The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr.

Mohamed Hindawy

THE BONE 1
Bone is a solid type of CT, its mechanical & metabolic functions are:
1) It forms the skeleton (weight bearing). 2) It serves for attachment of muscles.
3) It protects soft organs. 4) It holds the bone marrow responsible for hematopoiesis.
5) It is a storage place for Ca+2 ions which can be used to maintain a normal blood calcium
level under control of parathyroid and calcitonin hormones.
Constituents of bone
I. Periosteum. II. Endosteum. III. Bone cells. IV. Bone matrix.

I. PERIOSTEUM
 It is a vascular CT membrane covering the bone from outside.
 It is formed of 2 layers:
a- Outer fibrous layer: a dense irregular CT layer rich in blood vessels and fibroblasts.
- Functions:
(1) Provides attachment for muscles, ligaments and tendons.
(2) Provides bone with blood supply.
b- Inner osteogenic layer: formed of osteogenic cells
-Function:
(1) Appositional bone growth (growth in width) and repair after fracture.

II. ENDOSTEUM
 It is a vascular CT membrane that lines the inner surfaces of the bone including bone
marrow cavities and Haversian canals.
 It is rich in osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteoclasts and blood vessels.
Functions of endosteum:
(1) It supplies bone with blood supply.
(2) Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts & osteoclasts are concerned with bone formation and
resorption during growth & healing after fracture.

III. BONE CELLS

 There are four Types of bone cells:
The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr. Mohamed Hindawy

1. OSTEOGENIC (OSTEOPROGENITOR) CELLS

Origin: They arise from pericytes, which are present around blood Capillaries.
Sites:
1- Inner osteogenic layer of periosteum.
2- Endosteum.
3- Stroma of bone marrow.
Function: They can divide & differentiate into osteoblasts “bone forming cells” during:
1- Growth of bone. 2- Healing of fractured bone.
Structure:
EM: Rich in free ribosomes.
LM: They are flat cells with central flat nuclei and pale basophilic cytoplasm.

2. OSTEOBLASTS (BONE FORMING CELLS)

Origin/Mitosis: They arise from osteogenic cells, but cannot divide.

Structure:
EM: plenty of ribosomes, rER, well developed Golgi apparatus and mitochondria.

LM:
- They are small, oval cells with few cytoplasmic processes. When active,
osteoblasts have a cuboidal to columnar shape.
- Nuclei: oval, eccentric & open face.
- Cytoplasm: deep basophilic with a negative Golgi image beside the nucleus.
Sites:
1- Activated inner osteogenic layer of periosteum.
2- Endosteum.
The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr. Mohamed Hindawy
Functions:
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A) They are responsible for bone matrix formation by:
1. Synthesis and secretion of osteoid (organic) material of matrix: Tropocollagen is synthesized in
rER then delivered to Golgi to be secreted. In the matrix, tropocollagen becomes polymerized into
collageneous fibers which contain spaces called Hole Zones (sites of mineral deposition).
2. Calcification of osteoid matrix by secretion of:
a. Matrix vesicles which contain:
I) Calcium ions: that become concentrated by osteocalcin.
II) Alkaline Phosphatase enzyme: which provides ORTHOPHOSPHATE group that combine
with calcium ions to form amorphous calcium phosphate that precipitate into the “Hole
zones” of collagen; 80% coalesce into HYDROXY APATITE CRYSTALS while 20%
remain as amorphous form that provides a rapid source for blood calcium homeostasis.
III) Pyrophosphatase enzyme: it neutralizes the effect of PYROPHOSPHATE that inhibits
matrix mineralization.
b. OSTEOCALCIN PROTEIN (binds calcium during mineralization) and OSTEONECTIN
PROTEIN (bridges between calcium and collagen).

B) They differentiate into osteocytes when they are surrounded by lacunae and calcified
matrix.
C) They regulate blood calcium level (calcium homeostasis) under control of
parathyroid and calcitonin hormones.

3- OSTEOCYTES
Origin/Mitosis: they develop by maturation of osteoblasts, and
they cannot divide.
Functions:
1- They preserve the integrity of the bone matrix by formation
of bone matrix.
2- They regulate blood Ca+2 level (under control of parathyroid and
calcitonin hormones).
3- Their network of dendritic processes acts as a sensor
detecting mechanical stresses on bone.
NB: Diffusion of metabolites between osteocytes and blood
vessels occurs through the small amount of extracellular
fluid in the lacunar-canalicular system.

Structure:
EM:
- They contain rER, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus and mitochondria.
- They are present inside lacunae between bone lamellae.
- They are interconnected by cytoplasmic processes passing through bone canaliculi
which connect adjacent lacunae together.
- The cell processes intercommunicate by gap junctions → exchange of electrolytes.
The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr. Mohamed Hindawy
LM:
- They are oval, branched cells with oval, central nuclei and pale basophilic cytoplasm
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- They are present singly inside lacunae (because they can’t divide, contrary to
chondrocytes).

4- OSTEOCLASTS
Origin: they arise by fusion of many blood monocytes. Osteoclast development requires
polypeptides produced by osteoblasts.
Sites:
On the inner surface of bone where resorption
takes place:
(1) Bone marrow spaces.
(2) Medullary cavities.
(3) Endosteum.
- Each cell lies in a shallow enzymatically-
itched depression in the matrix called
“Howship’s Lacuna”.
Functions:
1. Bone resorption during ossification causing
remodeling of the bone by:
(i) Secretion of organic acids “Lactic and carbonic acids” in the tissue fluids causing
decalcification of bone matrix.
(ii) Secretion of collagenase enzyme which dissolves collagen of matrix extracellularly.
2. Removal of bone debris during ossification and after healing of bone fracture.
3. Regulation of blood calcium level under control of parathyroid and calcitonin
hormones.
Structure:
LM:
- Size: large “20-30 µm”.
- Nucleus: a multinucleated cell [4-50 nuclei]
- Cytoplasm: foamy acidophilic.
- Shape: irregular, the cells have striated or brush border due to numerous finger-like
processes projecting from the cell membrane facing the bone surface.

IV. BONE MATRIX

General characters:
- It is hard (solid) in consistency.
Synthesis: ‫ ويذكر هنا‬osteoblasts ‫ذكر من قبل مع وظائف ال‬
Structure of the bone matrix:
The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr. Mohamed Hindawy
1- H2O component: 25%
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2- Solid component: 75%
30% Organic components (Osteoid tissue) 90% collagen type-I.
10% ground substance proteoglycans +
Non-collagen proteins.
70% Inorganic components: mainly calcium phosphates (80% hydroxyapatite crystals
and 20% amorphous form) + small amounts of sodium, carbonate, citrate, iron & Mg.
 Ground substance proteoglycans (chondroitin Sulfate and hyaluronic acid): they control water
content in bone.
 Non-collagen proteins: osteocalcin, osteonectin and other concentrated plasma proteins.
TYPES OF BONES
Based on structure, Bone can be classified as follow:
I- At the macroscopic level: it may be:
1) Compact (cortical) bone: Solid, ivory like
2) Cancellous (spongy = trabecular = medullary) bone: 30-90% of
bone mass is porous

II- At the microscopic level: cancellous or compact bone may

be:
1) Woven: Immature bone with irregular lamellae.
2) Lamellar: Mature bone with regular lamellae.

1- COMPACT Lamellar BONE

 The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr. Mohamed Hindawy

 It is solid like ivory with no apparent holes i.e. compact

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Sites:
1- Shaft of long bones.
2- Outer covering of the vertebrae & ribs.
3- Outer & inner tables of the flat bones of the skull.

* Structure: it is formed of Periosteum, Endosteum, Bone cells and Bone matrix.

The Bone matrix is composed of regular lamellae that are arranged as follows:
(a) Outer circumferential lamellae: Under the periosteum and are parallel to outer
circumference.
(b) Inner circumferential Lamellae: Under the endosteum and are parallel to the
medullary bone cavity, which contains the bone marrow.
(c) Concentric Lamellae: concentric cylinders arranged around Haversian canals to
form Haversian systems. They constitute most of the compact bone.
(d) Interstitial Lamellae: irregularly arranged lamellae between the Haversian systems.
They are lamellae remaining from osteons partially destroyed by osteoclasts during
growth and remodeling of bone.
** Mechanical properties:
1. In the same lamella: collagen fibers show regular
parallel alignment → mechanically strong.
2. In successive lamellae: The orientation is shifted
orthogonally (by about 90 degrees) → resist
torsion forces.
‫ درجة) في الصفائح المتعاقبة‬90 ‫يتحول إتجاه األلياف بشكل متعامد (بحوالي‬.
The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr. Mohamed Hindawy

Haversian systems = Osteons 7

- They are the structural units of the compact bone.
- Formation: they form when matrix is laid down around areas with
preexisting blood vessels.
- Structure: Each is formed of:-
(1) Haversian Canal: It runs parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bone.
It contains areolar CT, rich in capillaries, nerves and osteogenic cells.
(2) Concentric bone lamellae:
- 4-20 concentric cylinders of bone lamellae arranged orthogonally around
Haversian canal.
- The cement line is the outer boundary layer of each osteon, it is more rich in
collagen.
(3) Osteocytes:
- They are found inside their lacunae, in between the bone lamellae. ‫توصف‬

* Volkmann’s canals
 Transverse or oblique canals that connect Haversian canals together and with
periosteal or endosteol blood vessels.
 They are lined with osteogenic cells and contain blood capillaries.
 Unlike Haversian systems, their wall lack concentric lamellae.

* Perforating fibers of Sharpey

- Calcified collagenous fibers which arise from the deep surface of the periosteum to
become embedded -like nails- into the substance of the bone.
- They act as an anchor, fixing the periosteum to the bone especially at sites of
attachment of a tendon, ligament or a muscle.
The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr. Mohamed Hindawy

2- CANCELLOUS (Spongy) Lamellar BONE

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- It looks like a sponge (with many holes), so called
spongy bone.
- It is formed of periosteum, endosteum, bone cells
and bone matrix. The parallel matrix lamellae form
irregularly arranged trabeculae which branch and
anastomose and are separated by bone marrow
spaces.

Sites:
(1) Young embryonic bone.
(2) Epiphyses of long bones.
(3) Central parts of flat bones of the skull.
(4) Bodies of vertebrae &sternum

Cancellous bone Compact bone

(Trabecular or spongy bone) (Cortical bone)
Ratio 20% of lamellar bone mass 80% of lamellar bone mass
Matrix Regular parallel lamellae → arranged as Regular parallel lamellae → arranged as
irregular trabeculae. four shapes (mentioned before).
Bone Less dense: 30-90% of cancellous bone is porous → Denser, and so:
density has nearly ten times the surface area of compact 1. Stronger.
bone. This makes it: 2. Less metabolically active.
1. Weaker and more flexible.
2. More metabolically active: e.g. the exchange of
Ca+2 ions.
Vascularity Highly vascular and often contains red Less vascular; vessels are seen only in
bone marrow (active hematopoiesis) Haversian and Volkmann’s canals.

# Bone classification according to microscopic structure

Woven bone Lamellar bone

(Primary = immature bone) (Secondary = mature bone)
produced INITIALLY & RAPIDLY produced by LATE & SLOWLY produced by remodeling
when osteoblasts early in fetal life & of woven bone later on in fetal life and
healed fractured bones. healed fractured bones.
Structure 1. Matrix lamellae: Non- 1. Matrix lamellae: Has a regular parallel alignment
lamellar with random of collagen into parallel lamellae; arranged as
interwoven array of trabeculae in the cancellous and concentric
collagen fibers. lamellae in the compact bone.
2. Cells: osteocytes are more 2. Cells: osteocytes are less dense → lower rate of
dense → higher rate of turnover.
turnover.
Mechanical 1. Haphazard organization of 1. In the same lamella → collagen fibers show regular
Strength collagen fibers → parallel alignment → mechanically strong.
mechanically weak and 2. In successive lamellae →The orientation is shifted
flexible. orthogonally (by about 90 degrees) → resist
2. It not stress oriented torsion forces.
The bone_IMS Block March, 2020 Dr. Mohamed Hindawy

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Preparation of bone specimens for histological examination
There are two methods for preparation:
(1) Decalcified preparation:
- The bone is treated with decalcifying agent to remove calcium.
- The cut sections are stained with Hx & E to demonstrate all bone components.
(2) Ground Preparation: (only for compact bone)
- We grind a small piece of compact bone till it becomes very thin and transparent, and then mounted
on a slide without staining.
- What is seen: the four types of matrix lamellae, Haversian canals, Volkmann’s canals, lacunae and
canaliculi.
- What is not seen: soft structures as periosteum, endosteum, cells and blood vessels.