DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 1

Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Module 1
Relations and Functions

OVERVIEW

Often there are situations where one variable can be associated to the value of another
variable. For example, an individual’s income can be linked to the educational attainment, height
to age, engine size to gas mileage, etc. Thus, when a value of one variable is related to the value
of a second variable then we have a relation. One of the important concepts in algebra is the
function wherein it is a special type of relation.

This module would allow learners go through at their own pace. It would solely focus on
the discussions revolving functions such as techniques in determining whether a relation
represents a function, finding the value of a function, finding the domain and the range and others.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

• Determine whether a relation represents a function
• Find the value of a function
• Perform operations on functions
• Evaluate composition and inversion of functions
• Be familiarized with some graph of different functions

DISCUSSION

Definition. A relation between two sets is a collection of ordered pairs containing one object
from each set. If the object x is from the first set and the object y is from the second set,
then the objects are said to be related if the ordered pair (x,y) is in the relation.

Definition. Let x and y be two non-empty sets. A function from x into y is a relation that
associates with each element of x exactly one element of y.

NOTE: All functions are relations but not all

relations are functions.

❖ LESSON 1.1 – Relations and Functions

After reading the definitions of the two terms above, could you relate your prior knowledge
to differentiate a relation from a function? If yes, you may proceed to Exercise 1 and if otherwise
you must continue to read the current lesson.

The definitions above were the formal way of defining terms in Mathematics which could
be abstract for non-mathematics major students. Hence, in this lesson we dig deeper into how to
determine in a simpler way if a relation could be a function. Now let us start to show some
examples that would allow you to be familiarize of the current topic. Figure 1.1 shows two sets of
students specifically divided into gender.
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

BOYS GIRLS
Pedro Maria
Juan Gloria
Ian Cora

Figure 1.1

The figure above shows that set A(Boys) associated to set B(Girls). Based from the
aforementioned definition of a relation, could it be considered as a relation? -The answer is yes.
Going back to the definition it is a relation between the boys and girls. (Sanaol may relation)
However, you may notice that there are multiple relations (Oo, mga manloloko sila parang ex mo!)
between the elements of each set. The question now is the association a relation or a function?

The answer is just a relation because it is clearly stated that it has to be an exact one to
one association between two sets. (Ganyan kasi sa relasyon may iba kaya kung gusto mo ng isa
lang talaga dapat function). There are three types of relations between sets X and Y as shown
below:

A 1 1 A
B 2 A 2 B 1
C 3 3 C

Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4

Figure 1.2 illustrates a one-to-one relation, Figure 1.3 shows a one-to-many relation and
Figure 1.4 is a many-to-one relation. Only two (2) of them were considered as functions
specifically 1.2 and 1.4.

❖ LESSON 1.2 – Other techniques in identifying functions.

Aside from illustrating relations in diagrams, it could be represented into ordered pairs in
the form x ~ y as (x,y) and using the vertical line test.

Definition. Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. The set X is called the domain of the
function. For each element in x in X, the corresponding element y in Y is called the value
of the function at x, or the image of x. The set of all images of the elements in the domain
is called the range of the function.

A. Determining relations represented in ordered pairs.

Based from the figures in the previous lessons, we could generate ordered pairs which
could be shown below whereas, the domain becomes the set of the first elements and the range
is the set of the second elements.

Figure 1.1 could be transformed as:

Boys ~ Girls : {(Pedro, Maria), (Juan, Gloria), (Juan, Cora), (Ian, Maria)}

Figure 1.2 could be transformed as:

X ~ Y: {(A,1), (B,2), (C,3)
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

You could continue for Figures 1.3 and 1.4 as your exercise. As you may notice from the
examples above, one relation could be considered as a function if there were no repeated element
of the first set. You can verify it if you have done transforming Figures 1.3 and 1.4.
B. Using the vertical line test

Figure 1.5
One more technique in determining if a relation is a function is using the vertical line test
on the graph. In the figure above as an example we could draw a vertical line to determine if it is
a function or not as shown below.

Figure 1.6

You may be wondering why there are three vertical lines shown in Figure 1.6. The idea is
to test if it is a function or just a relation. As you can see, no matter how many vertical lines to be
drawn, they can only intersect the graph once. Hence, it can be considered as a function which
could be familiar to some of you already which is the quadratic function.

Have you read the lesson thoroughly? Are you now ready to take the exercises? If not,
kindly go over the lesson again. You may also visit
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uz0MtFlLD-k and https://www.siyavula.com/read/maths/
grade-12/functions/02-functions-02 for your reference.

TEST YOURSELF

Instructions: Answer each of the following items using a different sheet of paper to be attached
later in the module.
A. Determine if the following associations could be considered as a function or just a relation.
If it is a function, state the domain and range.

1. {(1,4), (2,5), (3,6), (4,7)}

2. {(1,4), (2,4), (3,5), (6,10)}
3. {(-3,9), (-2,4), (0,0), (1,1), (-3,8)}
4. {(a,2), (b,3), (c,4), (d,5), (e,5)}
5. {(w,-1), (x,0), (y,-1), (z,0)}

B. Determine if the following graphs could be considered as a function or just a relation.

1. 2. 3.
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

❖ LESSON 1.3 – Finding the Values of Functions

Functions are often denoted by the letters such as f, F, g, G, and others. If f is a function,
then for each number x in its domain the corresponding image in the range is designated by the
symbol f(x), read as “f of x” or as “f at x”.

We refer to f(x) as the value of f at the number x; f(x) is the number that results when x is
given and the function f is applied; f(x) is the output corresponding to x or the image of x; f(x) does
not mean “f times x”. For example, the equation y = 2x – 5 may be written as f(x) = 2x – 5.

Evaluating the equation in the previous paragraph when x = 1 and x = 3 can be seen
below.

When x = 1: When x = 3:

f(x) = 2x – 5 f(x) = 2x – 5
f(1) = 2(1) – 5 : substitute 1 for x in the equation f(3) = 2(3) – 5
f(1) = 2 – 5 : since 2(1) is equal to 2 f(3) = 6 – 5
f(1) = -3 f(3) = 1
∴ The image/ value of the equation is -3. ∴ The image/ value of the equation is 1.

Are you having some problems in evaluating functions? In simpler term, it is just
substituting the values in the variables in the equation since the value of x is already given.
The examples in the previous page shows a step-by-step process in finding the value of the
function. You may assign any values for x and follow the process shown.

Are you now ready for a more complex than the previous examples? If not, kindly go over
Lesson 1.3 again. We will now try a more complicated equation for the function f defined f(x) =
2x2 – 3x and evaluate f(3), f(3x) and f(x+3).

f(3) or x = 3 f(3x) or x = 3x

f(x) = 2x2 – 3x *Maybe you are wondering why would we substitute

f(3) = 2(3)2 – 3(3) another x. (Puro x na lang ano?) Since x is a variable
f(3) = 2(9) – 9 : following the we could substitute anything we want and also this
rule of GEMDAS we example is essential for the next lesson.
got 9 for (3)2
f(3) = 18 – 9 f(x) = 2x2 – 3x
f(3) = 9 f(3x) = 2(3x)2 – 3(3x)
f(3x) = 2(9x2) – 9 x
f(3x) = 18 x2 – 9 x

*The value of a function could not always be an

exact number just like for this example we have 18
x2 – 9 x as the answer.

f(x+3) or x = x + 3

f(x) = 2x2 – 3x
f(x+3) = 2(x+3)2 – 3(x+3)
f(x+3) = 2(x+3)2 – 3(x+3)
= 2[(x+3)(x+3)] – (6x+9) We employ square of binomials and simplifying 3(x+3)
= 2(x2 + 6x + 9) – (6x+9) Simplifying the equation
= 2x2 + 12x + 18 – 6x – 9 We combine similar terms
= 2x2 + 6x + 9
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

❖ LESSON 1.4 – Operations on Functions

Next, we introduce some operations on functions. We shall see that functions, like
numbers, can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.

Definition. If f and g are functions, the sum f + g is the function defined by:

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

Definition. If f and g are functions, the difference f – g is the function defined by:

(f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)

Definition. If f and g are functions, the product f • g is the function defined by:
(f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x)

𝑓
Definition. If f and g are functions, the quotient is the function defined by:
𝑔

𝒇(𝒙)
(f/g)(x) =
𝒈(𝒙)

As you may have observed, these definitions may seem to be complicated at first glance.
In this lesson we would look into how to perform these operations in functions. Below are some
examples on how to evaluate these kinds of operations in a step-by-step process.

LET’S TRY!

Let f and g be two functions defined as

f(x) = x - 1 and g(x) = 2x + 3
Find the following:
a. (f + g)(x) b. (f – g)(x) c. (f • g)(x) d. (f/g)(x)

SOLUTIONS:

a. (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

= (x – 1) + (2x + 3) we just substitute the functions in f and g
= x – 1 + 2x + 3 just simplify and combine similar terms
∴ (f + g)(x) = 3x + 2

b. (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)

= (x - 1) - (2x + 3) we just substitute the functions in f and g
= x - 1 - 2x - 3 just simplify and combine similar terms
∴ (f - g)(x) = -x - 4

c. (f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x)

= (x-1) • (2x-3) it’s like the multiplication of polynomials in algebra
= (2x2 – 3x) + (-2x + 3) simplify by combining similar terms
∴ (f • g)(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 3

𝑓(𝑥)
d. (f/g)(x) =
𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥−1
= since this is already the simplest form, it would be the final
2𝑥−3
answer

Let f and g be two functions defined as

f(x) = 2x2 and g(x) = 3x2 + x

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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

SOLUTIONS:

a. (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) c. (f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x)

= (2x2) + (3x2 + x) = (2x2) • (3x2 + x)
= 2x2 + 3x2 + x = 6x4 + 2x3
= 5x2 + x ∴ (f • g)(x) = 6x4 + 2x3
∴ (f + g)(x) = 5x2 + x

b. (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)

= (2x2) - (3x2 + x)
= 2x2 - 3x2 - x
= -x2 – x or -(x2+1)
∴ (f - g)(x) = -x - 4

𝑓(𝑥)
d. (f/g)(x) =
𝑔(𝑥)
2𝑥 2
=
3𝑥 2 +𝑥
2𝑥 2
=
𝑥(3𝑥+1)
2𝑥 2
=
𝑥(3𝑥+1)
2𝑥
=
3𝑥+1
2𝑥
∴ (f - g)(x) =
3𝑥+1

Can you now follow how to evaluate functions and perform the operations in the
previous lessons? If not, please revisit Lessons 1.3 and 1.4. Please proceed to Exercise 2
to test your understanding about what you have read.

TEST YOURSELF

✓ EXERCISES

Instructions: Answer each of the following items using a different sheet of paper to be
attached later in the module.

i. f(x) = 3x + 4 and g(x) = 4x3 + 1

4𝑥 1
ii. f(x) = and g(x) =
3𝑥−2 𝑥
2
iii. f(x) = x and g(x) = x + 1
1
iv. f(x) = 1 + and g(x) = 𝑥
𝑥

From the given functions given above, find the following:

(a) f(2) (e) (f • g)(x)

(b) g(-1) (d) (f - g)(x)
(c) f(x + 1) (f) (f/g)(x)
(d) (f + g)(x)
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

❖ LESSON 1.5 – Composition of Functions

Composition of functions can be described as a series of "picking up" and "dropping off".
A function picks up x, does something to it, and drops it off. Then another function comes along
and picks up the drop off, does something to it, and drops it off again. This pattern may continue
over several functions.

You can think of composition as a series of taxi cab rides. Person x is picked up by the
first taxi function, transported to a location, and dropped off. Then another taxi function comes
along and picks up person x at this new location, transports person x to another new location, and
drops person x off.
(Donna Roberts, MathBitsNotebook.com)

The term "composition of functions" (or "composite function") refers to the combining
together of two or more functions in a manner where the output from one function becomes the
input for the next function

Definition. When the output of one function is used as the input of another, we call the
entire operation a composition of functions. We write (f ◦ g)(x) or f(g(x)), and read this as
“f of g of x” or “f composed with g at x”. An alternate notation for composition uses the
composition operator: is read “f of g of x” or “f composed with g at x”, just like f(g(x)).

If you become confused as to where to start when you see the notation (f ◦ g)(x), start by
rewriting the notation to be f(g(x)). Then you can see that you need to start with the innermost
parentheses, which in this case will be function g.

Note: When dealing with compositions, always start with

the function on the right!

LET’S TRY!

Examples

1. Given f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = 2x. Express (f ◦ g)(x) in terms of x.

SOLUTION: Remember that (f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)), then we write it as f(2x) since g(x) = 2x.
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(2x)
= (2x) + 1 if you may remember that we just substitute 2x just like
in getting the value of a function.
∴(f ◦ g)(x) = 2x + 1

We now try to solve composition of f in g and observe if they will yield the same results.

2. Given f(x) = 5x + 1 and g(x) = 3x - 2. Express (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f)(x).

SOLUTION: (f ◦ g)(x) = f(3x - 2) (g ◦ f)(x) = g(5x + 1)
= 5(3x - 2) + 1 = 3(5x + 1) - 2
= (15x – 10) +1 = (15x + 3) - 2
= 15x – 9 = 15x + 1

You may observe that we are solving in terms of x. However, we can also substitute other
values for x and for these examples we would try to solve composition in terms of integers. In
addition, we would also compose functions in their own selves.
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

3. Given f(x) = x2 – 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2. Express (f ◦ g)(2), (g ◦ f)(4), (g ◦ g)(-1) and (f ◦ f)(3).
• (f ◦ g)(2) = f(g(2)) = f(3(2) + 2) = f(6 + 2) = f(8) = (8)2 – 1 = 64 – 1 = 63
• (g ◦ f)(4) = g(f(4)) = g(42 – 1) = g(16 – 1) = g(15) = 3(15) + 2 = 45 + 2 = 47
• (g ◦ g)(-1) = g(g(-1) = g(3(-1) + 2) = g(-3 + 2) = g(-1) = 3(-1) + 2 = -3 + 2 = -1
• (f ◦ f)(3) = f(f(3)) = f(32 – 1) = f(9 – 1) = f(8) = 82 – 1 = 64 – 1= 63

Are you confused on how we arrived with the answers? It’s just a matter of substituting
the values on the functions. We start with the function on the right so we need to get the value of
the function inside the parenthesis before plugging it into the function on the outside.

From your previous mathematics subjects/courses, you may have tackled with more than
two functions in composition. In this example, we would be solving compositions with three (3)
functions and we will be following the same process as we start at the right and work back to the
left.

4. Given f (x) = x2, g (x) = x - 1 and h (x) = ½ x. Express (f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) and find (h ◦ g ◦ f)(4).

SOLUTION: (f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f(g(h(x)))

= f(g(½ x))
= f(½ x – 1)
= (½ x – 1)2 (½ x – 1) (½ x – 1)
= (¼ x2 – x + 1)

(h ◦ g ◦ f)(4) = h(g(f(4)))
= h(g(42))
= h(g(16))
= h(16 – 1)
= h(15)
= ½ (15)
= 15/2 or 7.5

❖ LESSON 1.6 – Inverse of Functions

A function and its inverse function can be described as the "DO" and the "UNDO"
functions. A function takes a starting value, performs some operation on this value, and creates
an output answer. The inverse function takes the output answer, performs some operation on it,
and arrives back at the original function's starting value. This "DO" and "UNDO" process can be
stated as a composition of functions.

Basically speaking, the process of finding an inverse is simply the swapping of the x and
y coordinates. This newly formed inverse will be a relation, but may not necessarily be a function.

(Donna Roberts, MathBitsNotebook.com)

NOTE: A function composed with its inverse function yields

the original starting value.
Think of them as "undoing" one another and leaving you right where
you started. If functions f and g are inverse functions, (f ◦ g)(x)=. (g ◦
f)(x)= x.

−1
Definition. The inverse of f(x) is typically notated f ( x) , which is read “f inverse of x”,
−1
so equivalently, if f (a) = b then f (b) = a . If f (a) = b , then a function g(x) is an
inverse of f if g (b) = a .

Based from the definitions, you may be wondering on how to find the inverse of functions.
Here are three easy steps on how to solve for the inverses of the functions:
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

1. Set the function of f(x) into y

2. Swap the x and y variables
3. Solve for y

Does it sound to be complicated still for you? Let’s proceed with some examples for you
to be able to follow the steps in finding the inverses of the functions.

Example: Find the inverse of the function f(x) = x – 4.

SOLUTION:
Step 1. y = x – 4 We just exchanged f(x) into y
Step 2. x = y – 4 Swapping the position of x and y
Step 3. x = y – 4
x + 4= y
y=x+4 After solving for y, we have arrived for the
inverse of f(x)
Let us verify the note above if it is true.
(f ◦ f -)(x)= x
f(f -(x)) = x
f(x + 4) = x Indeed, the note is verified as
(x+4) – 4 = x true for this example. You can
x+4-4 = x try if f -(f(x)) = x is true?
x = x.
Example: Find the inverse of the function f(x) = ½ x.

SOLUTION:
Step 1. y = ½ x We just exchanged f(x) into y
Step 2. x = ½ y Swapping the position of x and y
Step 3. x = ½ y
2(x) = (½ y)2 Multiplying both sides by two to simplify
2x = y
y = 2x After solving for y, we have arrived for the
inverse of f(x)
Let us verify again the note above if it is true.
(f -◦ f)(x)= x
f -(f(x)) = x
f -(½ x) = x
2(½ x) = x
x = x.
Are you now ready to compose functions and finding its inverses? If not, please revisit
Lessons 1.5 and 1.6. Please proceed to Exercise 3 to test your understanding about what
you have read.

TEST YOURSELF

✓ EXERCISES 3

Instructions: Answer each of the following items using a different sheet of paper to be
attached later in the module.
For each pair of functions, find f ( g ( x ) ) and g ( f ( x ) ) . Simplify your answers.
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

1 7 1 2
a) f ( x) = , g ( x) = + 6 b) f ( x ) = , g ( x) = + 4
x−6 x x−4 x

1
c) If f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 , g ( x ) = and h ( x ) = x + 3 , find f ( g (h( x))) .
x

For each function below, find f −1 ( x )

a) f ( x) = x + 3 d) f ( x ) = x + 5
b) f ( x ) =  2  – x e) f ( x ) = 3 − x
c) f ( x ) = 11x + 7 f) f ( x ) = 9 + 10 x

❖ LESSON 1.7 – Graph of Functions

In this text, we will be exploring functions – the shapes of their graphs, their unique
features, their equations, and how to solve problems with them. When learning to read, we start
with the alphabet. When learning to do arithmetic, we start with numbers. When working with
functions, it is similarly helpful to have a base set of elements to build from. Hence this lesson
could familiarize with the different forms of the functions which would probably dealt in the next
lessons to be tackled.

For these definitions we will use x as the input variable and f(x) as the output variable.
Here are some of the equations of the different functions.

Linear
Constant: f ( x) = c , where c is a constant (number)
Identity: f ( x) = x

Absolute Value: f ( x) = x

Power
Quadratic: f ( x) = x 2
Cubic: f ( x) = x 3
1
Reciprocal: f ( x) =
x
1
Reciprocal squared: f ( x) = 2
x
Square root: f ( x) = x = x
2

Cube root: f ( x) = 3 x
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Graphs of the Functions

Constant Function: f ( x) = 2 Identity: f ( x) = x Absolute Value: f ( x) = x

Quadratic: f ( x) = x 2 Cubic: f ( x) = x 3 Square root: f ( x) = x

1 1
Cube root: f ( x) = 3
x Reciprocal: f ( x) = Reciprocal squared: f ( x) =
x x2

1 ∶𝑥>0
𝑦 = {0 ∶ 𝑥 = 0
−1 ∶ 𝑥 < 0
It is called Signum Function (Sign function/sgn function).
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Module 2
Limits

OVERVIEW

After studying about functions which may be refreshing for some of you, you may be
wondering about what is next. In this module, we would introduce the foundation of derivatives
and integrals which is limit. When we are talking about the term limit, we may understand it as
boundary, restriction or restraints. In the topics to be discussed, we would try to dig deeper on
what limit in mathematics could actually mean and why is it important.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

• Understand what limit actually is
• Be familiarized with the different properties of limits
• Solve different techniques in evaluating limits

DISCUSSION

❖ LESSON 2.1 DEFINITIONS OF LIMIT

While it is easy to define precisely in a few words what a square root is (√a is the positive
number whose square is a) the definition of the limit of a function runs over several terse lines,
and most people don’t find it very enlightening when they first see it.

Definition 1. If f is some function then

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
is read “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L.” It means that if you choose values of x which are
close but not equal to a, then f(x) will be close to the value L; moreover, f(x) gets closer and closer
to L as x gets closer and closer to a.

Example. If f(x) = x + 3 then

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 7
𝑥→4
is true, because if you substitute numbers x close to 4 in f(x) = x + 3 the result will be close to 7.

The informal description of the limit uses phrases like “closer and closer” and “really very
small.” In the end we don’t really know what they mean, although they are suggestive.
“Fortunately” there is a good definition, i.e. one which is unambiguous and can be used to settle
any dispute about the question of whether limx→a f(x) equals some number L or not. Here is the
definition. It takes a while to digest, so read it once, look at the examples, do a few exercises,
read the definition again. Throughout the semester come back to this section and read it again.

Definition 2. Definition of lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿. We say that L is the limit of f(x) as x → a, if

𝑥→𝑎
a) f(x) need not be defined at x = a, but it must be defined for all other x in some interval
which contains a.
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Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

b) for every ε > 0 one can find a δ > 0 such that for all x in the domain of f one has

|x − a| < δ implies |f(x) − L| < ε

Why the absolute values? The quantity |x − y| is the distance between the points x and
y on the number line, and one can measure how close x is to y by calculating |x − y|. The inequality
|x − a| < δ says that “the distance between x and a is less than δ,” or that “x and a are closer than
δ.”

What are ε and δ? The quantity ε is how close you would like f(x) to be to its limit L; the
quantity δ is how close you have to choose x to a to achieve this. To prove that limx→a f(x) = L you
must assume that someone has given you an unknown ε > 0, and then find a positive δ for which
(8) holds. The δ you find will depend on ε.

EXAMPLE: Show that limx→5 2x + 1 = 11 . We have f(x) = 2x + 1, a = 5 and L = 11, and

the question we must answer is “how close should x be to 5 if want to be sure that f(x) = 2x + 1
differs less than ε from L = 11?”

Are you now confused because of the definitions? In this example, we are just trying
or proving that the second definition really is true. Luckily, we won’t be using this one to
determine the limits of functions. Nonetheless, it is one way to introduce to you limits and for
you to appreciate it.

To figure this out we try to get an idea of how big |f(x) − L| is:

|f(x) − L| = (2x + 1) − 11 = |2x − 10| = 2 · |x − 5| = 2 · |x − a|.

There is a possibility that you may found this complicated but actually, we just
substituted the values assigned to the symbols such as f(x) and L and simplified the equation
by combining terms. We factored out 2 outside the absolute value and replace 5 into symbol
a again.

So, if 2|x − a| < ε then we have

1
|f(x) − L| < ε, i.e. if |x − a| < ε then |f(x) − L| < ε.
2

1
We can therefore choose δ = ε. No matter what ε > 0 we are given our δ will also be
2
positive, and if |x − 5| < δ then we can guarantee |(2x + 1) − 11| < ε. That shows that lim x→5 2x +
1 = 11.

Left and right limits. When we let “x approach a” we allow x to be both larger or smaller
than a, as long as x gets close to a. If we explicitly want to study the behavior of f(x) as x
approaches a through values larger than a, then we write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿- for the Left-Hand Limit

𝑥→𝑎−
and
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿+ for the Right-Hand Limit
𝑥→𝑎+

Theorem. If both one-sided limits limx→a f(x) = L+, and limx→a f(x) = L− exist, then limx→a
f(x) exists if and only if L+ = L−. In other words, if a function has both left- and right-limits at some
x = a, then that function has a limit at x = a if the left- and right-limits are equal.

Limits at infinity. Instead of letting x approach some finite number, one can let x become
“larger and larger” and ask what happens to f(x). If there is a number L such that f(x) gets arbitrarily
close to L if one chooses x sufficiently large, then we write:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→∞
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 14
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

(“The limit for x going to infinity is L.”)

For example: Limit of 1/x. The larger you choose x, the smaller its reciprocal 1/x becomes.
Therefore, it seems reasonable to say

lim 1/𝑥 = 0
𝑥→∞

In the last couple of examples, we worried about the possibility that a limit limx→a f(x)
actually might not exist. This can actually happen, and in this section we’ll see a few examples of
what failed limits look like. First let’s agree on what we will call a “limit does not exist.”

Definition. If there is no number L such that limx→a f(x) = L, then we say that the limit limx→a
f(x) does not exist.
For example, we have a function and determined its limit from the right- and left- hand,
and we have obtained lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −1 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1. We can conclude that the limit does
𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎+
not exist since 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) ≠ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙).
𝒙→𝒂− 𝒙→𝒂+

❖ LESSON 2.2 PROPERTIES AND EVALUATION OF LIMITS

o lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 Both a and c are constants
o lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
o lim 1/𝑥 = 0
𝑥→∞

Algebra of Limits

Let f and g be two real functions defined in the domain D.

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛, where m and n are real and finite, then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

o lim (𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑚 ± 𝑛

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
o lim (𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) × lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑚 × 𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
o lim (𝑓(𝑥) ÷ 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ÷ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑚/𝑛 , 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
o lim (𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ) = lim (𝑓(𝑥))𝑥→𝑎 = 𝑚𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
o lim (𝑘𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑘(lim 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑘𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

LET’S TRY!

Evaluation of limits

I. Algebraic Limit

i. Direct Substitution Method

In this method, we can directly substitute the number at which the limit is to be find.
After substitution, if we get a finite value, that is the limiting value of a function.

Examples: Find the limit of the following functions.

1. lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = 12 + 3(1) +4
𝑥→1
= 1+3+4=8
2. lim (𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4) = 23 – 5(2) + 4
𝑥→2
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 15
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

= 8 – 10 + 4 = 2
𝑥 2 −1 12 −1 1−1 𝟎
3. lim 𝑥−1 = 1−1
= 1−1
=𝟎
𝑥→1

You may notice that the answer for the last example for direct substitution that we
can’t have a denominator which is equal to 0 because it will give an undefined answer. In
the case of limits, it’s called in an indeterminate form. Hence, we should apply other
methods to be able to solve the problem.

ii. Using the left- and right-hand limits

In this method, we would provide a table of values approaching to 1 from the left
𝑥 2 −1
and from the right. The values will be substituted in to the function to find lim .
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
𝑥2 − 1
lim
𝑥→1− 𝑥 − 1
x 0 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999
f(x) 1 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.9999

𝑥2 − 1
lim
𝑥→1+ 𝑥 − 1
x 2 1.01 1.001 1.0001 1.00001 1.000001
f(x) 3 2.01 2.001 2.0001 2.00001 2.00001

Based from the two tables, it can be observed that as we approach values into 1
from the left, we approach also into 2 which is also similar to the second table when we
approach 1 from the right.
𝑥 2 −1 𝑥 2 −1
Since lim = lim , then we can conclude that the limit exists and it is
𝑥→1− 𝑥−1 𝑥→1+ 𝑥−1
equal to 2.

iii. Factorization Method

Aside from the previous method, this method could also be used to solve for limits
of indeterminate forms. We shall find out a common factor from the numerator as well as
a denominator. Cancel the common factor and then directly substitute the number at which
the limit is to be find.

Examples:
𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)
4. lim = = (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1
= lim (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→1
=1+1 = 𝟐
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥+2 (𝑥−2)(𝑥−1)
5. lim 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥+4 = (𝑥−4)(𝑥−1)
𝑥→1
𝑥−2 1−2 −1 1
= lim 𝑥−4 = 1−4 = −3
= 3
𝑥→1

iv. Rationalization Method

In this method, our first aim will be, remove the radical sign. This is particularly
used when either the numerator or denominator or both involve the fractional powers.

Examples:
√𝑥+2−1 √𝑥+2−1
√𝑥+2+1 𝑥+2−1=𝑥+1 1 1
6. lim = ∙= 𝑥+1( 𝑥+2+1) = 𝑥+2+1 = lim 𝑥+2+1
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
√𝑥+2+1 √ √ 𝑥→−1 √
1 1 1 1
= = = =
√−1 + 2 + 1 √1 + 1 1+1 2
√1+𝑥−1 √1+𝑥−1 √1+𝑥+1 1+𝑥−1 𝑥 1
7. lim 𝑥 = 𝑥
∙ 𝑥
= 𝑥( 1−𝑥+1) = 𝑥( 1−𝑥+1) = lim 1−𝑥+1
𝑥→0 √ √ 𝑥→0 √
1 1 1 1 1
= 1−𝑥+1 = 1−0+1 = 1+1 = 1+1 = 2
√ √ √

v. Infinity Method
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 16
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

∞
(a) Form: ( ). In this method, we shall write down the given expression in the
∞
𝑓(𝑥)
form of a rational function. i.e. .
𝑔(𝑥)
Then divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x and
then use
1
lim (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 0, 𝑥 > 1
𝑥→∞

∞∶𝑥>1
1 𝟎: 0<𝑥<1
Note: lim (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 0, 𝑥 > 1 { }
𝑥→∞ 𝟏: 𝑥 = 1
𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅: 𝑥 < 0

(b) Form (∞ ± ∞): In this method, first we reduce the function f(x) into a rational
function by rationalisation i.e. multiply the numerator and denominator by its
1
conjugate and then apply lim ( 𝑛 ) = 0, 𝑥 > 1.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

II. Non-algebraic Limit

Aside from the infinity method, there are other methods that you may not use for
every instance but they are essential as you explore through this course. It is for you to be
acquainted with such techniques in determining limits.

(a) Trigonometric Limit (c) Exponential Limit

i. lim sin 𝑥 = 0 i. lim (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 1 , 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑎 > 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
ii. lim cos 𝑥 = 0 ii. lim (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
iii. lim tan 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0
sin 𝑥
iv. lim ( 𝑥
)=1
𝑥→0
tan 𝑥
v. lim ( 𝑥 ) = 1
𝑥→0
cos 𝑥
vi. lim ( 𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→∞
tan 𝑥
vii. lim ( 𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→∞

(b) Inverse Trigonometric Limit

sin−1 𝑥
i. lim ( )=1
𝑥→0 𝑥
−1
tan 𝑥
ii. lim ( 𝑥 ) = 1
𝑥→0

Do you think you are now ready to solve problems involving limits? If you feel that
you could evaluate limits without looking back to the examples, please proceed to the
Exercises and if otherwise, kindly revisit the lessons.
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 17
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

TEST YOURSELF

✓ EXERCISES
Solve the following completely and show your solutions on a separate sheet of paper
to be attached to the module.
1. Show that If f(x) = x + 3 then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 7 using the second definition of limits.
𝑥→4
2. Evaluate the limits of the following functions and you may use any method:

a. lim (𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 10)
𝑥→3
b. lim (𝑥 2016 − 𝑥 2017 + 2)
𝑥→1
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8
c. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 +2𝑥
d. lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥+6
e. lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
3 − √5+𝑥
f. lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
√1+𝑥−√1−𝑥
g. lim 2𝑥
𝑥→0
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 18
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Module 3
CONTINUITY

OVERVIEW

When we plot function values generated in a solution, we often connect the plotted points
with an unbroken curve to show what the function’s values are likely to have been at the times we
did not measure. In doing so, we are assuming that we are working with a continuous function,
so its outputs vary continuously with the inputs and do not jump from one value to another without
taking on the values in between. The limit of a continuous function as x approaches c can be
found simply by calculating the value of the function at c.

Intuitively, any function y = f(x) whose graph can be sketched over its domain in one
continuous motion without lifting the pencil is an example of a continuous function. In this section,
we investigate more precisely what it means for a function to be continuous.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

• Relate prior knowledge about the principles and topics in limits to continuity
• Differentiate the types of Discontinuity
• Determine if a function is continuous or discontinuous

DISCUSSION

❖ LESSON 3.1 DEFINITIONS OF CONTINUITY

Graphically, a function is continuous at a point if its graph can be drawn at this point without
raising the pen or pencil, otherwise it is discontinuous at that point.

But only graphical approach is not sufficient, because sometimes it is quite time taking
(and in some cases it is even impossible) to draw the complete graph of a function. So we must
have an analytical approach to analyze the continuity of the function at any given point.

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = c if

 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 19
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

(i) 𝑓(𝑐) is defined

(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑐
(iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) specifically, lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Indeed, there exist a term which is discontinuity and it has also three reasons:

(i) 𝑓(𝑐) is not defined at x = c

(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→𝑐
(iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐

It should be noted that continuity of a function at x = c is meaningful only if the function is

defined in the immediate neighborhood of x = c, not necessarily at x = c.

There are actually two types of discontinuity:

(i) Removable Discontinuity
(ii) Non-Removable Discontinuity

❖ LESSON 3.2 DISCONTINUITIES

3.2.1 – Removable Discontinuity

In case lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists but is not equal to 𝑓(𝑐), then the function is said to have a
𝑥→𝑐
removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the first kind. In this case we can redefine the function
such that llim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) and make it continuous at x = c
𝑥→𝑐

(a) Missing Point Discontinuity: Where lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists finitely but 𝑓(𝑐) is not defined.
𝑥→𝑐

(1−𝑥)(9−𝑥 2 )
i. For example, 𝑓(𝑥) = has a missing point discontinuity at x = 1.
(1−𝑥)

sin 𝑥
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
has a missing point discontinuity at x = 0.

(b) Isolated Point Discontinuity: Where lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and 𝑓(𝑐) also exists but llim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
≠ 𝑓(𝑐)
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 20
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

𝑥 2 −16
i. (i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−4
,𝑥 ≠ 4 and 𝑓(4) = 9 has an isolated point of discontinuity at x
=4

3.2.2 – Non-removable Discontinuity

In case lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist then it is not possible to make the function continuous by
𝑥→𝑐
redefining it. Such discontinuous are known as non-removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the
2nd kind.

(a) Infinite Discontinuity:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) = ∞

𝑥→𝑐 + 𝑥→𝑐

1
i. For example, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−4 at 𝑥 = 4 has an infinite discontinuity, i.e.

where x = 4 is the vertical asymptote.

1
ii. Another example is (𝑥) = (𝑥−3)4 at 𝑥 = 3 has also an infinite discontinuity

LET’S TRY!

1. Test the continuity of the function f(x) at the origin

|𝑥|
∶𝑥≠0
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥
1 ∶𝑥=0
Solution:
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 21
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

i. We need to determine first the value of f at c or the origin. In a piece-wise

function, we can already determine f(0) which is equal to 1 since it is already
given.
ii. Now, we need to determine the existence of limits of f(x) as it approaches 0
since we can’t do a direct substitution.

|𝑥|
lim+ 𝑥
𝑥→0
0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
1 1 1 1

|𝑥|
lim− 𝑥
𝑥→0
-0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 -0.00001
--1 -1 -1 -1

|𝑥| |𝑥|
Since lim+ 𝑥
≠ lim− 𝑥
, then the limit does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

iii. We can conclude that the function is discontinuous at x = 0.

1
2. Test the continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 at x = 1.

Solution:
1 1 1
i. 𝑓(1) = = = which is undefined.
𝑥−1 1−1 0

1
ii. lim+
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
1.01 1.001 1.0001 1.00001
100 1000 10000 100000
1
lim+ 𝑥−1 = +∞
𝑥→1

1
lim− 𝑥−1
𝑥→1
0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999
-10 100 -1000 -10000
1
lim− 𝑥−1 = −∞
𝑥→1

1 1
Since lim+ 𝑥−1 ≠ lim− 𝑥−1, then the limit does not exist.
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
iii. Therefore, we can conclude that the function is discontinuous at x = 1.

𝑥 2 −1
3. Test the continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
at x = 1.

Solution:

12 −1 0
i. 𝑓(1) = 1−1
= 0 which is undefined.
𝑥 2 −1
ii. lim can be computed using factorization method.
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
2
𝑥 −1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
lim = = lim (𝑥 + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
𝑥→1𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1
iii. We could have concluded that the function is discontinuous at x since it did
not satisfy the first property of a continuous function.

𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
4. Test the continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = at x = -1.
𝑥+1

Solution:
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 22
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

12 −(−1)−2 0
i. 𝑓(1) = = which is undefined.
−1+1 0
𝑥 2 −1
ii. lim can be computed using factorization method.
𝑥→−1 𝑥−1
2
𝑥 −1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)
lim = = lim (𝑥 − 2) = −1 − 2 = −3
𝑥→−1𝑥−1 𝑥+1 𝑥→−1
iii. Thus, the function is discontinuous at x = -1.

TEST YOURSELF

Solve the following problems with a complete solution in a separate sheet to be attached
later.

1. From the examples 1-4, identify the kind of discontinuity for each function.
2. Determine if the given function is continuous or discontinuous at the indicated points.
4𝑥+5
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = at x = -1, x = 0 and x = 3.
9−3𝑥
2𝑥 ∶𝑥<6
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = { when x = 4.
𝑥−1 ∶𝑥≥0
6
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−10 when x = -2, x = 0 and x = 5.
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 23
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Module 4
DIFFERENTIABILITY

OVERVIEW

In the previous modules, we have laid the foundation of differential calculus. Before we
proceed to the differentiation, we need to relate the previous lessons to the current one through
the definitions to be discussed. Now, we develop the idea of the derivative of a function which is
one of the key ideas in calculus. Specifically, we would be solving derivatives using limits and
form the connections between differentiability and continuity.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

• Relate prior knowledge about the principles and topics in limits and continuity to
differentiability
• Calculate derivatives from the definition
• Determine if a function is continuous using the idea of differentiable functions

DISCUSSION

❖ LESSON 3.1 DIFFERENTIABILITY

In calculus, a differentiable function of one real variable is a function whose derivative

exists at each point in its domain. As a result, the graph of a differentiable function must have a
non-vertical tangent line (no vertical asymptote) at each point in its domain, be relatively smooth,
and cannot contain any breaks, bends, or cusps.

A function is said to be differentiable (finitely) at x = a, if f ’(a ) = finite. By definition

𝒇(𝒂+𝒉)−𝒇(𝒂)
𝒇′ (𝒂) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝒂 𝒉

The meaning of derivative could be derived from geometry specifically the tangent line.

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑚(𝑃𝑄) = tan 𝛼 = (𝑎+ℎ)−𝑎
= ℎ
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 24
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

when ℎ → 0, the point Q moving along the curve tends to P. i.e. 𝑄 → 𝑃.

The chord PQ approaches the tangent line PT at the point P.

So 𝛼 → 𝜃,

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
Thus, tan 𝛼 = lim ℎ
ℎ→0
𝒇(𝒙+𝒉)−𝒇(𝒙)
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉
.
𝒉→𝟎

Consequently, a function is differentiable at point x = a, if there is a tangent at x = a.

IMPORTANT NOTES!

1. A function f(x) is differentiable in its domain if it is a smooth curve. (a)

2. A function f(x) is differentiable, if there is a no break point, hole point or corner point or
a kink point on the given curve. (b), (c), (d)
3. A function f(x) is differentiable if there exists a unique tangent to each point on the given
curve. (e)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

We have found the connection between limits and derivatives. However, continuity can
also be related to derivatives.

i. If f ‘(a) exists, then f(x) is continuous at x = a

j. If f(x) is derivable for every point of its domain, then it is continuous in that domain.
Therefore, every differentiable function is continuous. However, If “f” is continuous at
x, then “f” is derivable at x is not true.
k. If a function is not differentiable but is continuous at x = a, it geometrically implies a
sharp corner or kink at x = a.

Note: The converse of the above result is not true. i.e. If ‘f’ is continuous at x, then ‘f’ is
derivable at x is not true.
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 25
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

❖ LESSON 3.2 DERIVATIVES USING THE DEFINITION

The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation. To emphasize the idea that
differentiation is an operation performed on a function y = f(x), we use the notation

𝒅𝒚
𝒇(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙

as another way to denote the derivative the derivative 𝑓’(𝑥). However, we would be solving the
derivatives using the definition given by

𝒇(𝒙+𝒉)−𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉
.
𝒉→𝟎

LET’S TRY!

EXAMPLES:
𝑥
1. Differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 using the definition.

Solution:

We use the definition of derivative, which requires us to calculate f(x+h) and then
subtract f(x) to obtain the numerator in the difference quotient. We have

𝑥 (𝑥+ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = , so
𝑥−1 (𝑥+ℎ)−1

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ℎ
.
ℎ→0
(𝑥+ℎ) 𝑥
−
(𝑥+ℎ)−1 𝑥−1
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
1 (𝑥+ℎ)(𝑥−1)−𝑥(𝑥+ℎ−1)
= lim ∙
ℎ→0 ℎ (𝑥+ℎ−1)(𝑥−1)
1 (𝑥 2 −𝑥+ℎ𝑥−ℎ)−(𝑥 2 +ℎ𝑥−𝑥)
= lim ∙
ℎ→0 ℎ (𝑥+ℎ−1)(𝑥−1)
1 𝑥 2 −𝑥+ℎ𝑥−ℎ−𝑥 2 −ℎ𝑥+𝑥)
= lim ∙
ℎ→0 ℎ (𝑥+ℎ−1)(𝑥−1)
1 −ℎ
= lim ℎ ∙ (𝑥+ℎ−1)(𝑥−1)
ℎ→0
−1
= lim , then we substitute h as 0, we have
ℎ→0 (𝑥+ℎ−1)(𝑥−1)
𝟏 𝟏
= − (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙−𝟏) or − (𝒙−𝟏)𝟐

∴ We can conclude that the function is continuous.

2. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 using the definition.

Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = √𝑥 + ℎ, so

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ℎ
.
ℎ→0
√𝑥+ℎ−√𝑥
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
√𝑥+ℎ−√𝑥 √𝑥+ℎ+√𝑥
= ℎ
∙
√𝑥+ℎ+√𝑥
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 26
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

𝑥+ℎ−𝑥
=
ℎ(√𝑥+ℎ+√𝑥)
ℎ
= ℎ(√𝑥+ℎ+√𝑥)
1
=
√𝑥+ℎ+√𝑥
1
= lim , then we substitute h as 0, we have
ℎ→0 √𝑥+ℎ+√𝑥
1
=
√𝑥+0+√𝑥
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒙+ 𝒙
or 𝟐 𝒙
√ √ √

∴ We can conclude that the function is continuous.

3. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 using the definition.

Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ)3 + 2(𝑥 + ℎ), so

[(𝑥+ℎ)3 +2(𝑥+ℎ)]−(𝑥 3 +2𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ℎ
.
ℎ→0
(𝑥 +3𝑥 ℎ+3𝑥ℎ +ℎ )+2𝑥+2ℎ−𝑥 3 −2𝑥
3 2 2 3
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
3𝑥 2 ℎ+3𝑥ℎ2 +ℎ3 +2ℎ
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
ℎ(3𝑥 2 +3𝑥ℎ+ℎ 2 +2)
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
= lim (3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 + 2), then we substitute h as 0, we have
ℎ→0
2 2
= 3𝑥 + 3𝑥(0) + 0 + 2
= 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐

∴ We can conclude that the function is continuous.

4. Using the definition, calculate the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2 and find the values of the
derivatives as 𝑓 ′ (−3), 𝑓 ′ (0) and 𝑓′(1).

Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 4 − (𝑥 + ℎ)2, so

4−(𝑥+ℎ)2 −4−𝑥 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ℎ
.
ℎ→0
4−(𝑥 +2𝑥ℎ+ℎ )−(4−𝑥 2 )
2 2
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
4−𝑥 2 −2𝑥ℎ−ℎ 2 −4+𝑥 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
−2𝑥ℎ−ℎ 2
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
ℎ(−2𝑥−ℎ)
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
= lim (−2𝑥 − ℎ), then we substitute h as 0, we have
ℎ→0
= −2𝑥 − 0
= −𝟐𝒙

Now, we evaluate the function at 𝑓 ′ (−3), 𝑓 ′ (0) and 𝑓′(1).

• 𝑓 ′ (−3) = −2(−3) = 6
• 𝑓 ′ (0) = −2(0) = 0
• 𝑓 ′ (1) = −2(1) = −2

∴ We can conclude that the function is continuous.

 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 27
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

𝑑𝑦
5. Find if 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 .
𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ)3 , so

2(𝑥+ℎ)3 −2𝑥 3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ℎ
ℎ→0
2(𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 ℎ+3𝑥ℎ 2 +ℎ3 )−2𝑥 3
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
2𝑥 3 +6𝑥 2 ℎ+6𝑥ℎ 2 +2ℎ3 −2𝑥 3
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
6𝑥 2 ℎ+6𝑥ℎ 2 +2ℎ 3
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
ℎ(6𝑥 2 +6𝑥ℎ+2ℎ2 )
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim (6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 ), then we substitute h as 0, we have
ℎ→0
2 2
= 6𝑥 + 6𝑥(0) + 2(0)
= 𝟔𝒙𝟐

∴ We can conclude that the function is continuous.

Although the process may seem complicated at first, it is just finding a way to cancel
the h in the denominator. You may need your skills in Algebra to simplify or factor the
equations. If you could follow the process in solving, please proceed to the Exercises and if
otherwise, please review each of the examples carefully.

TEST YOURSELF!

Solve the following problems with a complete solution in a separate sheet to be attached
later.

1. Determine if the following functions are continuous using the differentiation using the
definition.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 + 1
1
b. 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡 2
1−𝑧
c. ℎ(𝑧) =
3𝑧
d. 𝑗(𝑠) = √2𝑠 + 1

2. Based from the derivatives from the previous functions, determine the values of the
derivatives as specified:
a. 𝑓 ′ (−1), 𝑓 ′ (0), 𝑓′(2)
b. 𝑔′ (−1), 𝑔′ (2), 𝑔′(√3)
c. ℎ′ (−1), ℎ′ (1), ℎ′(√2)
1
d. 𝑗 ′ (0), 𝑗 ′ (1), 𝑗′(2)

3. Find the indicated derivatives using the definition.

𝑑𝑠 𝑡
a. 𝑑𝑡 if 𝑠 = 2𝑡+1
𝑑𝑟
b. 𝑑𝑠
if 𝑟 = 𝑠 3 − 2𝑠 2 + 3
𝑑𝑣 1
c. if 𝑣 = 𝑡 −
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 28
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Module 4
DIFFERENTIATION RULES

OVERVIEW
Finding the derivatives of functions using the definition can be a time-consuming and
tedious and, for certain functions, a rather challenging process. In this module, we would focus
on finding derivatives using rules which would eventually make derivation a lot easier. Fortunately,
there are standard formulas called differentiation formulas or differentiation rules which enable us
to find the derivative of even complicated functions as rapidly as we can write.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

• State the constant, constant multiple, and power rules.
• Apply the sum and difference rules to combine derivatives.
• Use the product rule for finding the derivative of a product of functions.
• Use the quotient rule for finding the derivative of a quotient of functions.
• Extend the power rule to functions with negative exponents.

DISCUSSION

The functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 where 𝑛 is a positive integer are the building
blocks from which all polynomials and rational functions are constructed. To find derivatives of
polynomials and rational functions efficiently without resorting to the limit definition of the
derivative, we must first develop formulas for differentiating these basic functions.

❖ LESSON 4.1 – The Basic Rules

I. The Constant Rule

The rule for differentiating constant functions is called the constant rule. It states that the
derivative of a constant function is zero; that is, since a constant function is a horizontal line, the
slope, or the rate of change, of a constant function is 0.

Let 𝑐 be a constant. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, then 𝒇′(𝒄) = 𝟎.

Alternatively, we may express this rule as

𝒅
(𝒄) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 29
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Examples:

Find the derivative of:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 8
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = −3
c. ℎ(𝑥) = 100002

The answer for all the items above is 0.

II. The Power Rule

Let 𝑛 be a positive integer. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 ,then

𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 .

Alternatively, we may express this rule as

𝒅 𝒏
(𝒙 ) = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 .
𝒅𝒙

Examples:
𝑑
a. Find 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 3 ).

Solution:

𝑑 3
(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 3−1 = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
b. Find 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 10 ).

Solution:

𝑑 10
(𝑥 ) = 10𝑥 10−1 = 10𝑥 9
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
c. Find (𝑥 7 ).
𝑑𝑥

Solution:

𝑑 7
(𝑥 ) = 7𝑥 7−1 = 7𝑥 6
𝑑𝑥

III. The Sum, Difference and Constant Multiple Rules

We find our next differentiation rules by looking at derivatives of sums, differences, and
constant multiples of functions. Just as when we work with functions, there are rules that make it
easier to find derivatives of functions that we add, subtract, or multiply by a constant. These rules
are summarized in the following

Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be differentiable functions and 𝑘 be a constant. Then each of the
following equations holds.

i. Sum Rule. The derivative of the sum of a function 𝑓 and a function 𝑔 is the same as
the sum of the derivative of 𝑓 and the derivative of 𝑔 .
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = (𝑓(𝑥)) + (𝑔(𝑥));
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 30
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

that is,

for 𝑠(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑠′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥) + 𝑔′(𝑥).

ii. Difference Rule. The derivative of the difference of a function 𝑓 and a function 𝑔 is the
same as the difference of the derivative of 𝑓 and the derivative of 𝑔 :

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = (𝑓(𝑥)) − (𝑔(𝑥));
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
that is,

for 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑑′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥) − 𝑔′(𝑥).

iii. Constant Multiple Rule. The derivative of a constant 𝑐 multiplied by a function 𝑓 is

the same as the constant multiplied by the derivative:

𝑑 𝑑
(𝑘𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑘 (𝑓(𝑥));
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
that is,

for 𝑚(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥), 𝑚′(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑓′(𝑥).

Examples:

a. Find the derivative of 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 .

Solution:

𝑑 𝑑
(3𝑥 2 ) = 3 𝑥 2 = 3(2𝑥 2−1 ) = 3(2𝑥) = 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

b. Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 .

Solution:

𝑑 𝑑
(2𝑥 4 ) = 2 𝑥 4 = 2(4𝑥 4−1 ) = 2(4𝑥 3 ) = 8𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

LET’S TRY!

a. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 + 7.

Solution:

𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (2𝑥 5 + 7)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 5 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (7) Applying the Sum Rule

𝑑 𝑑
= 2 (𝑥 5 ) + (7) Applying Constant Multiple Rule
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2(5𝑥 4 ) + 0 Applying the Power and Constant Rule
4
= 10𝑥
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 31
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

b. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3.

Solution:

𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= (2𝑥 3 ) − (6𝑥 2 ) + (3) Applying the Difference and Sum Rule
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= 2 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) − 6 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (3) Applying Constant Multiple Rule

= 2(3𝑥 2 ) − 6(2𝑥) + 0 Applying the Power and Constant Rule

= 6𝑥 2 − 12𝑥

c. Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 11.

Solution:
𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥 2 − 11)
𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥 2 ) − 𝑑𝑥 (11)
𝑑 𝑑
= 3 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) − 𝑑𝑥 (11)
= 3(2𝑥) − +0
= 6𝑥

IV. The Product Rule

Now that we have examined the basic rules, we can begin looking at some of the more
advanced rules. The first one examines the derivative of the product of two functions. Although it
might be tempting to assume that the derivative of the product is the product of the derivatives,
similar to the sum and difference rules, the product rule does not follow this pattern. To see why
we cannot use this pattern, consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2, whose derivative is 𝑓′(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and
𝑑 𝑑
not (𝑥) ⋅ (𝑥) = 1 ⋅ 1 = 1.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be differentiable functions. Then

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)) = (𝑓(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) + (𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
That is,

if 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒑′(𝒙) = 𝒇′(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) + 𝒈′(𝒙)𝒇(𝒙).

This means that the derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first
function times the second function plus the derivative of the second function times the first
function.

LET’S TRY!

a. For 𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2)(3𝑥 3 − 5𝑥), find 𝑝′(𝑥) by applying the product rule.
Solution:
If we set 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 , then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and 𝑔′ (𝑥) =
9𝑥 2 − 5 .

Thus,

𝑝′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔′(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥)(3𝑥 3 − 5𝑥) + (9𝑥 2 − 5)(𝑥 2 + 2)

 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 32
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

𝑝′ (𝑥) = (6𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 ) + (9𝑥 4 + 18𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 2 − 10)

𝒑′ (𝒙) = 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟒 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎

b. Use the product rule to obtain the derivative of 𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 (4𝑥 2 + 𝑥).

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 , then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 10𝑥 4 and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 8𝑥 + 1 .

𝑝′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔′(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) = (10𝑥 4 )(4𝑥 2 + 𝑥) + (8𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 5 )

𝑝′ (𝑥) = (40𝑥 6 + 10𝑥 5 ) + (16𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 5 )
𝒑′ (𝒙) = 𝟓𝟔𝒙𝟔 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟓

c. Differentiate 𝑦 = (𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 1)(5𝑥 + 2).

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 2 , then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 7 and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 5.

𝑝′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔′(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 + 7)(5𝑥 + 2) + (5)(𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 1)

𝑝′ (𝑥) = 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 35𝑥 + 14 + 5𝑥 3 + 35𝑥 − 5
𝒑′ (𝒙) = 𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟑 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝟎𝒙 + 𝟗

V. The Quotient Rule

Having developed and practiced the product rule, we now consider differentiating
quotients of functions. As we see in the following definition, the derivative of the quotient is not
the quotient of the derivatives; rather, it is the derivative of the function in the numerator times the
function in the denominator minus the derivative of the function in the denominator times the
function in the numerator, all divided by the square of the function in the denominator. In order to
better grasp why we cannot simply take the quotient of the derivatives, keep in mind that

Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be differentiable functions. Then

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑓(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) − (𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥)
( )= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 2
(𝑔(𝑥))
That is, if

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑞(𝑥) =
𝑔(𝑥)

then

𝒇′(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) − 𝒈′(𝒙)𝒇(𝒙)
𝒒′(𝒙) = 𝟐
.
(𝒈(𝒙))

VI. Negative Powers

If 𝑘 is a negative integer, then

𝒅 𝒌
(𝒙 ) = 𝒌𝒙𝒌−𝟏 .
𝒅𝒙
or we can write the final answer as

𝒅 𝒌 𝒌
(𝒙 ) = 𝒌−𝟏 .
𝒅𝒙 𝒙
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 33
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Examples:
𝑑
a. Find 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 −4 ) .

Solution:
𝑑 𝟒
(𝑥 −4 )
= 𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 = −4𝑥 −4−1 = −𝟒𝒙−𝟓 or − 𝒙𝟓 since a negative power would mean that it
𝑑𝑥
is in the denominator for the final answer.
6
b. Differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

Solution:
6
Hint: 𝑥 2 can be written as 𝟔𝒙−𝟐 .

𝑑 𝟏𝟐
(6𝑥 −2 ) = 6𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 = 6(−2𝑥 −2−1 ) = −𝟏𝟐𝒙−𝟑 or − 𝒙𝟑
𝑑𝑥

1
c. Find the derivative of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 7 .

Solution:
1
Hint: 𝑥 7 can be written as 𝒙−𝟕 .

𝑑 𝟕
(𝑥 −7 ) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 = −7𝑥 −7−1 = −𝟕𝒙−𝟖 or − 𝒙𝟖
𝑑𝑥

LET’S TRY!

5𝑥 2
a. Use the quotient rule to find the derivative of 𝑞(𝑥) = 4𝑥+3.

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3 , then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 10𝑥 and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 4 .

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) 10𝑥(4𝑥 + 3) − 4(5𝑥 2 ) 𝟒𝟎𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝟎𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟐

𝑞 ′ (𝑥) = 2 = =
(𝑔(𝑥)) (4𝑥 + 3)2 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝟒𝒙 + 𝟗

3𝑥+1
b. Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = 4𝑥−3 .

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 3 , then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 3 and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 4 .

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) 3(4𝑥 − 3) − 4(3𝑥 + 1) 12𝑥 − 9 − 12𝑥 − 4

𝑞 ′ (𝑥) = 2 = =
(𝑔(𝑥)) (4𝑥 − 3)2 (4𝑥 − 3)2

𝟒𝟎𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝟎𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟐

=
𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝒙 + 𝟗
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 34
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

TEST YOURSELF

Find 𝑓′(𝑥) for each function. Show your complete solutions in a separate sheet to be
attached later.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 7 + 10
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 1
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 2 − 1
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 2 − 3)
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥(18𝑥 4 + 13𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 −4
7. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥 2 +4
8. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −4
𝑥+9
9. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 −7𝑥+1
2 5
10. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 )
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 35
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Module 5
DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

OVERVIEW
One of the most important types of motion in physics is simple harmonic motion, which is
associated with such systems as an object with mass oscillating on a spring. Simple harmonic
motion can be described by using either sine or cosine functions. In this section we expand our
knowledge of derivative formulas to include derivatives of these and other trigonometric functions.
We begin with the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions and then use them to obtain
formulas for the derivatives of the remaining four trigonometric functions. Being able to calculate
the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions will enable us to find the velocity and acceleration
of simple harmonic motion.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

• Find the derivatives of the sine and cosine function.
• Find the derivatives of the standard trigonometric functions.

DISCUSSION

The derivative of the sine function is the cosine and the derivative of the cosine function
is the negative sine.

𝒅
(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
𝒅𝒙
𝒅
(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙) = −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Other trigonometric functions have the following derivatives:

• Derivative of tangent function

𝒅
(𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

• Derivative of cotangent function

𝒅
(𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙) = − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

• Derivative of secant function

𝒅
(𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

• Derivative of cosecant function

𝒅
(𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒙) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙
𝒅𝒙
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 36
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

LET’S TRY!

a. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 .

Solution:

Using the product rule, we have

𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (5𝑥 3 ) ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) ⋅ 5𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 15𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⋅ 5𝑥 3 .

After simplifying, we obtain

𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙.

b. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.

Solution:

Using the product rule, we have

𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (sin 𝑥) ⋅ cos 𝑥 + (cos 𝑥) ⋅ sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= cos 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + (− sin 𝑥) ⋅ sin 𝑥.

After simplifying, we obtain

𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙

cos 𝑥
c. Find the derivative of 𝑔(𝑥) = .
4𝑥 2

Solution:

Using the quotient rule, we have

𝑑 𝑑
(cos 𝑥)4𝑥 2 − (4𝑥 2 ) cos 𝑥
𝑔′(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .
(4𝑥 2 )2
(−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)
𝑔′(𝑥) = .
(4𝑥 2 )2
−4𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 8𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 4𝑥(−𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) −𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 − 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 4
= 4
= .
16𝑥 16𝑥 𝟒𝒙𝟑

d. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = csc 𝑥 + 𝑥 tan 𝑥.

Solution:

To find this derivative, we must use both the sum rule and the product rule. Using
the sum rule, we find
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (csc 𝑥) + (𝑥 tan 𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
In the first term, (csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥, and by applying the product rule to the
𝑑𝑥
second term we obtain
𝑑
(𝑥 tan 𝑥) = (1)(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥) + (sec 2 𝑥)(𝑥) .
𝑑𝑥
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 37
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Therefore, we simplify the equation to obtain

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 + 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥.

e. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 tan 𝑥 − 3 cot 𝑥.

Solution:

𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (2 tan 𝑥) − (3 cot 𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = ( (tan 𝑥) ∙ 2 + (2) ∙ tan 𝑥) − ( (cot 𝑥) ∙ 3 + (3) ∙ cot 𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
= (2sec 𝑥 + 0) − (− 3csc 𝑥 + 0)
= 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟑 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙

TEST YOURSELF

𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥
for the given functions.

a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − sec 𝑥 + 1
5
b. 𝑦 = 3 csc 𝑥 + 𝑥
c. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 cot 𝑥
d. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
sec 𝑥
e. 𝑦 = 𝑥
f. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥
g. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + cos 𝑥)(1 − sin 𝑥)
h. 𝑦 = (cos 𝑥)(1 + csc 𝑥)
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 38
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

Module 6
THE CHAIN RULE

OVERVIEW
We have seen the techniques for differentiating basic functions (𝑥 𝑛 , sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥,etc.) as
well as sums, differences, products, quotients, and constant multiples of these functions.
However, these techniques do not allow us to differentiate compositions of functions, such as
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 3 ) or 𝑘(𝑥) = √3𝑥 2 + 1 . In this module, we study the rule for finding the derivative
of the composition of two or more functions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

• Apply the chain rule together with the power rule.

• Apply the chain rule and the product/quotient rules correctly in combination when both
are necessary.
• Apply the chain rule on trigonometric functions.

DISCUSSION

When we have a function that is a composition of two or more functions, we could use all
of the techniques we have already learned to differentiate it. However, using all of those
techniques to break down a function into simpler parts that we are able to differentiate can get
cumbersome. Instead, we use the chain rule, which states that the derivative of a composite
function is the derivative of the outer function evaluated at the inner function times the derivative
of the inner function.

Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions. For all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔 for which 𝑔 is differentiable at
𝑥 and 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑔(𝑥) , the derivative of the composite function

ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

is given by

ℎ′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′(𝑥).

Alternatively, if 𝑦 is a function of 𝑢 , and 𝑢 is a function of 𝑥 , then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ⋅ .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 39
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

❖ LESSON 6.1 - The Chain and Power Rules Combined

We can now apply the chain rule to composite functions, but note that we often need to
𝑛
use it with other rules. For example, to find derivatives of functions of the form ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑔(𝑥)) ,
we need to use the chain rule combined with the power rule. To do so, we can think of ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑛 𝑛−1
(𝑔(𝑥)) as 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 . Then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 . Thus, 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑛(𝑔(𝑥)) .
This leads us to the derivative of a power function using the chain rule,

𝑛−1
ℎ′(𝑥) = 𝑛(𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′(𝑥)

LET’S TRY!

1
a. Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 +1)2.

Solution:
1
First, rewrite ℎ(𝑥) = (3𝑥2 +1)2 = (3𝑥 2 + 1)−2 .

Applying the power rule with 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 1 , we have

𝑑
ℎ′ (𝑥) = −2(3𝑥 2 + 1)−2−1 ⋅ (3𝑥 2 + 1) = −2(3𝑥 2 + 1)−3 ∙ 6𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Simplifying it, we have

−𝟑 −𝟏𝟐𝒙
𝒉′ (𝒙) = −𝟏𝟐𝒙(𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) or (𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)𝟑

b. Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = (2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1)4 .

Solution:

𝑑
ℎ′ (𝑥) = 4(2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1)4−1 ⋅ (2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥
= 4(3𝑥 2 + 1)3 ∙ (6𝑥 + 2).
𝟑
𝒉′ (𝒙) = 𝟒(𝟔𝒙 + 𝟐) ∙ (𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)

c. Use chain rule to find the derivative of 𝑦 = (4𝑥 8 − 6)6

Solution:

𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6(4𝑥 8 − 6)6−1 ⋅ (4𝑥 8 − 6)
𝑑𝑥
= 6(4𝑥 8 − 6)5 ∙ 32𝑥 7 .

d. Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 1)5 (3𝑥 − 2)7 .

Solution:

First apply the product rule, then apply the chain rule to each term of the product.

𝑑 𝑑
ℎ′ (𝑥) = ((2𝑥 + 1)5 ) ⋅ (3𝑥 − 2)7 + ((3𝑥 − 2)7 ) ⋅ (2𝑥 + 1)5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 5(2𝑥 + 1)4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ (3𝑥 − 2)7 + 7(3𝑥 − 2)6 ⋅ 3 ⋅ (2𝑥 + 1)5
= 10(2𝑥 + 1)4 (3𝑥 − 2)7 + 21(3𝑥 − 2)6 (2𝑥 + 1)5
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 40
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

= (2𝑥 + 1)4 (3𝑥 − 2)6 [10(3𝑥 − 2) + 21(2𝑥 + 1)]

= (2𝑥 + 1)4 (3𝑥 − 2)6 [30𝑥 − 20 + 42𝑥 + 21)
= (2𝑥 + 1)4 (3𝑥 − 2)6 (72𝑥 + 1)
𝑥
e. Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = (2𝑥+3)3 .

Solution:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 3)3

𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) (𝑥)(2𝑥 + 3)3 − ((2𝑥 + 3)3 )(𝑥)
ℎ ′ (𝑥)
= = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 [(2𝑥 + 3)3 ]2
(𝑔(𝑥))
1(2𝑥 + 3)3 − [3(2𝑥 + 3)3−1 ∙ 2 ∙ 𝑥]
=
[(2𝑥 + 3)3 ]2
(2𝑥 + 3) − 6𝑥(2𝑥 + 3)2 ]
3
=
(2𝑥 + 3)6
(2𝑥 + 3)2 [(2𝑥 + 3) − 6𝑥] (2𝑥 + 3) − 6𝑥
= =
(2𝑥 + 3)6 (2𝑥 + 3)4
2𝑥 + 3 − 6𝑥 𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙
= 4
=
(2𝑥 + 3) (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)𝟒

❖ LESSON 6.1 - The Chain Rule in Trigonometric Functions

For all values of 𝑥 for which the derivative is defined,

LET’S TRY!

a. Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(5𝑥 2 )

Solution:

Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 then 𝑔′(𝑥) = 10𝑥

Using the notations above, we have

ℎ′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝑥 2 ) ⋅ 10𝑥 = −𝟏𝟎𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟓𝒙𝟐 )

 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 41
Gideon D. Oray,LPT,MST

b. Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐(4𝑥 5 + 2𝑥).

Solution:

Apply the chain rule to ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑔(𝑥)) to obtain

ℎ′(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑔(𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′(𝑥).

In this problem, 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 5 + 2𝑥, so we have 𝑔′(𝑥) = 20𝑥 4 + 2. Therefore, we obtain

ℎ′ (𝑥) = sec(4𝑥 5 + 2𝑥) tan(4𝑥 5 + 2𝑥) (20𝑥 4 + 2)

= (20𝑥 4 + 2)𝑠𝑒𝑐(4𝑥5 + 2𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑛(4𝑥5 + 2𝑥).

c. Differentiate ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 3 ).

Solution:

Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 then 𝑔′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2

ℎ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 3 ⋅ 3𝑥 2 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙𝟑

d. Find the derivative of 𝑃(𝑡) = cos 4(𝑡) + cos(𝑡 4 ).

Solution:

cos4 (𝑡) can be written as (cos 𝑡) 4 so we could use the power rule and chain rule
for the second term to obtain

𝑑 𝑑
𝑃′ (𝑡) = 4 cos 4−1(𝑡) ∙ (cos 𝑡) + ( cos 𝑡 4 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 4 cos3 𝑡 ∙ − sin 𝑡 + (− sin 𝑡 4 )4𝑡 3
= −4 sin 𝑡 cos3 𝑡 − 4𝑡 3 sin 𝑡 4

e. Differentiate 𝑦 = sec(1 − 5𝑥)

Solution:
𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = sec(1 − 5𝑥) tan(1 − 5𝑥) ∙ (1 − 5𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
= sec(1 − 5𝑥) tan(1 − 5𝑥) ∙ −5
= −5sec(1 − 5𝑥) tan(1 − 5𝑥)

TEST YOURSELF

Find the derivative of the following functions.

a. 𝑦 = (3𝑥 − 2)6
b. 𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 + 1)3
c. 𝑦 = sin5 (𝑥)
𝑥 7 7
d. ( + )
7 𝑥
e. 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)
f. (3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1)4
1
g. 𝑦 = sin2(𝑥)
h. 𝑦 = cot 3(4𝑥 + 1)