Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration

Aim: To study the change in effect of cross section and application of Bernoulli’s equation
using Bernoulli’s apparatus.

Theory :

Energy presents in the form of pressure, velocity, and elevation in fluids with no energy
exchange due to viscous dissipation, heat transfer, or shaft work (pump or some other
device). The relationship among these three forms of energy was first stated by Daniel
Bernoulli (1700-1782), based upon the conservation of energy principle. Bernoulli’s theorem
pertaining to a flow streamline is based on three assumptions: steady flow, incompressible
fluid, and no losses from the fluid friction. The validity of Bernoulli’s equation will be
examined in this experiment.

In this experiment, the validity of Bernoulli’s equation will be verified with the use of a
tapered duct (venturi system) connected with manometers to measure the pressure head and
total head at known points along the flow.

The Bernoulli test apparatus consists of a tapered duct (venturi), a series of manometers
tapped into the venturi to measure the pressure head, and a hypodermic probe that can be
traversed along the center of the test section to measure the total head. The test section is a
circular duct of varying diameter with a 14° inclined angle on one side and a 21° inclined
angle on other side. Series of side hole pressure tappings are provided to connect manometers
to the test section.
 Figure 1: Bernoulli’s apparatus test equipment

Manometers allow the simultaneous measurement of the pressure heads at all of the six
sections along the duct. The dimensions of the test section, the tapping positions, and the test
section diameters are shown in Figure 2. The test section incorporates two unions, one at
either end, to facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing. A probe is provided to
measure the total pressure head along the test section by positioning it at any section of the
duct. This probe may be moved after slackening the gland nut, which should be re-tightened
by hand. To prevent damage, the probe should be fully inserted during transport/storage. The
pressure tappings are connected to manometers that are mounted on a baseboard. The flow
through the test section can be adjusted by the apparatus control valve or the bench control
valve.
 Figure 2 : test section, manometer position and diameter at different section

These two laws and the definition of work and pressure are the basis for Bernoulli’s theorem
and can be expressed as follows for any two points located on the same streamline in the
flow:

(P1/𝝆 g) + (V12 / 2g) + Z1 = (P2/𝝆 g) + (V22 / 2g) + Z2

where:

P: pressure, g: acceleration due to gravity, V: fluid velocity, and

z: vertical elevation of the fluid.

In this experiment, since the duct is horizontal, the difference in height can be disregarded,
i.e., z1=z2

The hydrostatic pressure (P) along the flow is measured by manometers tapped into the duct.
The pressure head (h), thus, is calculated as:

h=P/ g

Therefore, Bernoulli’s equation for the test section can be written as:

h1+(V12 / 2g) = h2 + (V22 / 2g)

in which  (V2 / 2g)  is called the velocity head (hd).

The total head (ht) may be measured by the traversing hypodermic probe. This probe is
inserted into the duct with its end-hole facing the flow so that the flow becomes stagnant
locally at this end; thus:

.ht = h+(V2 / 2g)

The conservation of energy or the Bernoulli’s equation can be expressed as:

.ht1 = ht2

The flow velocity is measured by collecting a volume of the fluid (V) over a time period T.
The flow rate is calculated as:

Q= Volume of fluid collected/ T

The velocity of flow at any section of the duct with a cross-sectional area of  is determined
as:
V= Q/ A

V= Q / ( π d 2 /4) , ; d is dia of pipe

For incompressible flow

A1V1 = A2V2
Procedure :

i. Place the apparatus on the hydraulics bench, and ensure that the outflow tube is
positioned above the volumetric tank to facilitate timed volume collections.
ii. Level the apparatus base by adjusting its feet. (A sprit level is attached to the base for
this purpose.) For accurate height measurement from the manometers, the apparatus
must be horizontal.
iii. Install the test section with the 14° tapered section converging in the flow direction.
If the test section needs to be reversed, the total head probe must be retracted before
releasing the mounting couplings.
iv. Connect the apparatus inlet to the bench flow supply, close the bench valve and the
apparatus flow control valve, and start the pump. Gradually open the bench valve to
fill the test section with water.
v. The following steps should be taken to purge air from the pressure tapping points and
manometers:
a. Close both the bench valve and the apparatus flow control valve.
b. Remove the cap from the air valve, connect a small tube from the air valve to
the volumetric tank, and open the air bleed screw.
c. Open the bench valve and allow flow through the manometers to purge all air
from them, then tighten the air bleed screw and partly open the bench valve
and the apparatus flow control valve.
d. Open the air bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the top of the
manometers (you may need to adjust both valves to achieve this), and re-
tighten the screw when the manometer levels reach a convenient height. The
maximum flow will be determined by having a maximum (h 1) and minimum
(h5) manometer readings on the baseboard.

vi. If needed, the manometer levels can be adjusted by using an air pump to pressurize
them. This can be accomplished by attaching the hand pump tube to the air bleed
valve, opening the screw, and pumping air into the manometers.  Close the screw,
after pumping, to retain the pressure in the system.
vii. Take readings of manometers h  to h6 when the water level in the manometers is
1

steady. The total pressure probe should be retracted from the test section during this
reading.
viii. Measure the total head by traversing the total pressure probe along the test section
from h1 to h6.
ix. Measure the flow rate by a timed volume collection. To do that, close the ball valve
and use a stopwatch to measure the time it takes to accumulate a known volume of
fluid in the tank, which is read from the sight glass. You should collect fluid for at
least one minute to minimize timing errors. You may repeat the flow measurement
twice to check for repeatability. Be sure that the total pressure probe is retracted from
the test section during this measurement.
x. Reduce the flow rate to give the head difference of about 50 mm between manometers
1 and 5 (h1-h5). This is the minimum flow experiment. Measure the pressure head,
total head, and flow.
xi. Repeat the process for one more flow rate, with the (h 1-h5) difference approximately
halfway between those obtained for the minimum and maximum flows. This is the
average flow experiment.
xii. Reverse the test section (with the 21° tapered section converging in the flow
direction) in order to observe the effects of a more rapidly converging section. Ensure
that the total pressure probe is fully withdrawn from the test section, but not pulled
out of its guide in the downstream coupling. Unscrew the two couplings, remove the
test section and reverse it, then re-assemble it by tightening the couplings.
xiii. Perform three sets of flow, and conduct pressure and flow measurements as above.
 Table of reading

Position 1: Tapering 14° to 21°

Test Volume Time (sec) Pressure head Total head (mm)

(litre) (mm)
section

Trail h1

No 1 h2

h3

h4

h5

h6

Test Volume Time (sec) Pressure head Total head (mm)

(litre) (mm)
section

Trail h1

No 2 h2

h3

h4

h5

h6
 Test Volume Time (sec) Pressure head Total head (mm)
(litre) (mm)
section

Trail h1

No 3 h2

h3

h4

h5

h6

Position 2: Tapering 21° to 14°

Test Volume Time (sec) Pressure head Total head (mm)

(litre) (mm)
section

Trail h1

No 1 h2

h3

h4

h5
 h6

Test Volume Time (sec) Pressure head Total head (mm)

section (litre) (mm)

Trail h1

No 2 h2

h3

h4

h5

h6

Test Volume Time (sec) Pressure head Total head (mm)

section (litre) (mm)

Trail h1

No 3 h2

h3

h4

h5

h6
Table of calculation

Position 1: Tapering 14° to 21°

Distance Calculated Measured

Test Flow Area Flow Rate Velocity Pressure Velocity
Test Section into duct Total Head Total Head
No. (m²) (m³/s) (m/s) Head (m) Head (m)
(m) (m) (m)

h1 0 0.00049

h2 0.06028 0.00015

h3 0.06868 0.00011

h4 0.07318 0.00009

h5 0.08108 0.000079

h6 0.14154 0.00049

h1 0 0.00049

h2 0.06028 0.00015

h3 0.06868 0.00011

h4 0.07318 0.00009
 h5 0.08108 0.000079

h6 0.14154 0.00049

h1 0 0.00049

h2 0.06028 0.00015

h3 0.06868 0.00011

h4 0.07318 0.00009

h5 0.08108 0.000079

0.00049
h6 0.14154
 Position 2: Tapering 21° to 14°

Distance Calculated Measured

Test Flow Area Flow Rate Velocity Pressure Velocity
Test Section into duct Total Head Total Head
No. (m²) (m³/s) (m/s) Head (m) Head (m)
(m) (m) (m)

h1 0 0.00049

h2 0.06028 0.00015

h3 0.06868 0.00011

h4 0.07318 0.00009

h5 0.08108 0.000079

h6 0.14154 0.00049

2 h1 0 0.00049

h2 0.06028 0.00015

h3 0.06868 0.00011

h4 0.07318 0.00009
 h5 0.08108 0.000079

h6 0.14154 0.00049

h1 0 0.00049

h2 0.06028 0.00015

h3 0.06868 0.00011

h4 0.07318 0.00009

h5 0.08108 0.000079

h6 0.14154 0.00049

Graph to be plotted:

For each test, plot the total head (calculated and measured), pressure head, and velocity head
(y-axis) vs. distance into duct (x-axis) from manometer 1 to 6, a total of six graphs. Connect
the data points to observe the trend in each graph. Note that the flow direction in duct
Position 1 is from manometer 1 to 6; in Position 2, it is from manometer 6 to 1.

Comment on the validity of Bernoulli’s equation when the flow converges and diverges along
the duct. Comment on the comparison of the calculated and measured total heads in this
experiment. Discuss your results, referring, in particular, to the following:

(i) Energy loss and how it is shown by the results of this experiment, and
(ii) The components of Bernoulli’s equation and how they vary along the length of the test
section. Indicate the points of maximum velocity and minimum pressure.
 Reynolds apparatus to measure critical Reynolds number for pipe flows

Aim: To find the critical Reynolds number for internal flow (pipe flow)

Theory:

In nature and in laboratory experiments, flow may occur under two very different regimes:
laminar and turbulent. In laminar flows, fluid particles move in layers, sliding over each
other, causing a small energy exchange to occur between layers. Laminar flow occurs in
fluids with high viscosity, moving at slow velocity. The turbulent flow, on the other hand, is
characterized by random movements and intermixing of fluid particles, with a great exchange
of energy throughout the fluid. This type of flow occurs in fluids with low viscosity and high
velocity. The dimensionless Reynolds number is used to classify the state of flow.
The Reynolds Number Demonstration is a classic experiment, based on visualizing flow
behaviour by slowly and steadily injecting dye into a pipe. This experiment was first
performed by Osborne Reynolds in the late nineteenth century.

Flow behaviour in natural or artificial systems depends on which forces (inertia, viscous,
gravity, surface tension, etc.) predominate. In slow-moving laminar flows, viscous forces are
dominant, and the fluid behaves as if the layers are sliding over each other. In turbulent
flows, the flow behaviour is chaotic and changes dramatically, since the inertial forces are
more significant than the viscous forces.

In this experiment, the dye injected into a laminar flow will form a clear well-defined line. It
will mix with the water only minimally, due to molecular diffusion. When the flow in the
pipe is turbulent, the dye will rapidly mix with the water, due to the substantial lateral
movement and energy exchange in the flow. There is also a transitional stage between
laminar and turbulent flows, in which the dye stream will wander about and show intermittent
bursts of mixing, followed by a more laminar behaviour.

The Reynolds number (Re), provides a useful way of characterizing the flow. 

It is given as: Re = (𝝆VD )/ µ ,

where µ is the kinematic viscosity, V is the mean flow velocity and D is the diameter of the
pipe.

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is the ratio of the inertial
(destabilizing) force to the viscosity (stabilizing) force. As Re increases, the inertial force
becomes relatively larger, and the flow destabilizes and becomes fully turbulent.

The Reynolds experiment determines the critical Reynolds number for pipe flow at which
laminar flow (Re<2000 ) becomes transitional (2000<Re<4000 ) and the transitional flow
becomes turbulent (Re>4000). The advantage of using a critical Reynolds number, instead of
critical velocity, is that the results of the experiments are applicable to all Newtonian fluid
flows in pipes with a circular cross-section.

Procedure:

The visualization of flow behaviour will be performed by slowly and steadily injecting dye
into a pipe. The state of the flow (laminar, transitional, and turbulent) will be visually
determined and compared with the results from the calculation of the Reynolds number.

1. Turn on the water, and partially open the discharge valve at the base of the apparatus.

2. Open and adjust the dye injector valve to obtain a fine filament of dye in the flow down
the glass tube. If the dye is dispersed in the tube reduce water flow rate by closing the
discharge valve and adjusting the supply as necessary to maintain the constant head. A
laminar flow condition should be achieved in which the filament of dye passes down the
complete length of the tube without disturbance.

3. Then measure the flow rate by timing the collection of a known quantity (volume) of water
from discharge pipe. This will help you to determine the velocity of the water in the pipe.

4. Slowly increase the flow rate by opening the discharge valve until disturbances of the dye
filament are noted. This can be regarded as the starting point of transition to turbulent flow.
Increase the discharge as required to maintain constant head conditions. Do not miss to
sketch the dye condition and measure the flow rate for each of your trials.

5. If necessary, increase the flow rate as described above until the disturbances increase such
that the dye filament becomes rapidly diffused. Small eddies will be noted just above the
point where the dye filament completely breaks down. This can be regarded as the onset of
fully turbulent flow.

6. Now you should close the dye injector valve in order to finalize your experiment.
Table of observation

Trail Volume raise in Time T in Flow type Visual dye

number measuring vessel, in seconds for condition
cm3 volume increase sketch
in measuring
tank

Volume flow rate, Q = ………..cm3 ; 1 cm3 = 10 - 6 m3

Velocity of fluid V= Q / ( π d 2 /4) , ; d is dia of pipe

µ=𝝆γ ;

µ is dynamic viscosity, γ is kinematic viscosity and density of fluid

Table of Calculation:

Trail Velocity Kinematic Dynamic Reynolds Flow type

no. V= Q / ( π d 2
/4), viscosity γ, viscosity number
m/s in m2/s µ=𝝆γ
in N-S/m2 Re = 𝝆 VD / µ

Result:

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is noticed at Reynolds number of…………for
internal flow.

Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration

AIM: To study the change in effect of cross section and application of Bernoulli’s equation
using Bernoulli’s apparatus.
APPARATUS:-Bernoulli’s apparatus; controlling valve at inlet and outlet; Discharge
Measuring Tank; Scale; Stopwatch etc.

THEORY: - Considering friction less flow along a variable area duct, the law of conservation
of energy states “for and Inviscid, incompressible, Irrotational and steady flow along a stream
line the total energy (or Head) remains the same”. This is called Bernoulli’s equation. The
total head of flowing fluid consist of a pressure head, velocity head and elevation head,

E= (P1/𝝆 g) + (V12 / 2g) + Z1 = (P2/𝝆 g) + (V22 / 2g) + Z2 = C

where P, V and Z refer to the pressure, velocity and position of the relative to some datum at
any section.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:- The experimental setup of Bernoulli’s theorem is a self-

contained re-circulating unit. It consists of a sump tank, constant head tank, centrifugal pump
for lifting water, measuring tank etc. control valve and by-pass valves are provided to
regulate the flow of water in the constant head tank. A conduit made of Perspex having
variable cross-section is provided. The conduit has a converging as well as a diverging
section. Piezometer tubes are fitted on this test section at regular intervals. The inlet of the
conduit is connected to the constant head tank. At the outlet of the conduit, a valve is
provided to regulate the flow of water through the test section. After achieving the steady
state, discharge through test section can be measured with the help of measuring tank and
stop watch.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Note down the piezometer distance from inlet section of the Perspex duct.

2. Note down the cross section area of perspex duct at each of the piezometer tapping points.

3. The datum head is treated as constant throughout the duct.

4. By maintaining suitable amount of steady head or nearby steady head condition in the
supply tanks, there establishes a steady flow in the conduit.

5. The discharge flowing in the conduit is recorded together with the water levels in each
piezometer tubes.

6. This procedure is repeated for other value of discharge.

Formula and nomenclature:

A = Area of measuring tank

Q = Discharge

R = Rise of water level in measuring tank

T = Time taken for rise R

V = velocity of flow at different points of the test section

a = Area at different points of the pipe section at dia d

h = Pressure head as measured in the Piezometers at different points of the test section.

Q = A R/ T , m3/ s ;

V = Q/( π d2/4) ;
Velocity head V 2 /2g = ………….. (m)

Pressure head (Piezometer tube reading): = ……………… (m)

Pressure head = (P/𝝆 g) , is recorded by piezometer

Total Energy Head: E = Pressure head + Velocity Head + Datum head=

Total head E= (P1/𝝆 g) + (V12 / 2g) + Z1 = (P2/𝝆 g) + (V22 / 2g) + Z2 = …= C

Test section details

Test 1 2 3 4 5 6
section
Diameter
Distance
from inlet

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl no. Raise Time Pressure head at different sections

R T (P/𝝆 g)= recorded by piezometer
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

TABLE OF CALCULATION:

TRAIL NO…
 Trail no ………. , flow rate Q= m3/ s
Test section 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pressure
head = (P/𝝆
g) , m
Velocity
head V 2

/2g , m
Datum head
C C C C C C
= Z,
Total head E=
Pressure head +
Velocity Head +
Datum head , m

Repeat the table of calculation for different trails.

Total head at different section should be same to verify conservation of energy.

GRAPH TO PLOT: -

Plot piezometric head (P/𝝆 g), velocity head (V2 / 2g) (P1/𝝆 g) + (V12 / 2g) + Z1 and total

head (P/𝝆 g) + (V2 / 2g) + Z v/s distance of piezometric tubes from same reference point.

WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

MAE 175A PART I Pressure Distribution over an airfoil and Drag by the wake survey method
OBJECTIVE: Measure the pressure distribution over a Clark Y-14 Airfoil at various angles of attack and
determine the drag coefficient of the wing by the wake survey method.

Data are obtained up to and beyond the stall angle, where the flow separates from the upper
surface of the airfoil. INTRODUCTION: An airfoil develops Lift through generally lower pressures
above the wing and higher below with respect to the pressure of the approaching air. In addition,
the Lift force increases with higher angle of attack up to a critical angle. Beyond this critical angle the
lift force decreases significantly and the wing is said to have “stalled”. The overall pressure
distribution can be measured with small tubes embedded in the wing leading to a suitable pressure
transducer. The laboratory model is equipped with 18 pressure openings. The openings are located
at 0, 7.5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 percent chord on both upper and lower surfaces and there is
an additional opening at 80 percent chord on the upper surface. To complete the pressure
distribution you should extrapolate the last measurements on the upper and lower surfaces of the
wing to a pressure coefficient of Cp=0 at the trailing edge of the wing. Application of the momentum
principle indicates that the drag force on an airfoil in the flow should be equal to the reduction in
linear momentum of the flow (in the drag direction) provided that the measuring stations are taken
where the static pressures are substantially equal. Since the flow approaching the airfoil is uniform,
the drag coefficient may be written in terms of a downstream wake survey (as developed in Ref. 1):
Cd = Yw c − 1 q∞ c q dy −Yw 2 Yw 2 ∫ where: Yw = width of wake q = local dynamic pressure q∞ =
free stream dynamic pressure It is recommended that the wake survey be made as far from the
trailing edge as possible to render the static pressure effects negligible. Students may find that the
wake field drag coefficient obtained in the stalled configuration disagrees with other drag
measurements, and MAE 175A Wind Tunnel Experiment (K. Seshadri) Written by R.J. Cattolica,
modified by G.R. Tynan 1/10/2014 2 2 they should examine the assumptions made in the
momentum balance analysis in order to identify which of these assumptions are violated by the flow
over a stalled airfoil. This method of drag measurement is often used on portions of airplane wings
in flight to test special drag profiles or surface treatments. The pitching moment can also be
obtained from the chordwise pressures by use of (Ref. 1) CmLE = 1 c 2 ∆P q ∫ (x)dc where: x =
distance from leading edge (or other selected reference point). PROCEDURE: 1. Using the barometer
and thermometer in the laboratory determine the density of the air flowing in the wind tunnel. 2.
Using the Wing Tunnel Calibration VI calibrate the wind tunnel test section by generating a plot of
velocity (m/sec) versus motor frequency (0- 60 Hz) using the upstream pitot-static tube and
Bernoulli's equation. Please see Wind Tunnel Laboratory Notes: week 1 for details. U ρ Static
pressure Freestream Pressure - ρ 1 ² h b a Pitot Probe: Measurement of Airspeed Pa + 1 2 ρaUa 2 =
Pb + 1 2 ρbUb 2 where: Ua = 0 and Ub = U∞ Pa − Pb = 1 2 ρ∞U∞ 2 = q∞ or Pa − Pb = ρ1 ∆hge and:
MAE 175A Wind Tunnel Experiment (K. Seshadri) Written by R.J. Cattolica, modified by G.R. Tynan
1/10/2014 3 3 U∞ = 2(Pa − Pb ) ρ∞       1 / 2 or U∞ = 2ρ1 ∆h ge ρ∞       1 /
2 3. Use standard propagation of error analysis to estimate the error in U∞ . Y = f(xi ) δY = ∂f ∂xi 
     2 δxi 2 ( ) 1 i ∑       1 2 4. A pressure wing is mounted vertically in the wind
tunnel. The pressure tubes (18 with locations indicated in the Appendix) from the wing are
 connected to the inlet nipples of the tunnel pressure transducer array sampling system. The static
pressure of the test section is connected to the reference connection of the pressure transducer.
The dynamic pressure of the air stream q∞ is measured with the Pitot probe. Dividing the pressure
measured with the sampling system by q∞ gives the pressure coefficient at the point of the
measurement: Cp = P − Pref q∞ 5. Operate the tunnel at airspeeds of 20, 35 and 50 m/sec and make
pressure measurements on the wing at angles of attack of 0°, 4°, 8°, 12°, and 16°. Please see Wind
Tunnel Laboratory Notes: week 2 for details. Always check the zero velocity pressure measurements
from the wing and pitot probe before each data set. You will need to measure and correct for any
offsets in the pressure transducer at zero velocity. Results: 1. Plot the pressure coefficient data
points (upper and lower surface) as a function of distance along the chord line of the wing and
integrate to find the Normal Force coefficient Cn which is given as Cn = 1 c (CpL −CpU )dx 0 c ∫ . Find
this normal force coefficient for all angles of attack and flow speeds. 2. Determine the Lift
coefficients CL from CN and Plot CL vs. α for each air-speed. Show the results on one graph for
comparison purposes. 3. On a separate graph plot Cd vs. α for each air-speed. Note that this method
does not measure drag viscous forces due to shear stresses and thus may under represent the total
drag force on the wing. The drag force and drag coefficient measured in this experiment is the
component of the normal force in the direction parallel to the free stream flow, and increases as the
angle of attack increases. MAE 175A Wind Tunnel Experiment (K. Seshadri) Written by R.J. Cattolica,
modified by G.R. Tynan 1/10/2014 4 4 4. Using the equation for the pitching moment Cmref = 1 c 2
(CpU − CpL )(x − xref )dx 0 c ∫ a) Calculate the leading edge pitching moment CM LE for the airfoil as a
function of angle of attack for each velocity and present the results in a table. b) Calculate the center
of pressure for the airfoil as a function of angle of attach for each velocity and present the results in
a table. Xcp c = − CMLE CN c) Calculate the pitching moment through the quarter chord point as a
function of angle of attack for each velocity and present the results in a table. 5. a). Operate the
tunnel at airspeeds of 20, 35 and 50 m/sec and obtain wake pressure survey measurements in the
wake of the vertically mounted pressure wing at angles of attack of 0°, 4°, 8°, 12°, and 16°. Always
check the zero velocity pressure measurements from the wing and pitot probe before each data set.
You will need to measure and correct for any offsets in the pressure transducer at zero velocity..
Note: At the smaller angle of attack values (i.e. up to about 8 degrees, the available rake can
adequately cover the entire wakefield adequately. However, at a higher angle of attack, the rake
may not completely cover the wake. In order to correctly measure the wakefield at these extreme
values, you will need to displace the rake both above and below the airfoil. Please see the TA,
Professor, or Technician for assistance for the highest angles of attack wakefield measurement
setup) b) Plot the normalized wake survey pressure distribution q / q∞ versus distance across the
 wake for each angle of attack for the three different velocities. c) Calculate the drag coefficient for
the airfoil by the momentum method by integrating the wake presurre distribution for each angle of
attack and the three velocities. Plot this drag coefficient versus angle of attack for each of the flow
velocities used in the experiment, and compare this result to the drag force computed in part 3
above. Make sure to comment on any differences or discrepancies in the two different drag
estimates. 6. Determine the effect of Reynolds Number on lift, drag, and 1/4 cord pitching moment
coefficients. (Plot the lift and pitching moment coefficient from the pressure wing measurements,
and the drag coefficient from the wake measurements versus Reynolds number for all available
angle of attack.)