Names, Identifiers, and Addresses

names play an important role to:

lshare resources
luniquely identify entities
lrefer to locations
ØA name in a distributed system is a string of bits or characters
that is used to refer to an entity.
ØAn entity is anything; e.g., resources such as hosts, printers,
disks, files, objects, processes, users, Web pages, newsgroups,
mailboxes, network connections, ...
ØTo operate on an entity, it is necessary to access it through its
access point.
 Access Point

l The name of an access point is called an address (such as IP

address and port number).
l An entity can have more than one access point (similar to
accessing an individual through different telephone
numbers).
l An entity may change its access point in the course of time
(e.g., a mobile computer getting a new IP address as it
moves)
 Addresses

ü An address is a special kind of name

ü it refers to at most one entity
ü each entity is referred by at most one address; even when
replicated such as in Web pages.
ü an entity may change an access point, or an access point
may be reassigned to a different entity (like telephone
numbers in offices)
ü separating the name of an entity and its address makes it
easier and more flexible; such a name is called location
independent
ü A well know address is internet addressing (IP).
 Internet Protocol

l IP resides on the network layer of the OSI model

l IP addresses are used to help devices send and receive data
across networks
l IPv4 is the most commonly used communication protocol, but
IPv6 is beginning to replace it.
 Internet Addressing

l Network address are always numeric but they can be

expressed in 2 base (Binary) or base 10 (Decimal) or even
base 16 (Hexadecimal).
l An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a
node or host connection on an IP network.
l There are two types of internet addressing. This are IPv4 and
IPv6.
l IPv4 uses a 32 bit binary address. Each address is organized
as a four 8 bit numbers separated by dots.
l Each 8 bit number is called an octet.
e.g. 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
 Binary Vs Decimal Addressing

Digit 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Binary 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Decimal value of digit 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

l Binary addressing is machine friendly therefore we need

them to convert to decimal addressing which is user friendly.
l Each of bit in binary address is populated with a 1.
calculating the decimal value of this binary number can be
done by summing the decimal value of eight column.
ü 11111111 is 128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255
ü 10100110 is 128+0+32+0+0+4+2+0=156 ….
 IPv4 Formats

l It’s a 32 bit binary numbers that was partitioned into four 8

bit binary number or octets.
11111111.11111111.111111111.11111111 or
00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
l Each of four octets in IP address represented decimal
number from 0 to 255 and separated by dots.
l The lowest possible value is 0.0.0.0
l The highest possible value is 255.255.255.255
l 140 .179 .220 .200 is equivalent to
10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000
 IPv4 Formats

Example

lIP addresses have two portions , such as:

n network portion: identifies the network that the
destination computer is located in and is the designation
used in routing to send packets to a remote network.
n host portion: identifies the destination compute / machine
in the network. Also called node address.
 Classes of IPv4 Addresses

l IPv4 was broken down into classes to accommodate large,

medium and small size networks.
l There are five classes of IP addresses that identified by single
alphabetic character A, B, C, D and E. You can determine
which class any IP address is in by examining the first 4 bits
of the IP address (for binary) or the first octet (for dotted
decimal number).
l Each class contain 2 parts. A network address and host
address parts.
 Classes of IPv4 Addresses …

l Class A addresses begin with 0xxxxxxx, or 1 to 127 decimal.

l Class B addresses begin with 10xxxxxx, or 128 to 191 decimal.
l Class C addresses begin with 110xxxxx, or 192 to 223 decimal.
l Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal.
l Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 255 decimal.
l Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting;
l Class E addresses are reserved for future use.
l Class D and E should not be used for host addresses.
l Class A -- NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
l Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
l Class C -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh
 Class A addresses

l It was designed to support extremely large networks.

l It uses only the first octet to indicate the network address
and the remaining three octets enumerates the host address.
l The first bit of class A address is 0. 0xxxxxxx.
l The possible range of class A network address is 0-127. which
is the sum of 64+32+16+8+4+2+1.
l Example: 98.56.82.30
l The last 24 bit of class A address is represented the host
address. NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
1st octet 2st octet 3rd octet 4th octet

Network address
Host Address
 Class A addresses…

l The range of possible class A network address is from 1.0.0.0

to 126.0.0.0
l Technically 127.0.0.0 is a class A address. But it cannot be
assigned for network.
l To find the number of host address the formula is 2n-2.
where n is the rest number of host address bits and we
subtract 2 because IP reserve 2 bits for Network and
broadcast . Therefore in class A address there is 224-
2=16777214 unique host addresses.
 Class B addresses

l It designed to support moderate to large size network.

l It uses the first Two octets to indicate the network address
and the remaining two octets enumerates the host address.
l The first two bit of class B address is 10. 10xxxxxx.
l The possible range of class A network address is 128-191.
which is the sum of 128+32+16+8+4+2+1.
128.1.0.0 to 192.254.0.0
l The last 16 bit of class B address is represented the host
address. NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
l Class B address can support 216-2=65534 host addresses.
 Class C addresses

l It uses to intend small size networks.

l It uses the first Three octets to indicate the network address
and the remaining octet enumerates the host address.
l The first three bits of class B address is 110. 110xxxxx.
l The maximum value of the octet in class C address is
128+64+16+8+4+2+1 or 225-32 which is 223
l The minimum value of octets in class C address is
128+64=192.
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.254.0
l The last octet of class C address is represented the host
address. NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh
l Class c address can support 28-2=254 host addresses.
 Class D addresses

l It was created to enable multicasting in IP network.

l A multicasting is a unique network address that directs
packets with that destination address to predefined group of
IP addresses. Therefore a single station can simultaneously
can transmit in a single stream of datagrams in multiple
recipients.
l It uses the all octets to indicate the network address and
there is no host address in class D address.
l The first four bits of class B address is 1110. 1110xxxx.
l The maximum value of the octet in class D address is
128+64+32+8+4+2+1 or 225-16 which is 239
l The minimum value of octets in class D address is
128+64+32=224.
 Class D addresses…

224.0.0.0 to 224.255.255.254
NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN. NNNNNNNN

Class E addresses
l No class E was released for use of internet. But it uses for
research purpose.
l The possible range of class E address is
240.1.1.1 to 255.255.255.255
 Summary

IP Address Class High Order Bits First Octet Number of Bits in the
Address Range Network Address

Class A 0 0 – 127* 8

Class B 10 128 – 191 16

Class C 110 192 – 223 24

Class D 1110 224 – 239

Class E 1111 240 - 255

 Flat Naming

l There are three classes on naming systems: flat naming,

structured naming, and attribute-based naming
l In Flat Naming a name is a sequence of characters without
structure; like human names.
l moreover, it does not contain any information on how to
locate the access point of its associated entity
v how are flat names resolved (or how to locate an entity
when a flat name is given) ?
A. Simple solution
B. Home – based approach
C. Hierarchical approaches
 Excercise

l 1. What is the decimal equivalent of the binary number

10101010?
l 2. Convert the following Binary IPv4 addresses into
decimal IPv4 Addresses, determine IPv4 classes as well.
A-00001010.00000001.00010111.00010011
B- 10101100 00010010 01000001 10101010
C-11000000.10101000.00001110.00000110
 Simple solution

In simple solution there are two solutions: Broadcasting and

Multicasting
l broadcast a message containing the identifier of an entity;
only machines that can offer an access point for the entity
send a reply.
l e.g., ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) in the Internet to
find the data link address (MAC address) of a machine.
 Broadcasting and Multicasting

l a computer that wants to access another computer for

which it knows its IP address broadcasts this address.
l the owner responds by sending its Ethernet address
l broadcasting is inefficient when the network grows
therefore multicasting is better.

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END OF CHAPTER

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