Chapter 3

Molecules, Moles, and Chemical

Equations

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not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chemical Formulas and Equations (1 of 2)

• Chemical formulas provide a concise way to represent chemical compounds

• A chemical equation builds upon chemical formulas to concisely represent a
chemical reaction

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Chemical Formulas and Equations (2 of 2)

• Chemical equations represent the transformation of one or more chemical

species into new substances
• Reactants are the original materials and are written on the left-hand side of the
equation
• Products are the newly formed compounds and are written on the right-hand side
of the equation

Reactants → Products

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Writing Chemical Equations (1 of 2)

• Chemical formulas represent reactants and products

• Phase labels follow each formula
• Solid = (s)
• Liquid = (l)
• Gas = (g)
• Aqueous = (aq)
• Substance dissolved in water
• Some reactions require an additional symbol placed over the reaction arrow to
specify reaction conditions
• Thermal reactions: Heat (Δ)
• Photochemical reactions: Light (hν)
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Writing Chemical Equations (2 of 2)

Different representations for the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to

produce water
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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Balancing Chemical Equations (1 of 4)

• The law of conservation of matter states that matter is neither created nor
destroyed
• Chemical reactions must obey the law of conservation of matter
• The same number of atoms for each element must occur on both sides of the
chemical equation
• A chemical reaction simply rearranges the atoms present into different molecules

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Balancing Chemical Equations (2 of 4)

Balanced chemical equation for the combustion of methane

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Balancing Chemical Equations (3 of 4)

• Chemical equations may be balanced via inspection, which really means by

trial and error
• Numbers used to balance chemical equations are called stoichiometric
coefficients
• The stoichiometric coefficient multiplies the number of atoms of each element in the
formula unit of the compound that it precedes
• Stoichiometry refers to the various quantitative relationships between reactants
and products

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Balancing Chemical Equations (4 of 4)

• Pay attention to the following when

balancing chemical equations:
• Do not change species
• Do not use fractions because we cannot
have half a molecule
• Make sure you have the same number of
atoms of each element on both sides

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Example Problem 3.1

• Write a balanced chemical equation describing the reaction between

propane, C3H8, and oxygen, O2, to form carbon dioxide and water

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Join In, 3

When this equation is balanced with the smallest whole number coefficients,
what is the coefficient of oxygen?
C3H7OH + Ο 2 → CO2 + H2O

• 4
• 5
• 6
• 9

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Aqueous Solutions and Net Ionic Equations

• Reactions that occur in water are said to take place in aqueous solution
• Solution: Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
• Solvent: Solution component present in greatest amount
• Solute: Solution component present in lesser amount
• The preparation of a solution is a common way to enable two solids to make contact
with one another

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Solutions, Solvents, and Solutes (1 of 7)

• Concentration is a key piece of information for solutions

• Concentration is the relative amounts of solute and solvent
• Solutions are concentrated if many solute particles are present
• Solutions are dilute if few solute particles are present

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Join In, 5

How many grams of solute are present in 3.21 L of 0.037 MKNO3?

• 0.119 g
• 5.23 g
• 12.0 g

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Solutions, Solvents, and Solutes (2 of 7)

Solution preparation
• Solid CuSO4, the solute, is transferred to
a flask
• Water, the solvent, is added
• The flask is shaken to speed the
dissolution process
• Two CuSO4 solutions of different
concentrations are shown
• Solution on the left is more concentrated,
as seen from its darker color

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Solutions, Solvents, and Solutes (3 of 7)

• Compounds can be characterized by their solubility

• Soluble compounds dissolve readily in water
• Insoluble compounds do not dissolve readily in water
• Solubility can be predicted using solubility rules

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Solutions, Solvents, and Solutes (4 of 7)

Solubility guidelines for soluble salts

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Solutions, Solvents, and Solutes (5 of 7)

Solubility guidelines for soluble salts

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Solutions, Solvents, and Solutes (6 of 7)

• Electrolytes are soluble compounds that conduct electricity when dissolved in

water
• Weak electrolytes dissociate partially into ions in solution
• Strong electrolytes dissociate completely into ions in solution
• Nonelectrolytes are substances whose solutions do not conduct electricity

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Solutions, Solvents, and Solutes (7 of 7)

• Sugar, a nonelectrolyte, does not conduct electricity when dissolved in water

• Acetic acid, a weak electrolyte, weakly conducts electricity when dissolved in
water
• Potassium chromate, a strong electrolyte, strongly conducts electricity when
dissolved in water
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Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions (1 of 5)

• When a covalently bonded material dissolves in water and the molecules

remain intact, they do not conduct explicitly
• These compounds are nonelectrolytes

C6H12O6 (s) 
→ C6H12O6 (aq)
• The water molecules are not shown explicitly, although their presence is
indicated by the “(aq)” labels on the product side

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Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions (2 of 5)

• Dissociation reaction occurs when ionic solids dissolve in water and break
into their constituent ions
• These compounds conduct electricity and are electrolytes

NaCl (s) 
→ Na + (aq) + Cl− (aq)

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Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions (3 of 5)

• Aqueous chemical reactions can be written as a molecular equation, which

shows the complete formula for each compound
• Note that all of the species may not be molecules

HNO3 (aq) + NH3 (g) 

→ NH4NO3 (aq)

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Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions (4 of 5)

• Dissociation of reactants and products is emphasized by writing a total ionic

equation

H+ (aq) + NO3 − (aq) + NH3 (g) 

→ NH+4 (aq) + NO3 − (aq)

• Note: HNO3 is a strong acid and thus dissociates completely, whereas NH3 does
not dissociate

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Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions (5 of 5)

• Spectator ions are ions uninvolved in the chemical reaction

• When spectator ions are removed, the result is a net ionic equation
• Total ionic equation

→ NH+4 (aq) + NO3 − (aq)

H+ (aq) + NO3 − (aq) + NH3 (g) 
• Net ionic equation

H+ (aq) + NH3 (g) 

→ NH+4 (aq)
Spectator ion = NO3−

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Acid–Base Reactions (1 of 6)

• Acids are substances that dissolve in water to produce H+ or H3O+ ions

• Examples: HCl, HNO3, H3PO4, HCN
• Bases are substances that dissolve in water to produce OH– ions
• Examples: NaOH, Ca(OH)2, NH3

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Acid–Base Reactions (2 of 6)

• Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in water

HCl(g) + H2O() 
→ H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
NaOH(s) 
→ Na + (aq) + OH− (aq)

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Acid–Base Reactions (3 of 6)

All common strong acids and bases

Strong Acids Strong Acids Strong Bases Strong Bases

HCl Hydrochloric acid LiOH Lithium hydroxide
HNO3 Nitric acid NaOH Sodium hydroxide
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid KOH Potassium hydroxide
HClO4 Perchloric acid Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
HBr Hydrobromic acid Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
HI Hydroiodic acid Sr(OH)2 Strontium hydroxide

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Acid–Base Reactions (4 of 6)

• Weak acids and bases partially dissociate in water

• Notice the two-way arrow, which emphasizes that the reaction does not proceed
completely from left to right


CH3COOH(aq) + H2O() ← →
 3 H O +
(aq) + CH3COO −
(aq)

NH3 (aq) + H2O() ←→
 NH +
4 (aq) + OH −
(aq)

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Acid–Base Reactions (5 of 6)

• Some common weak acids and bases

Weak Acids Weak Acids Weak Bases Weak Bases

H3 PO4 Phosphoric acid NH3 Ammonia
HF Hydrofluoric acid CH3NH2 Methylamine
CH3COOH Acetic acid
HCN Hydrocyanic acid

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Acid–Base Reactions (6 of 6)

• Mixing an acid and a base leads to a reaction known as neutralization, in

which the resulting solution is neither acidic nor basic
• Net ionic equation for neutralization of strong acid and strong base

H3O+ (aq) + OH− (aq) 

→ 2H2O()

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example Problem 3.3

• When aqueous solutions of acetic acid and potassium hydroxide are

combined, a neutralization reaction will occur
• Write the following equations:
• Molecular
• Total ionic
• Net ionic

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Precipitation Reactions (1 of 2)

• A precipitation reaction is an aqueous reaction that produces a solid, called

the precipitate
• Net ionic reaction for the precipitation of lead(II) iodide

Pb2+ (aq) + 2I− (aq) 

→ PbI2 (s)

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Precipitation Reactions (2 of 2)

• Precipitation reaction between aqueous solutions of KI and Pb(NO3)2,

which are both colorless
• The bright yellow solid, PbI2, is produced
• PbI2 is insoluble as predicted by the solubility guidelines

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example Problem 3.4

• When aqueous sodium carbonate and barium chloride are combined, the
solution becomes cloudy white with solid barium carbonate
• Write the following equations:
• Molecular
• Total ionic
• Net ionic

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Interpreting Equations and the Mole

• Chemical equations are interpreted on the microscopic and macroscopic

level
• Microscopic interpretation visualizes reactions between individual molecules
• Macroscopic interpretation visualizes reactions between bulk quantities

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Interpreting Chemical Equations

• Balanced chemical reactions provide stoichiometric ratios between

reactants and products
• Ratios relate relative numbers of particles

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 

→ 2H2O(g)

• Two molecules of H2 react with one molecule of O2 to form two molecules

of H2O
• 20 molecules of H2 react with 10 molecules of O2 to form 20 molecules of
H2O

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Avogadro’s Number and the Mole (1 of 3)

• A mole is a means of counting the large number of particles in samples

• One mole is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of 12
C or carbon-12
• This number is also referred to as Avogadro’s number, and its value is
6.022 × 1023 particles/mole
• The mass of 6.022 × 1023 atoms of any element is the molar mass of that element

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Avogadro’s Number and the Mole (2 of 3)

• One mole samples of various elements are shown

• All have the same number of particles

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Avogadro’s Number and the Mole (3 of 3)

• Balanced chemical reactions also provide mole ratios between reactants and
products
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 
→ 2H2O(g)
• 2 moles of H2 and 1 mole of O2 react to form 2 moles of H2O

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Determining Molar Mass

• The molar mass of a compound is the sum of the molar masses of all the
atoms in a compound

 1.0 g H   16.0 g 
 2 mol H × 1 mol H  +  1 mol O × 1 mol O 
   
= 18.0 g/mol H2O

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Join In, 10

Which compound has the largest molar mass?

• Sodium nitrate
• Potassium hydroxide
• Sodium carbonate

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example Problem 3.5

• Determine the molar mass of each of the following compounds, all of which
are used as fertilizers for the production of biomass:
• Calcium sulfate, CaSO4
• Urea, CO(NH2)2
• Carnallite, H12Cl3KMgO6

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Calculations Using Moles and Molar Mass (1 of 2)

• Molar mass allows conversion from mass to the number of moles, much like a
unit conversion
• 1 mol C7H5N3O6 = 227.133 g C7H5N3O6

1 mol C 7 H5N3O6
300.0 g C 7 H5N3O6 ×
227.133 g C 7 H5N3O6
= 1.320 mol C 7 H5N3O6

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Calculations Using Moles and Molar Mass (2 of 2)

• Avogadro’s number functions much like a unit conversion between moles to

the number of particles
• 1 mol C7H5=
N3O6 6.022 × 1023 C7H5N3O6molecules
• How many molecules are in 1.320 moles of nitroglycerin?

6.022 × 1023 molecules C 7 H5N3O6

1.320 mol C 7 H5N3O6 ×
1 mol C 7 H5N3O6
= 7.949 × 1023 molecules C 7 H5N3O6

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Example Problem 3.6

• A 245.3-g sample of glutamic acid, C5H9NO4, is recovered from an

experiment using fermentation to convert biomass
• How many moles of C5H9NO4 are in this sample?
• How many molecules are in this sample?

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example Problem 3.7

• One important feedstock molecule that can be derived from biomass is 2-

propanol, C3H7OH. If 423 moles of the compound are needed for a reaction,
how many pounds of C3H7OH should be used?

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Join In, 11

Which sample has more molecules?

• 341 g SO3
• 10.2 g H2O
• 207 g NaCl

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Join In, 12

What volume of 9.0 M HCl(aq) is needed initially to produce 2.5 L of 0.20 M

solution?
• 0.055 mL
• 0.72 mL
• 4.5 mL
• 55 mL

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Elemental Analysis: Determining Empirical and
Molecular Formulas (1 of 3)
• Empirical formulas can be determined from an elemental analysis
• An elemental analysis measures the mass percentage of each element in a
compound
• The formula describes the composition in terms of the number of atoms of each
element
• The molar masses of the elements provide the connection between the elemental
analysis and the formula

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Elemental Analysis: Determining Empirical and
Molecular Formulas (2 of 3)
• Assume a 100-gram sample size
• Percentage element multiplied by sample size equals mass element in
compound
• Example: 16% carbon equals 16 g carbon
• Convert mass of each element to moles using the molar mass
• Divide by the smallest number of moles to get the mole-to-mole ratio for the
empirical formula
• When division by the smallest number of moles results in small rational
fractions, multiply all ratios by an appropriate integer to give whole numbers
• 2.5 × 2 = 5, 1.33 × 3 = 4, etc.

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Example Problem 3.8

• Nitroaniline had been observed in experiments on biomass from pine

needles and can be used as a precursor for pharmaceuticals
• It contains 52.17% carbon, 4.38% hydrogen, 20.28% nitrogen, and 23.17%
oxygen by mass
• Determine the empirical formula of nitroaniline

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Elemental Analysis: Determining Empirical and
Molecular Formulas (3 of 3)
• A molecular formula is a whole number multiple of the empirical formula
• Molar mass for the molecular formula is a whole number multiple of the molar
mass for the empirical formula
• If the empirical formula of a compound is CH2 and its molar mass is 42 g/mol,
what is its molecular formula?

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example Problem 3.9

• An alloy contains 70.8 mol % palladium and 29.2 mol % nickel

• Express the composition of this alloy as weight percentage or wt %

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Molarity

• Molarity or molar concentration, M, is the number of moles of solute per liter

of solution
• Provides relationship among molarity, moles of solute, and liters of solution

moles of solute
Molarity(M ) =
liter of solution

• If we know any two of these quantities, we can determine the third one

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Example Problem 3.10

• A solution is prepared by dissolving 45.0 g of NaClO in enough water to

produce exactly 750 mL of solution
• What is the molarity of this solution?

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Dilution

• Dilution is the process in which solvent is added to a solution to decrease the

concentration of the solute
• The number of moles of solute is the same before and after dilution
• Since the number of moles of solute equals the product of molarity and volume,
we can write the following equation, where the subscripts denote initial and final
values

Mi × Vi = M f × Vf

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Example Problem 3.11

• A chemist requires 1.5 M hydrochloric acid, HCl, for a series of reactions.

The only solution available is 6.0 M HCl.
• What volume of 6.0 M HCl must be diluted to obtain 5.0 L of 1.5 M HCl?

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be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.