed to increase the plastic viscosity. To decrease the viscosity,
remove solid material or add water to the mud.
The value of yield point is defined by the forces between solid particles within the mud. If the
reactive material like bentonite is added, the value of yield point also increases. The value of
yield point can be decreased by adding mud thinner.
Mud thinner can be used to reduce the yield point value and apparent viscosity of the mud by
reducing the forces between particles. At the same time, the value of gel strength also reduced by
adding mud thinner.
As a conclusion, the mud thinner is used to control the apparent viscosity of the mud without
using too much of water. There are too many materials can be used as a mud thinner. The mud
thinner can be divided into two categories namely:
a. Inorganic complex phosphate
b. Organic thinner
Normally used inorganic complex phosphates are:
a. Sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP)
b. Sodium hexanetaphosphate (Calgon)
c. Sodium tetraphosphate (BARAFOS)
d. Tetra sodium phosphate (TSPP)
Organic thinners are divided into three groups:
a. Lignin, example CARBONOX (lignite) and CC-16 (alkaline + lignite)
b. Tannin, example quebracho and TANNEX (quebracho + lignite)
c. Lignosulfonate, example LIGNOX (calcium lignosulfonate) and Q-BROXIN (ferrochrome
lignosulfonate)

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10.4 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Mud balance
(3) Rheometer
(4) Thermometer
(5) Filter press
(6) Graduated cylinder
(7) pH meter / pH paper
(8) Resistivity meter
(9) Vernier caliper
10.5 Consumable Materials
(1) Bentonite
(2) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
(3) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or lime [Ca(OH) 2] or soda ash
10.6 Procedures
(1) Using a basic mud prepared, stir thoroughly for 10 – 15 minutes for complete mixing.
Test the following mud properties:
a. Plastic viscosity (cp)
b. Apparent viscosity (cp)
c. Yield point (lb/100 sqft)
d. Gel strength (10 sec. and 10 min.)
e. pH
f. Filtration (cc) for 30 min.
g. Mud cake thickness ( /32 in.).
h. Mud resistivity (ohm-meter)
(2) Add 2 ppb of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or lime [Ca(OH)2] or soda ash into 350 ml of
the basic mud, mixed evenly for about 10 minutes and measures the mud properties as
stated in Procedure (1).
(3) Add 2 ppb of NaCl into 350 ml of the basic mud, mixed evenly for about 10 minutes and
measures the mud properties as stated in Procedure (1).
(4) Check the previous results of step 2 and 3 with basic mud (water + bentonite) results.
Note:
(1)
If the pH value less than 7, add 0.5 g – 1 g of NaOH or lime [Ca(OH)2] or soda ash into mud.
(2)
Add slowly (0.5 cc – 3 cc) deformer if foam exist.

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11.0 EXPERIMENT 4: FLUID LOSS CONTROL ADDITIVES

11.1 Objective
To study the properties of fluid loss control additives and its effect towards mud properties.

11.2 Learning outcomes

At the end of the experiment, the students will be able to:
a. Understand the types and functions of fluid loss control additives.
b. Understand the effect of fluid loss control additives toward mud properties.
11.3 Theory
Mud circulation lost occurs when certain amount of mud enters the formation during drilling
process. This process will create a thin layer of mud cake which can prevent further circulation
lost. The equation to describe the flow through the mud cake is given below:

k A p
q t
where,
q = Flowrate, cc/sec
A = Mud cake cross sectional area, cm2
p = Pressure different across mud cake, psi
 = Mud viscosity, cp
t = Mud cake thickness, cm
k = Permeability, mD
For certain cross sectional area, pressure different and constant viscosity, velocity is a function of
mud cake thickness and mud cake permeability. For a static condition, the increase in mud cake
thickness does not mean the flowrate is reduced. The flowrate also defined by mud cake
permeability. For example, the filtration of attapulgite mud will give thicker mud cake but at the
same time will give high filtration flowrate.
Mud filtrate is a measure of solid material ability in the mud to form a thinner mud cake with low
permeability. The thicker mud cake means more solid materials settled at formation wall and
more filtration lost to the formation. The thicker mud cake normally easier to collapse and cause
other problem during drilling activity such as the hole becomes smaller. The mud cake thickness
normally measures in 1/32 inch or mm. Their property is defined as hard, soft, tough, rubbery or
firm.
Fluid lost through filtered medium at certain differential pressure, temperature, time and certain
properties is defined by the equation below:
dVw k 2p
(1)
dt V s
where,
Vw = Fluid lost, cc
t = Time, minute
Δp = Pressure different, psi
μ = Filtrate viscosity, cp
Vs = Volume of solid material in mud cake, cc
k = Mud cake constant

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 By definition:
Vw
R
Vs
Rearrange equation (1):
k 2 Rp.dt
Vw .dVw  ……………… (2)

Integrate equation (2):

Vw  k Rpt ……………… (3)


From this equation, fluid lost is proportional to square root of time, mud cake thickness, pressure
different and inverse proportional towards filtrate viscosity. To calculate the fluid lost for a
certain period, the equation below is used:

V  V t1 ……………… (4)
2 1 t2

where,
V1 = Fluid lost at time t1, cc
V2 = Fluid lost at time t2, cc
Mud filtration test can be done at low pressure of 100 psi and at room temperature for a period of
30 minutes. High pressure high temperature test can be done at pressure different of 500 psi and
temperature up to 300 oF. There are many fluid lost control agents available and each of them has
their own advantage and disadvantage. Among the fluid loss control additives available are:
a. Bentonite
b. HEC (hydroxy-ethyl cellulose)
c. Sodium caboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)
d. Starch
e. Guar gum
f. Xanthan gum
11.4 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Mud balance
(3) Rheometer
(4) Thermometer
(5) Filter press
(6) Graduated cylinder
(7) pH meter / pH paper
(8) Resistivity meter
(9) Vernier caliper

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11.5 Consumable Materials
(1) Barite
(2) Bentonite
(3) Starch
(4) HEC (hydroxy-ethyl cellulose)
(5) CMC (sodium caboxymethyl cellulose)
(6) Guar gum
(7) Xanthan gum

11.6 Procedures
(1) Prepare a basic mud. Stir thoroughly for 10 – 15 minutes for complete mixing.
(2) Test the following mud properties:
a. Mud density (ppg)
b. Plastic viscosity (cp)
c. Apparent viscosity (cp)
d. Yield point (lb/100 sqft)
e. Gel strength (10 sec. and 10 min.)
f. pH
g. Filtration (cc) for 30 min.
h. Mud cake thickness ( /32 in.).
i. Mud resistivity (ohm-meter)

(3) Add 15 ppb bentonite to the 350 ml basic mud and mix evenly. Measures the mud
properties as stated in Procedure (2).
(4) Add 1 ppb starch to the 350 ml basic mud and mix evenly. Measures the mud properties
as stated in Procedure (2).
(5) Add 1 ppb CMC to the 350 ml basic mud and mix evenly. Measures the mud properties
as stated in Procedure (2).
(6) Add 1 ppb guar gum to the 350 ml basic mud and mix evenly. Measures the mud
properties as stated in Procedure (2).

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12.0 EXPERIMENT 5: DRILLING MUD CONTAMINATIONS

12.1 Objective
In this laboratory exercise, you will be studying the effects of mud contaminations on the properties
of water-based mud and the effectiveness of treating material.

12.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:
a. Distinguish materials which can cause mud contaminations.
b. Understand the effect of contamination materials on the properties of drilling mud.
c. Distinguish which materials to be used to treat contaminated drilling mud.

12.3 Theory
Salt contaminations on drilling mud occurred whilst drilling operation take place. Soluble salt,
which always encountered during drilling, completion and workover jobs, can be divided into two
groups, which are monovalens and divalens. The monovalens salt that always encountered is
NaCl, and sometimes, in certain area, KCl can also be found.
The most common divalens salts are CaSO4, CaCl2, MgSO4, and MgCl2. These salts can alter the
original properties of drilling mud when they are mixed. To bring back the required properties of
the mud, treatment has to be done by using certain material.

12.4 Apparatus
a. Mud mixer
b. Mud balance
c. Rheometer
d. Thermometer
e. Filter press
f. Graduated cylinder
g. pH meter / pH paper
h. Resistivity meter
i. Thermometer
j. Vernier caliper

12.5 Procedures
a. A basic mud as drilling fluid was constructed.
b. The amount of weighting material needed to increase the mud density by 2.5ppg was measured.
c. The characteristics of the drilling fluid prepared was Measured and evaluated.
d. The plots and tabulate were displayed with the appropriate results in comparison to Experiment 1.
e. The experimental work in the comprehensive report was Demonstrated and presented.

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CHLORIDE CONTENT METHOD
1. Pipette 1 ml of sample into the titration dish and dilute to 40 or 50 ml with distilled water.
2. Add four or five drop of potassium chromate indicator solution.
3. Add standard silver nitrate solution from an automatic burette or apipette dropwise, continuously while
stirring, until the sample just turns from yellow to orange or brick red.
4. The number of ml standard silver nitrate used to obtain this end point multiplied by 10,000 for 0.01 g
silver nitrate solution, or by 1000 for 0.001 g silver nitrate equal parts per million (ppm) chloride (Cl)
ion.

SULFATE ESTIMATION
1. Measure 2 ml of filtrate or water sample into a clean test tube and add a few drops of Fann
Sulfate Indicator solution.
2. Shake well and let stand two minutes.
3. Judge the quantity of precipitate formed and estimate the sulfate ion according to the
following table;
Translucent white suspension: 0 -10 epm sulfate ion
Milk white suspension : 0- 10 epm sulfate ion
Heavy white suspension : above 20+ epm sulfate ion
4. Sample can be diluted with distilled water for a more accurate estimation when the concentration
Exceeds 20 epm sulfate ion.

HARDNESS TEST –VERSENATE METHOD

1. To approximately 50 ml of distilled water in a titration dish.
2. Add about 2 ml of Hardness Buffer Solution and 5 to 10 drops of Hardness Indicator Solution.
3. If a red colour develops, indicating hardness in the distilled water, add Hardness Titrating
Solution dropwise until the water first turns to blue. Do not include this volume of titrating
solution in calculating hardness of the sample in Step 6.
4. Measure 1 or more ml of sample into the titrating dish. A pink or wine red colour
(depending upon the colour of the sample) will develop if calcium or magnesium is present.
5. Add Hardness Titrating Solution, stirring continuously, until the sample first turns to blue.
6. The total hardness is calculated as follows;
ml of titrating solution x 20 = epm C + Mg when Hardness Solution
1 ml = 20 epm is used

ml of titrating solution x 2 = epm Ca + Mg when Hardness Solution

1 ml = 2 epm is used

7. More or less sample can be used to obtaina titration between 1 and 10 ml in which case
the answer obtained in Step 6 should be divided by the ml of sample used.

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13.0 EXPERIMENT 6: SYNTHESIS OF WATER-BASED MUD

13.1 Objective
In this laboratory exercise, you will be synthesizing water-based mud (WBM) to improve drilling efficiency.

13.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:
1. To identify the suitable types and amount of chemicals to be used in the mud formulation to
synthesize the water-based mud (WBM) in increasing drilling efficiency.
2. Understand the effect of chemicals added in increasing drilling efficiency.
3. To suggest improvement for the mud formulation.

13.3 Theory
Many different types of water-based mud are used in drilling operations. Basic drilling fluid systems are
usually converted to more complex systems as a well is deepened and the wellbore temperature and/or
pressure increases. Several key factors affect the selection of drilling fluid systems for a specific condition.
The most favorable drilling fluid for a well or interval should be based on the criteria as such;
 Performance-inhibition, rheology, fluid loss and temperature
 Environment-damage to the environment should be avoided
 Safety-to all personnel
 Average cost

13.4 Instructions

(1) Demonstrate your understanding of the case study below by formulating an experimental mud
program (WBM) in improving drilling efficiency. You are required to justify the selection of mud
formulation in fulfilling the objectives of this experiment.
Fracture Pressure Gradient Pore Pressure Gradient
Depth (ft) Formation
(ppg) (ppg)
2000 Sand 12 9.4
6000 Silty shale 15 11.5
8000 Limestone 16.8 14

(2) Measure and evaluate the characteristics of the drilling fluid prepared.

(3) Demonstrate your understanding on the given case study by justifying your mud program.

(4) Conduct a case study comparison based on your formulated mud program by displaying the plots and
tabulating the appropriate results.

(5) Demonstrate and present your experimental work in your comprehensive report.

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REFERENCES

[1] American Petroleum Institute, “Recommended Practice for Standard Procedure For Testing
Drilling Fluids (API RP 13B)”, Dallas, Texas
[2] Walker, R. E. 1964. Practical Oil Field Rheology. Houston, Texas: Spring Meeting of Southern
District Division of Production, API.
[3] Simpson, J. P. and H. V. Sanchez. 1965. Mud Technology Handbook. Houston, Texas: Baroid
Division National Lead Industries.
[4] Perkins, H. W. 1951. A Report on Oil Emulsion Drilling Fluids. Beaumont, Texas: API
Production Division.
[5] Cunningham, R. A. and W. C. Goins. 1957. Laboratory Drilling of Gulf Coast Shales. API
Drilling and Production Practice. Page 75.
[6] Lawhon, C. P. and J. P. Simpson. 1967. Laboratory Drilling Rate and Filtration Studies of
Emulsion Drilling Fluids. 3rd Conference of Drilling and Rock Mechanics. Texas: University of
Texas.
[7] Simpson, J. P., J. C. Cowan, and A. E. Beasley. 1961. The New Look in Oil Mud Technology.
Journal of Petroleum Technology. XIII: No. 12.
[8] Ophen, H. V. 1963. An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemistry. New York: Interscience Publisher.
[9] Rogers, W. F. 1963. Composition and Properties of Oil Well Drilling Fluids. Houston, Texas:
Gulf Publishing Company.
[10] Simpson, J. P. and H. V. Sanchez. 1963. Inhibited Drilling Fluids. Houston, Texas: Baroid
Division National Lead Industries.

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