Lab Manual - Drilling Engineering
Lab Manual - Drilling Engineering
EE047-3.5-2-DE
Drilling Engineering
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Table of Contents Page
1.0 Introduction 3
…………………………………………………………………………..
2.0 Experiment 3
3.0 Group Division 3
4.0 Laboratory Rules and Safety 3
5.0 Laboratory Report Writing 5
6.0 Report Distribution Marks 7
7.0 The Handling of Testing Apparatus 8
8.0 Experiment 1: The Characteristics of Bentonite 12
9.0 Experiment 2: Mud Weighting Materials 14
10.0 Experiment 3: Mud Thinner 17
11.0 Experiment 4: Filtration Control Agent 19
12.0 Experiment 5: Drilling Mud Contaminations 22
13.0 Experiment 6: Synthesis of Water-Based Mud (WBM) 23
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The ability of petroleum engineer to understand the functions, properties, apparatus and testing techniques,
classification, mixing, and treatment of the drilling mud, are the basic requisite in drilling engineering
practices. This hands-on laboratory implementation was prepared to give an exposure to imminent
petroleum engineer to types of drilling mud, testing apparatus, testing technique, and mud additives. With
active participation in this laboratory works, student will be able to acquire good understanding of
procedures and basic apparatus handling of drilling mud testing.
2.0 EXPERIMENT
On the first week, students will be taught on how to use some of the testing apparatus in Drilling
Engineering Laboratory. On the following weeks, students are required to do their own experiments as
follow:
(1) The Characteristics of Bentonite
(2) Mud Weighting Material
(3) Mud Thinner
(4) Filtration Control Agent
(5) Drilling Mud Contaminations
(6) Synthesis of Water-Based Mud (WBM)
3.0 GROUPS
Student in each section will be divided into several groups, which would consist 3 - 4 students. Section
supervisor/lecturer will arrange division of groups. Please consult your lecturer if you have any problem
with the group members.
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4.2 Safety Attire
(1) Students are required of wearing “lab coat” whilst conducting an experiment. Failure to
comply will cause students barred from doing any experiment.
(2) Ensure of wearing shoes and use appropriate safety appliances (e.g. safety glasses, heat
resistance glove, etc.) whilst conducting experiment due to most experiments involving
chemical usage, and high temperature and pressure handling.
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5.0 LABORATORY REPORT WRITING
Effective scientific report writing is one of the compulsory practices for every engineer and
scientist. In research, written matter should enable other person to know about the work and
important discovery that have been carryout. In the field of engineering, documentation is required
to follow-up study, support for new study, and provide information to publish. As such, student
must produce a well-defined documentation, simple, professional, following format, and have right
grammatical use.
All reports must be prepared using Microsoft Word as word processing software. Various other
supporting softwares such as Microsoft Excel, PowerPoint, Mathtype, Matematica, Matlab,
Statistica, AutoCad and others can be used in preparing tables, graphs, mathematical equations, and
pictures.
In this module, the purpose of report writing is to summarise the methodology used in the
experiment, evaluate or interpret the findings from the experiment, comparing the discovery of the
experiment to theoretical studies or results that acquired from earlier research published in journals
or from other sources, which have been validated.
The report should be written in English and should not exceed 15 pages including pictures, graphs,
and tables. However, the stated number is excluding appendices. Use font type Times New Roman,
size 12, with 1.5 line spacing. The format of the report should follow the arrangement below:
5.4 Introduction
Explanation of the background, objective and scope of the experiment has to be done in this part.
Introduction must done in stages, facilitate reader on the important of the experiment and it is
meaningful to read.
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5.6 Methodology
This part must contain complete information so that other reader can repeat the stated experiment,
but did not too elaborate as those occur in directive module experiment. State the important method
that has been done.
5.7 Results
This part must contain important data that are acquired, usually in tabular forms, graphs, and
pictures. Think the best means to present results of the study so that the objective of the study can
be achieved. Each table, graph, and picture must be numbered and associated with text. Make sure
that each graph axis is labeled properly. Information about the table or graph must clear.
Comparison between the experiment data with the theoretical data and the literature also could be
loaded in this part.
5.8 Discussions
This part comprises evaluation and interpretation of results, including the validity of evaluation and
the accuracy (error analysis) of the results. In the discussion, citation must take into account on the
question how, why etc. However, discussion should follow or approaching theory. (Note: Results
and discussions can be combined).
5.9 Conclusion
This part must contain important summary from the results and discussions. In fact, conclusion is
also a general statement about how and where the experiment you doing can be applied.
5.10 Suggestion
This part should consist idea or proposal which lies against theoretical and logical which could be
implemented to reduce error. In other words, this move can improve the outcome of the experiment
those carried out.
5.11 References
All references, which are quote from journals, books, standards, and laboratory manuals, have to
be listed in the references section. Reference writing system should follow UTM thesis
documentation format. Students are required to submit at least three main references related to the
experiment conducted.
5.12 Appendices
This part consist detailed analysis of the experiment, which includes raw data, error analysis of
data, material physical properties, and detailed example of calculations, figures and pictures, which
are not primary but are required to explain the content of the report.
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6.0 Report distribution of marks is as follows:
Marks
Contents
(%)
Ability to Practice Professional Behavior 10
Report Format 10
Introduction and Objective 10
Laboratory Procedure 20
Experimental Results 20
Discussion and Analysis 20
Conclusion 10
Total 100
7.3 Theory
The main purpose of drilling mud testing is to test the mud properties according to the standard
procedures. (please refer to American Petroleum Institute, “Recommended Practice for Standard
Procedure For Testing Drilling Fluids (API RP 13B)”, Dallas, Texas). The mud properties which
are required to determine are:
(1) Mud density (ppg)
(2) Plastic viscosity (cp)
(3) Apparent viscosity (cp)
(4) Yield point (lb/100ft2)
(5) Gel strength (10 seconds and 10 minutes)
(6) pH
(7) Filtration (cc) for 30 minutes
(8) Mud cake thickness ( /32 in.).
(9) Mud resistivity (ohm-meter)
For calculation and mud preparation purposes, the following conversion factors can be use:
1 bbl = 42 gal
1 gm/350 cc = 1 lb/bbl
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7.4 Mud Preparation
7.4.1 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Graduated cylinder
(3) Mud balance
7.4.2 Consumable Materials
(1) Fresh water
(2) Bentonite
7.4.3 Procedures
(1) To prepare 25 ppb bentonite mud, weigh 25 g of bentonite powder.
(2) Measure 350 cc (ml or cm3) of fresh water using graduated cylinder and fill in in the blender
container.
(3) Place the container on the the blender and turn on the stirrer.
(4) Put the bentonite bit by bit in the blender while stirring.
(5) Stir thoroughly for 15 minutes.
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7.6 Plastic and Apparent Viscosities, Yield Point, and Gel Strength
7.6.1 Apparatus
(1) Rheometer
(2) Stop watch
(3) Thermometer
7.6.2 Consumable Materials
(1) Mud sample
7.6.3 Procedures
(1) Place a mud sample in container and immerse the rotor sleeve, exactly to the scribe line.
Measurements in the field should be made with minimum delay (within five minutes, if
possible) and at a temperature as near as practical to that of the mud at the place of sampling
(not to differ than 10 oF)).
(2) Record the temperature of the sample.
(3) With the sleeve rotating at 600 rpm (Φ600), wait for dial reading to reach a steady value
(the time required is dependent on the mud characteristics). Record the dial reading for 600
rpm.
(4) Shift to 300 rpm (Φ300) and wait for dial reading to reach steady value. Record the dial
reading for 300 rpm.
(5) To obtain plastic viscosity (μp), apparent viscosity (μa), and yield point (Yb), use the
relationships below:
Plastic Viscosity (cP) μp = (Φ600) – Φ300
Apparent Viscosity (cP) μa = Φ600/2
Yield Point (lb/100ft2) Yb = Φ300 - μp
(6) Stir drilling fluid sample for 10 seconds at high speed.
(7) Allow mud to stand undisturbed for 10 seconds. Slowly and stedily turn the hand-wheel in
the direction to produce a positive dial reading. The maximum reading is the initial gel
strength. For instruments having a 3 rpm speed, the maximum reading attained after
starting rotation at 3 rpm is the initial gel strength. Record the initial gel strength (10 sec
gel) in lb/100ft2 (Pa).
(8) Restir the mud at high speed for 10 seconds and then allow the mud to stand undisturbed
for 10 minutes. Start the rotation at 3 rpm and report the maximum reading as 10 minutes
gel in lb/100ft2 (Pa).
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7.7.3 Procedures
(1) Be sure each part of the cell, particularly the screen, is clean and dry, and that the gasket
are not distorted of worn. Assemble the mud cell in the order of base cap, rubber gasket,
screen, filter paper, rubber gasket, and top cap. Tighten the base cap of the cell.
(2) Pour the mud sample into the cell to within 1/2 inch to top. Tighten the top cap of the cell
and mount it on the frame.
(3) Place a dry graduated cylinder under the drain tube to receive the filtrate.
(4) Close the relief valve and adjust the regulator so that a pressure of 100 psi is applied in 30
seconds or less.
(5) Open the pressure relief valve and begins to record filtrate volume against time.
(recommendation: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes).
(6) At the end of 30 minutes, measure the volume of filtrate. Shut off the flow through the
pressure regulator and open the relief valve carefully.
(7) Report the volume of filtrate in cubic centimeters (to 0.1 cc) as the API filtrate, and the
initial mud tempearure in oF. Save the filtrate for appropriate chemical and resistivity
testing.
(8) Remove the cell from the frame, first making certain that all pressure has been relieved.
Using extreme care to save the filter paper with a minimum of disturbance to the cake,
disassemble the cell and discard the mud.
(9) Measure and report the thickness of the filter cake, using vernier caliper, to the nearest 1/32
inch.
(10) Although cake descriptions are subjective, such notations as hard, soft, tough, rubbery,
firm, etc., may convey important information of cake quality.
(11) Plot graph of filtrate volume against time.
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8.0 EXPERIMENT 1: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BENTONITE
8.1 Objective
In this laboratory exercise, you will be studying the characteristics of bentonite in drilling fluids.
8.3 Theory
Water based drilling fluids commonly contains several types of bentonite. Some are purposely
added to the drilling fluids to build up certain properties of the drilling fluid. While some are added
to the drilling fluids as drilled cuttings as bentonite from the drilled formations.
The commonly occurring bentonites in drilled cuttings are montmorillonite, illite and kaolinite.
While bentonite purposely added to drilling fluids are bentonite and attapulgite.
Bentonite is added to the drilling fluids with the purpose for increasing the viscosity and gel
strength. The resulting minds are able to act as proper the hydrostatic column and increase the
carrying capacity of the mud. The resulting muds will also be able to increase its filtration properties
and mud cake forming capacity.
Attapulgite added to the muds will also function to increase the viscosity and gel strength. But
attapulgite do not have the capability to increase the mud filtration properties and the corresponding
mud cake forming capacity. Attapulgite are used for specific cases.
8.4 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Mud balance
(3) Rheometer
(4) Thermometer
(5) Filter press
(6) Graduated cylinder
(7) pH meter / pH paper
(8) Aging cell
(9) Rotating oven
(10) Vernier caliper
8.5 Consumable Materials
(1) Bentonite
(2) Soda ash
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8.6 Procedures
(1) Construct a basic mud as drilling fluid.
(2) Measure and evaluate the characteristics of the drilling fluid prepared.
(4) Demonstrate and present your experimental work in your comprehensive report.
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9.0 EXPERIMENT 2: MUD WEIGHTING MATERIALS
9.1 Objective
In this laboratory exercise, you will be studying the effect of weighting material on mud properties.
9.3 Theory
Among the functions of mud is to give sufficient hydrostatic pressure to prevent the entry of gas,
oil and formation water into the wellbore. The pressure gradient of fresh water is 0.433 psi/ft.
Therefore, at 10,000 ft, the pressure will be 4,330 psi. If the formation pressure at 10,000 ft is higher
than 4,330 psi, the hydrostatic pressure of fresh water must be increased. The additional pressure
may be achieve by adding the suspended solids and/or dissolved materials in the water.
The dissolved salts such as NaCl, CaCl2, KCl, Na2(CO3) may be used to prepare high density
solutions. However, these solutions are sometimes not compatible with most of the materials used
to prepare the mud and can also cause corrosion.
The other alternative is to add the solid materials in the mud. These solids can be a clay, drilled
solids, barite, hematite, etc. Clay and drilled solids will give high viscosity with limited density
value. Drilled solids are sometimes corrosive. In order to get higher mud density (> 11.5 ppg) and
lower viscosity, the clay content should be kept to the minimum. Therefore, barite is widely used
to increase the mud density.
Chemically, barite is barium sulphate (BaSO4). Barite has a specific gravity between 4.2 to 4.3
(specific gravity of water = 1 and clay = 2.5). Barite is not dissolve in the mud and has no chemical
reaction with clay or dissolved salts. In other word, it is inert material.
In order to get the desired mud density, the amount of barite that will be added must be determined.
An increased of the mud volume due to additional barite must also be calculated. The amount of
barite required can be determined by the following principle:
“If two materials with different densities were mixed, then the density of the mixture will be the
function of the quantity of the components from the mixture.”
To increase the mud density using barite, the following relationship can be obtained:
i Vi + b Vb = f Vf
ta
where,
Vi = Initial mud volume, bbl
Vb = Volume of barite, bbl
ρi = Initial mud density, ppg
ρf = Final mud density, ppg
ρb = Density of barite (35.4 ppg)
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The equation can be rearranged as follows:
Vi ( f − i )
Vb =
b − f
During drilling operation, we sometimes need to reduce the mud density due to lost circulation,
encounter low formation pressure, etc. By reducing the mud density, the lost of mud can be
overcome.
Therefore, we need to add some water to get the desired mud density (lower density). The following
equation can be used to determine the amount of water that can be added:
i Vi + w Vw = f (Vi + Vw )
where,
Vi = Initial mud volume
Vw = Volume of water
ρ1 = Initial mud density, ppg
ρf = Final mud density, ppg
ρw = Water density (8.33 ppg)
9.4 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Mud balance
(3) Rheometer
(4) Thermometer
(5) Filter press
(6) Graduated cylinder
(7) pH meter / pH paper
(8) Resistivity meter
(9) Vernier caliper
9.5 Consumable Materials
(1) Bentonite 15ppb
(2) Barite 10gr + bentonite
(3) Barite 25gr + bentonite
9.6 Procedures
(1) Construct a basic mud as drilling fluid.
(2) Measure the amount of weighting material needed to increase the mud density by 2.5ppg.
(3) Measure and evaluate the characteristics of the drilling fluid prepared.
(4) Display the plots and tabulate the appropriate results with comparison to Experiment 1.
(5) Demonstrate and present your experimental work in your comprehensive report.
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10.0 EXPERIMENT 3: MUD THINNER
10.1 Objective
To study the effect of mud thinner on mud viscosity.
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10.4 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Mud balance
(3) Rheometer
(4) Thermometer
(5) Filter press
(6) Graduated cylinder
(7) pH meter / pH paper
(8) Resistivity meter
(9) Vernier caliper
10.5 Consumable Materials
(1) Bentonite
(2) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
(3) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or lime [Ca(OH)2] or soda ash
10.6 Procedures
(1) Using a basic mud prepared, stir thoroughly for 10 – 15 minutes for complete mixing. Test
the following mud properties:
a. Plastic viscosity (cp)
b. Apparent viscosity (cp)
c. Yield point (lb/100 sqft)
d. Gel strength (10 sec. and 10 min.)
e. pH
f. Filtration (cc) for 30 min.
g. Mud cake thickness ( /32 in.).
h. Mud resistivity (ohm-meter)
(2) Add 2 ppb of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or lime [Ca(OH)2] or soda ash into 350 ml of the
basic mud, mixed evenly for about 10 minutes and measures the mud properties as stated
in Procedure (1).
(3) Add 2 ppb of NaCl into 350 ml of the basic mud, mixed evenly for about 10 minutes and
measures the mud properties as stated in Procedure (1).
(4) Check the previous results of step 2 and 3 with basic mud (water + bentonite) results.
Note:
(1) If the pH value less than 7, add 0.5 g – 1 g of NaOH or lime [Ca(OH)2] or soda ash into mud.
(2) Add slowly (0.5 cc – 3 cc) deformer if foam exist.
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11.0 EXPERIMENT 4: FLUID LOSS CONTROL ADDITIVES
11.1 Objective
To study the properties of fluid loss control additives and its effect towards mud properties.
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By definition:
Vw
R=
Vs
Rearrange equation (1):
k 2 Rp.dt
Vw .dVw = ……………… (2)
Integrate equation (2):
Rpt
Vw = k ……………… (3)
From this equation, fluid lost is proportional to square root of time, mud cake thickness, pressure
different and inverse proportional towards filtrate viscosity. To calculate the fluid lost for a certain
period, the equation below is used:
t1
V2 = V1 ……………… (4)
t2
where,
V1 = Fluid lost at time t1, cc
V2 = Fluid lost at time t2, cc
Mud filtration test can be done at low pressure of 100 psi and at room temperature for a period of
30 minutes. High pressure high temperature test can be done at pressure different of 500 psi and
temperature up to 300 oF. There are many fluid lost control agents available and each of them has
their own advantage and disadvantage. Among the fluid loss control additives available are:
a. Bentonite
b. HEC (hydroxy-ethyl cellulose)
c. Sodium caboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)
d. Starch
e. Guar gum
f. Xanthan gum
11.4 Apparatus
(1) Mud mixer
(2) Mud balance
(3) Rheometer
(4) Thermometer
(5) Filter press
(6) Graduated cylinder
(7) pH meter / pH paper
(8) Resistivity meter
(9) Vernier caliper
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11.5 Consumable Materials
(1) Barite
(2) Bentonite
(3) Starch
(4) HEC (hydroxy-ethyl cellulose)
(5) CMC (sodium caboxymethyl cellulose)
(6) Guar gum
(7) Xanthan gum
11.6 Procedures
(1) Prepare a basic mud. Stir thoroughly for 10 – 15 minutes for complete mixing.
(2) Test the following mud properties:
a. Mud density (ppg)
b. Plastic viscosity (cp)
c. Apparent viscosity (cp)
d. Yield point (lb/100 sqft)
e. Gel strength (10 sec. and 10 min.)
f. pH
g. Filtration (cc) for 30 min.
h. Mud cake thickness ( /32 in.).
i. Mud resistivity (ohm-meter)
(3) Add 15 ppb bentonite to the 350 ml basic mud and mix evenly. Measures the mud
properties as stated in Procedure (2).
(4) Add 1 ppb starch to the 350 ml basic mud and mix evenly. Measures the mud properties as
stated in Procedure (2).
(5) Add 1 ppb CMC to the 350 ml basic mud and mix evenly. Measures the mud properties as
stated in Procedure (2).
(6) Add 1 ppb guar gum to the 350 ml basic mud and mix evenly. Measures the mud properties
as stated in Procedure (2).
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12.0 EXPERIMENT 5: DRILLING MUD CONTAMINATIONS
12.1 Objective
In this laboratory exercise, you will be studying the effects of mud contaminations on the properties of
water-based mud and the effectiveness of treating material.
12.3 Theory
Salt contaminations on drilling mud occurred whilst drilling operation take place. Soluble salt,
which always encountered during drilling, completion and workover jobs, can be divided into two
groups, which are monovalens and divalens. The monovalens salt that always encountered is NaCl,
and sometimes, in certain area, KCl can also be found.
The most common divalens salts are CaSO4, CaCl2, MgSO4, and MgCl2. These salts can alter the
original properties of drilling mud when they are mixed. To bring back the required properties of
the mud, treatment has to be done by using certain material.
12.4 Apparatus
a. Mud mixer
b. Mud balance
c. Rheometer
d. Thermometer
e. Filter press
f. Graduated cylinder
g. pH meter / pH paper
h. Resistivity meter
i. Thermometer
j. Vernier caliper
12.5 Procedures
(1) Construct a basic mud as drilling fluid as experiment 2.
(3) Measure and evaluate the characteristics of the drilling mud prepared.
(4) Display the plots and tabulate the appropriate results with a comparison to experiment 1.
(5) Demonstrate and present your experimental work in your comprehensive report.
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CHLORIDE CONTENT METHOD
1. Pipette 1 ml of sample into the titration dish and dilute to 40 or 50 ml with distilled water.
2. Add four or five drop of potassium chromate indicator solution.
3. Add standard silver nitrate solution from an automatic burette or apipette dropwise, continuously while
stirring, until the sample just turns from yellow to orange or brick red.
4. The number of ml standard silver nitrate used to obtain this end point multiplied by 10,000 for 0.01 g
silver nitrate solution, or by 1000 for 0.001 g silver nitrate equal parts per million (ppm) chloride (Cl) ion.
SULFATE ESTIMATION
1. Measure 2 ml of filtrate or water sample into a clean test tube and add a few drops of Fann Sulfate
Indicator solution.
2. Shake well and let stand two minutes.
3. Judge the quantity of precipitate formed and estimate the sulfate ion according to the following
table;
Translucent white suspension: 0 -10 epm sulfate ion
Milk white suspension : 0- 10 epm sulfate ion
Heavy white suspension : above 20+ epm sulfate ion
4. Sample can be diluted with distilled water for a more accurate estimation when the concentration
Exceeds 20 epm sulfate ion.
7. More or less sample can be used to obtaina titration between 1 and 10 ml in which case the
answer obtained in Step 6 should be divided by the ml of sample used.
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13.0 EXPERIMENT 6: SYNTHESIS OF WATER-BASED MUD
13.1 Objective
In this laboratory exercise, you will be synthesizing water-based mud (WBM) to improve drilling efficiency.
13.3 Theory
Many different types of water-based mud are used in drilling operations. Basic drilling fluid systems are usually
converted to more complex systems as a well is deepened and the wellbore temperature and/or pressure
increases. Several key factors affect the selection of drilling fluid systems for a specific condition. The most
favorable drilling fluid for a well or interval should be based on the criteria as such;
• Performance-inhibition, rheology, fluid loss and temperature
• Environment-damage to the environment should be avoided
• Safety-to all personnel
• Average cost
13.4 Instructions
(1) Demonstrate your understanding of the case study below by formulating an experimental mud program
(WBM) in improving drilling efficiency. You are required to justify the selection of mud formulation
in fulfilling the objectives of this experiment.
Fracture Pressure Gradient Pore Pressure Gradient
Depth (ft) Formation
(ppg) (ppg)
2000 Sand 12 9.4
6000 Silty shale 15 11.5
8000 Limestone 16.8 14
(2) Measure and evaluate the characteristics of the drilling fluid prepared.
(3) Demonstrate your understanding on the given case study by justifying your mud program.
(4) Conduct a case study comparison based on your formulated mud program by displaying the plots and
tabulating the appropriate results.
(5) Demonstrate and present your experimental work in your comprehensive report.
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REFERENCES
[1] American Petroleum Institute, “Recommended Practice for Standard Procedure For Testing
Drilling Fluids (API RP 13B)”, Dallas, Texas
[2] Walker, R. E. 1964. Practical Oil Field Rheology. Houston, Texas: Spring Meeting of Southern
District Division of Production, API.
[3] Simpson, J. P. and H. V. Sanchez. 1965. Mud Technology Handbook. Houston, Texas: Baroid
Division National Lead Industries.
[4] Perkins, H. W. 1951. A Report on Oil Emulsion Drilling Fluids. Beaumont, Texas: API Production
Division.
[5] Cunningham, R. A. and W. C. Goins. 1957. Laboratory Drilling of Gulf Coast Shales. API Drilling
and Production Practice. Page 75.
[6] Lawhon, C. P. and J. P. Simpson. 1967. Laboratory Drilling Rate and Filtration Studies of Emulsion
Drilling Fluids. 3rd Conference of Drilling and Rock Mechanics. Texas: University of Texas.
[7] Simpson, J. P., J. C. Cowan, and A. E. Beasley. 1961. The New Look in Oil Mud Technology.
Journal of Petroleum Technology. XIII: No. 12.
[8] Ophen, H. V. 1963. An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemistry. New York: Interscience Publisher.
[9] Rogers, W. F. 1963. Composition and Properties of Oil Well Drilling Fluids. Houston, Texas: Gulf
Publishing Company.
[10] Simpson, J. P. and H. V. Sanchez. 1963. Inhibited Drilling Fluids. Houston, Texas: Baroid Division
National Lead Industries.
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