Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Lecture 6

Exoplanet Detection
with Radial Velocities

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Exoplanet Detection Rate

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Outline

1.  Introduction
2.  Radial Velocity Detection
3.  Exoplanet Properties from Radial Velocities
4.  Transits
5.  Exoplanet Atmospheres
6.  The Future

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 3

 What is a Planet?

www.solarviews.org/cap/misc/solarsystem.htm

•  <13 Jupiter masses (no nuclear fusion), orbits star

•  Same for exoplanets and solar system planets
•  Earth-like: Earth-mass, -density, -temperature
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection
 Planet vs. Star

Jupiter Brown Dwarf Sun

Solar 0.1 0.2 1

Diameters

Jupiter 1 55 1000
Masses

Convection partial full outer 30%

Fusion none deuterium hydrogen

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 5

 Detection vs. Characterization
Detection:
•  Detect presence of exoplanet around a star
•  Determine mass to distinguish from brown dwarfs
•  Determine orbit around star

Characterization:
•  Determine radius
•  Determine surface properties
•  Determine atmosphere properties

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 6

 Main Exoplanet Detection Methods
•  Radial velocity (stellar wobble):
•  period
•  semi-major axis
•  eccentricity
•  lower limit to mass

•  Transits (stellar occultation):
•  period
•  semi-major axis
•  inclination
•  radius
•  planet temperature
•  planet atmosphere
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 8
 Spectral Lines in the Solar Spectrum

www.noao.edu/image_gallery/images/d5/suny.jpg
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 9
 Radial Velocity

•  Star, planet move around common center of mass

•  Doppler effect moves spectral lines
•  Look for periodic variations in stellar velocity
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection
 Radial Velocity Signal

Semi-amplitude of radial velocity given by

! " 13
2πG MP sin i 1
K= 2 √
Porb (M∗ + MP ) 3 1 − e2
•  Porb: orbital period
•  M*: mass of star
•  MP: mass of planet
•  i: inclination, angle between normal to orbital
plane and line of sight
•  e: excentricity
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 11
 Radial Velocity Signal

For circular orbits with MP << M* in meter/second:


 MP sin i
vobs = 28.4 1/3 2/3
Porb M∗
•  MP in Jupiter masses
•  Porb in years
•  M* in solar masses

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 12

 Radial Velocity Signal Amplitude
! " 13
2πG MP sin i 1
K= 2 √
Porb (M∗ + MP ) 3 1 − e2

•  Observe: period, velocity amplitude and shape

•  Stellar mass unknown, but good estimate from
stellar spectrum
•  Jupiter: 12.4 m/s maximum velocity
•  Saturn: 2.8 m/s
•  Earth: 9 cm/s
•  Heavier stars reduce the signal
•  Lighter stars increase the signal
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 13
 Spectrometer

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrasolar_planet

•  Wavelength cannot be measured directly

•  Spectrograph transforms wavelength into position
information
•  Must measure spatial location of spectral lines
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 14
 Positional Stability Requirement

•  Visible spectrum: ~ 500 nm

•  Typical high-resolution spectrograph: 0.005 nm
per camera pixel
•  One pixel in velocity: 3*108m/s/105 = 3000 m/s
•  Typical CCD camera pixel size: 15 μm
•  1 m/s is 15000/3000 nm = 5 nm
•  Need to keep this stability over years
•  1-meter aluminum bar expands 24 μm per deg C

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 15

 HARPS

obswww.unige.ch/Instruments/Harps/
gallery/Integration_LSO/

•  Velocity noise 0.7 - 2 m/s over many years

•  Thorium-Argon calibration source simultaneous
with stellar spectrum
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 16
 HARPS Polarimeter

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 17

 Example 1: 51 Pegasi b

Mayor and Queloz 1995 Figure 4

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 18
 Example 2: e=0

Butler et al. 2006, ApJ, 646, 505

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 19
 Example 3: e=0.5

Butler et al. 2006, ApJ, 646, 505

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 20
 Multiple Planets: One-Planet Fit

exoplanets.org/esp/55cnc/55cnc.shtml
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 21
 Multiple Planets: Two-Planet Fit

exoplanets.org/esp/55cnc/55cnc.shtml
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 22
 Multiple Planets: Three-Planet Fit

exoplanets.org/esp/55cnc/55cnc.shtml

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 23

 Radial Velocity Observables

•  Period
•  Lower limit to mass: (MP sin i)
•  Eccentricity of orbit

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 24

 Problems with Radial velocity

•  Correction of earth orbital motion (up to 30 km/s)

and earth rotation (0.5 km/s)
•  Period analysis (see Lecture on Periodicity)
•  Only good for cool stars such as the Sun
•  Hot stars (O,B,A) do not have enough narrow,
spectral lines
•  Stellar rotation, starspots, oscillations, convection
impact Doppler signal

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 25

 Radial Velocity Limits

MP sin i
vobs = 28.4 1/3 2/3
Porb M∗

•  Kepler’s 3rd law: Porb1/3 ~ a1/2/M*1/6

•  Limit given by MP sin i ~ a1/2
•  Need to observe at least one full orbit
•  Detection limit proportional to a1/2

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 26

 Problems with Statistics

•  Selection effects:
•  some aspects of observed distributions are
inconsistent with real population of exoplanets
•  depend on exoplanet detection approach
•  Mass is mostly a lower limit to real mass

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 27

 Exoplanet Orbital Distances

Compared to Earth and Mercury

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Exoplanet Masses & Lower Limits

Compared to Jupiter and Earth

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Mass Distribution Interpretation

•  Low end of mass distribution:

•  Heavily affected by selection
•  low-mass planets induce small velocity
variations, difficult to detect, underrepresented
•  High end of mass distribution:
•  Massive planets easier to detect
•  Apparent decrease for M > 3MJ real
•  Apparent decrease for M >12MJ real,
‘‘brown dwarf desert’’
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 30
 Exoplanet Masses and Orbits

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Exoplanet Eccentricities

Mercury

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 32

 Eccentricity

•  Exoplanets within 0.1 AU on nearly circular orbits

•  Beyond 0.3 AU, distribution of eccentricities is
essentially uniform between 0 and 0.8
•  Radial velocity survey sensitivity not a strong
function of eccentricity for 0 < e < 0.7 and a < 3
AU

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 33

 Eccentricity

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 34

 Distance vs. Eccentricity

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 35

 Orbital Eccentricity Interpretation
•  Overestimation of eccentricity because of e > 0
•  Probably 30-40% have e < 0.05
•  For a<0.1 mostly circular orbits due to tidal
circularization
•  Large eccentricities for more distant exoplanets may
be due to
•  Perturbations by other planets
•  Resonances
•  Interactions with protoplanetary disk
•  No clear correlation between eccentricity and mass
•  But high-mass exoplanets (M sin i > 5MJ) have higher
median eccentricity than lower mass exoplanets
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 36
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 37
 Transits

•  Can use small

telescopes (<1 m
diameter)
•  Space missions
avoid problems
with Earth’s
atmosphere
•  Transit timing
variations may
reveal hidden
exoplanets sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=35225

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 38

 Mercury Transit 8 November 2006

sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/hotshots/2006_11_06/
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection
 Transit of Kepler 10b

0.017%

kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler10b/
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 40
 Transit Signals
•  Intensity signal

∆I
!
RP
"2 R*
 =
I R∗
RP
•  R* stellar radius
•  Rp planet radius
•  About 1% for Jupiter and Sun
•  Transit duration proportional to Porb1/3R*/M*1/3
•  Transit duration: also estimate of stellar radius
•  Intensity change then provides planetary radius
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 41
 Transit Observables

•  Period
•  Orbit inclination (i≈90°)
•  Planet radius
•  Planet temperature from secondary eclipse
•  Stellar limb darkening


•  Good for large planets close to the star

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 42

 Problems with Transits
•  Low probability, but simple observation
•  Many false positives:
•  Grazing eclipse from main-sequence star
•  Eclipsing binary (giant and main-sequence)
•  Eclipsing binary close by (foreground or background)

kepler.nasa.gov/files/mws/
aas2010-5nbFalsePositives.jpg
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 43
 Kepler Object of Interest 106
•  Eclipsing
binary in
background
•  Odd and
even
transits are
different

Batalha et al. 2010

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 44
 Kepler Exoplanet Candidates

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Problems with Transits
PLANETS

TARGET EB

BAKCGROUND EB
NUMBER

0.001 0.01 0.1

DEPTH OF SIGNAL

www.oca.eu/cassiopee/COROTWeek10/Communications/F_Pont.pdf

•  Only few percent of candidates are real exoplanets

•  Need radial velocity confirmation with large
telescopes (≥4m)
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 46
 First Rocky Exoplanet
CoRoT (Leger et al. 2009) HARPS (Queloz et al. 2009)

•  4.8 Earth masses

•  density 5.6 g/cm3

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 47

 CoRoT-7b

www.eso.org/public/outreach/press-rel/pr-2009/pr-33-09.html
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 48
 Second Rocky Exoplanet: Kepler-10b
Batalha et al. (2011)

•  4.6±1.2 Earth masses

•  Density 8.8±3 g/cm3
•  0.84 days orbital period
•  0.017 AU orbital radius
49
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection
 Kepler 10b: Vulcan

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Exoplanet Densities

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Exoplanets as Black Bodies

Seager & Deming 2010

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 52

 Habitable Zone

•  Radiative equilibrium temperature: Incoming stellar

radiation = planet radiation into space
•  Corot 7b: 1300 °C
•  Kepler 10b: 1600 °C
•  Earth: -20 °C
•  Venus: -43 °C
•  Habitable zone: surface temperature between 0 and
100 Celsius: liquid water possible

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection
 ExoPlanet Atmosphere Observations

•  Transits: planet size

•  Thermal emission: emitting atmosphere,
temperature and its gradient, thermal phase curve
•  Transmission Spectra: upper atmosphere,
exosphere
•  Reflection: albedo, reflected light phase curve,
(polarization), scattering atmosphere

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 55

 Exoplanet Atmospheres

Seager & Deming 2010

•  Light curve provides information on star + planet

•  Secondary eclipse: no planet light -> albedo
•  Difference at different wavelengths -> exoplanet
spectrum -> atmosphere composition
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 56
 Secondary Eclipse

photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA11390
Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 57
 Secondary Eclipse from Corot

Snellen et al. 2009

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 58
λ-Dependence of Secondary Eclipse

Charbonneau et al. 2008

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 59
 Exoplanet Atmospheres (Swain et al. 2009)

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 60

 Measured Exoplanet Atmospheres

Seager & Deming 2010

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 61

 The Future: Direct Imaging
•  Central star much brighter than disks and planets
•  Disks: at least 104 times fainter than central star
•  Jupiter: 109 times fainter than Sun
•  Telescope optics, Earth atmosphere make halo
•  halo: 102 to 106 times fainter than central star
•  Space telescopes show significant halos

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 62

 1000 Million times Larger

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Everest_kalapatthar_crop.jpg

Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection
 Fomalhaut b (Kalas et al. 2008)

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 64

 Very Young, Very Big Exoplanets

Marois et al. 2008

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 65

 Beta Pic

www.eso.org/public/images/eso1024c/

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 66

 Scattering Polarization

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 67

 Scattering Polarization

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection 68

 ExPo at William Herschel Telescope

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Utrecht Extreme Polarimeter (ExPo)

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 SU Aurigae, a T-Tauri Star with Jet

ExPo VS HST

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Saturn with ExPo

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Exoplanet in the Lab in Utrecht

Intensity Polarization
Reconstructed Polarization

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 ZIMPOL for SPHERE at VLT

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 EPICS for 42-m E-ELT

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 EPICS for the E-ELT

Top view Nasmyth implementation

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection

 Rocky Planet in HZ (Gliese 581 d)

Christoph U. Keller, [email protected] Astronomical Data Analysis 2011: Exoplanet Detection