Research & communications notes 3

Sample and sampling techniques

What is sampling?

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the
group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are
researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100
students

What are the sampling methods or Sampling Techniques?

In Statistics, the sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the
population by gathering information and analyzing that data. It is the basis of the data where the
sample space is enormous. 

There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into two
groups. All these methods of sampling may involve specifically targeting hard or approach to
reach groups.

 Random Sampling
 Sampling Error Formula
 Population and Sample
 Sampling error

Types of Sampling Method

In Statistics, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from the
population. The two different types of sampling methods are::

 Probability Sampling
 Non-probability Sampling
Also, read: Sample statistic

What is Probability Sampling?

The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this method, all the
eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole sample space. This
method is more time consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The
benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the
representative of the population.

Probability Sampling Types

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Let us discuss the
different types of probability sampling methods along with illustrative examples here in detail.

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and likely
chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the chance,
this method is known as “Method of chance Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the
item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representative Sampling”.

Example:
Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we can
assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random number
generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.

Systematic Sampling

In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population by selecting
the random selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed sample interval. It is
calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired population size.

Example:

Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. To
select a sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by
randomly selecting a starting number, say 5.  From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th
person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some students.

Stratified Sampling

In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to complete
the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few characteristics in the population.
After separating the population into a smaller group, the statisticians randomly select the sample.

For example,  there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls,
bag B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag
proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.

Clustered Sampling

In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the population
set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an equal chance of being
a part of the sample. This method uses simple random sampling for the cluster of population.

Example:

An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the number of
students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we can’t travel to
every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or four
branches as clusters.

All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the figure given
below. The figure contains various examples of how samples will be taken from the population
using different techniques.
What is Non-Probability Sampling?
The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample
based on subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the
members of the population have a chance to participate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, snowball
sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in detail.

Convenience Sampling

In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population directly because
they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and the
researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire population.

Example:

In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few customers to
complete a survey on the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data.
Still, as we only surveyed customers taking the same product. At the same time, the sample is not
representative of all the customers in that area.

Consecutive Sampling

Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation. The researcher
picks a single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the researcher researches for a
period of time to analyze the result and move to another group if needed.

Quota Sampling

In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to
represent the population based on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample
subsets that bring the useful collection of data that generalizes the entire population.

Learn more about quota sampling here.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As
their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining highly
accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental sampling or
authoritative sampling.

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the
samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is asked
to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the same targeted
population.

Probability sampling vs Non-probability Sampling Methods

The below table shows a few differences between probability sampling methods and non-
probability sampling methods.

Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods

Non-probability sampling method is a
Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in
technique in which the researcher chooses
which samples taken from a larger population
samples based on subjective judgment,
are chosen based on probability theory.
preferably random selection.
These are also known as Random sampling These are also called non-random sampling
methods. methods.
These are used for research which is
These are used for research which is conclusive.
exploratory.
These involve a long time to get the data. These are easy ways to collect the data quickly.
There is an underlying hypothesis in probability
The hypothesis is derived later by conducting
sampling before the study starts. Also, the
the research study in the case of non-
objective of this method is to validate the
probability sampling.
defined hypothesis.

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Research Methodology » Sampling Techniques

Sampling Methods in Reseach: Types,

Techniques, & Examples
By
Saul Mcleod, PhD
Updated on
March 6, 2023
Reviewed by
Olivia Guy Evans

 Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under
study.
  The target population is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be
drawn.
 A sample is a group of people who take part in the investigation. The people who take
part are referred to as “participants.”
 Generalizability refers to the extent to which we can apply our research findings to the
target population we are interested in. This can only occur if the sample of participants is
representative of the population.
 A biased sample is when certain groups are over or under-represented within the sample
selected. For instance, if only males are selected, or if the advert for volunteers is put into
the Guardian, only people who read the Guardian are selected. This limits how much the
study’s findings can be generalized to the whole population.

Table of Contents

 The Purpose of Sampling

 Random Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Opportunity Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Sample size

The Purpose of Sampling

In psychological research, we are interested in learning about large groups of people who all
have something in common. We call the group that we are interested in studying our “target
population.”

In some types of research, the target population might be as broad as all humans. Still, in other
types of research, the target population might be a smaller group, such as teenagers, preschool
children, or people who misuse drugs.
Studying every person in a target population is more or less impossible. Hence, psychologists
select a sample or sub-group of the population that is likely to be representative of the target
population we are interested in.

This is important because we want to generalize from the sample to the target population. The
more representative the sample, the more confident the researcher can be that the results can be
generalized to the target population.

One of the problems that can occur when selecting a sample from a target population is sampling
bias. Sampling bias refers to situations where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of
the target population.

Many psychology studies have a biased sample because they have used an opportunity sample
that comprises university students as their participants (e.g., Asch ).
OK, so you’ve thought up this brilliant psychological study and designed it perfectly. But who
will you try it out on, and how will you select your participants?

There are various sampling methods. The one chosen will depend on a number of factors (such
as time, money, etc.).

Random Sampling
Random sampling is a type of probability sampling where everyone in the entire target
population has an equal chance of being selected.
This is similar to the national lottery. If the “population” is everyone who bought a lottery ticket,
then everyone has an equal chance of winning the lottery (assuming they all have one ticket
each).

Random samples require a way of naming or numbering the target population and then using
some raffle method to choose those to make up the sample. Random samples are the best method
of selecting your sample from the population of interest.

 The advantages are that your sample should represent the target population and eliminate
sampling bias.
 The disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e., time, effort, and money).

Stratified Sampling
During stratified sampling, the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up
the target population and works out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative.

A list is made of each variable (e.g., IQ, gender, etc.) that might have an effect on the research.
For example, if we are interested in the money spent on books by undergraduates, then the main
subject studied may be an important variable.

For example, students studying English Literature may spend more money on books than
engineering students, so if we use a very large percentage of English students or engineering
students, then our results will not be accurate.

We have to work out the relative percentage of each group at a university, e.g., Engineering
10%, Social Sciences 15%, English 20%, Sciences 25%, Languages 10%, Law 5%, and
Medicine 15%. The sample must then contain all these groups in the same proportion as in the
target population (university students).

 The disadvantage of stratified sampling is that gathering such a sample would be

extremely time-consuming and difficult to do. This method is rarely used in Psychology.
 However, the advantage is that the sample should be highly representative of the target
population and therefore we can generalize from the results obtained.

Opportunity Sampling
Uses people from the target population available at the time and willing to participate. It is based
on convenience.

An opportunity sample is obtained by asking members of the population of interest if they would
participate in your research. An example would be selecting a sample of students from those
coming out of the library.

 This is a quick and easy way of choosing participants (advantage)

  It may not provide a representative sample and could be biased (disadvantage).

Systematic Sampling
Chooses subjects in a systematic (i.e., orderly/logical) way from the target population, like every
nth participant on a list of names.

To take a systematic sample, you list all the members of the population and then decide upon a
sample you would like. By dividing the number of people in the population by the number of
people you want in your sample, you get a number we will call n.

If you take every nth name, you will get a systematic sample of the correct size. If, for example,
you wanted to sample 150 children from a school of 1,500, you would take every 10th name.

 The advantage of this method is that it should provide a representative sample.

 The disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e., time, effort, and money).

Sample size
The number of participants needed depends on several factors; the size of the target population is
important. If the target population is very large (e.g., all 4-6 yr olds in Britain), then you need a
fairly large sample in order to be representative.

If the target population is much smaller, then the sample can be smaller but still be
representative. There must be enough participants to make the sample representative of the target
population.

Lastly, the sample must not be so large that the study takes too long or is too expensive!

A sampling frame is a researcher's list or device to specify the population of interest. It's a group of
components that a researcher can use to select a sample from the population. Limited resources and
accessibility might prohibit researchers from collecting data from all target population segments.

Sample Size
In statistics, the sample size is the measure of the number of individual samples used in an
experiment. For example, if we are testing 50 samples of people who watch TV in a city, then
the sample size is 50.  We can also term it  Sample Statistics.

Statistics is the study of the process of collecting, organizing, analyzing, summarizing data and
drawing inferences from the data so worked on. In Statistics, we come across two types of data –
  Population data
 Sample data

Population data is a large amount of data that includes the whole area of study, which is termed
as population. A population consists of all the elements that are studied for the research.

On the other hand, sample data is a part of the population. Usually, it is quite clumsy and
difficult to compute the whole population. In this case, a representative sample is selected from
the population. This sample is termed sample data. In this article, let us discuss the sample size
definition, formulas, examples in detail.

Sample Size Definition

The sample size is defined as the number of observations used for determining the estimations of
a given population. The size of the sample has been drawn from the population. Sampling is the
process of selection of a subset of individuals from the population to estimate the characteristics
of the whole population. The number of entities in a subset of a population is selected for
analysis.

Small Sample Size

Sometimes the sample size can be very small. When the sample size is small (n < 30), we use the
t distribution in place of the normal distribution. If the population variance is unknown and the
sample size is small, then we use the t statistic to test the null hypothesis with both one-tailed and
two-tailed, where

Large Sample Size

Generate for more accurate estimates but large sample size might cause difficulties in
interpreting the usual tests of significance, and the same problem may arise in case of very small
sample size. Thus, neither too large nor too small sample sizes help research projects.

Formula
The sample size formula for the infinite population is given by:

Where,

SS = Sample Size

Z = Z -Value

P = Percentage of Population
C = Confidence interval

When the sample input or data is obtained, and the sample mean x̄ is calculated, the sample mean
obtained is different from the population mean μ. This difference between the population mean
and the sample mean can be considered as an error E, which is the maximum difference between
the observed sample mean and the true value of the population mean.

The above-given formula can be solved for n, which can be used to determine the minimum
sample size.

Therefore, the formula to find the minimum sample size is given by

Solved Example
Question:

Assuming the heights of students in a college campus are normally distributed with a standard
deviation = 5 in, find the minimum size required to construct a 95% confidence interval for mean
with a maximum error = 0.5 in.

Solution:

Given: E = 0.5 in, σ = 5 and α = 1 – 0.95 = 0.05

Therefore, Zα/2 = Z 0.025 = 1.96

The formula to find the minimum sample size is

Now, substitute the given values in the sample size formula, we get

Therefore, rounding this value up to the next integer, the minimum sample space required is 385.
Close X

Sample Size in Statistics (How to Find it):

Excel, Cochran’s Formula, General Tips

Contents:
 1. What is a Sample Size?
2. How to Find a Sample size:
o Part One: General Tips.
o Cochran’s Sample Size Formula
o Yamane’s Sample Size Formula
o Known Confidence Interval and Width (unknown population standard deviation).
o Known Confidence Interval and Width (known population standard deviation).
o Find a sample size to estimate a population mean
o Use Excel to find a sample size.

Watch the video for an overview of how to find a sample size:

How to Find a Sample Size

Watch this video on YouTube.

What is a “Sample Size”?

A sample size is a part of the population chosen for a survey or experiment. For example, you
might take a survey of dog owner’s brand preferences. You won’t want to survey all the millions
of dog owners in the country (either because it’s too expensive or time consuming), so you take a
sample size. That may be several thousand owners. The sample size is a representation of all dog
owner’s brand preferences. If you choose your sample wisely, it will be a good representation.

When Error can Creep in

When you only survey a small sample of the population, uncertainty creeps in to your statistics.
If you can only survey a certain percentage of the true population, you can never be 100% sure
that your statistics are a complete and accurate representation of the population. This uncertainty
is called sampling error and is usually measured by a confidence interval. For example, you
might state that your results are at a 90% confidence level. That means if you were to repeat your
survey over and over, 90% of the time your would get the same results.

A census is where every member of a population is surveyed, not just a sample.

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How to Find a Sample Size in Statistics

A sample is a percentage of the total population in statistics. You can use the data from a sample
to make inferences about a population as a whole. For example, the standard deviation of a
sample can be used to approximate the standard deviation of a population. Finding a sample size
can be one of the most challenging tasks in statistics and depends upon many factors including
the size of your original population.

General Tips
Step 1: Conduct a census if you have a small population. A “small” population will depend on
your budget and time constraints. For example, it may take a day to take a census of a student
body at a small private university of 1,000 students but you may not have the time to survey
10,000 students at a large state university.

Step 2: Use a sample size from a similar study. Chances are, your type of study has already
been undertaken by someone else. You’ll need access to academic databases to search for a study
(usually your school or college will have access). A pitfall: you’ll be relying on someone else
correctly calculating the sample size. Any errors they have made in their calculations will
transfer over to your study.

Step 3: Use a table to find your sample size. If you have a fairly generic study, then there is
probably a table for it. For example, if you have a clinical study, you may be able to use a table
published in Machin et. al’s Sample Size Tables for Clinical Studies, Third Edition.

Step 4: Use a sample size calculator. Various calculators are available online, some simple,
some more complex and specialized. For example, this calculator is for group- or cluster-
randomized trials (GRTs).

Step 5: Use a formula. There are many different formulas you can use, depending on what you
know (or don’t know) about your population. If you know some parameters about your
population (like a known standard deviation), you can use the techniques below. If you don’t
know much about your population, use Slovin’s formula..
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Cochran’s Sample Size Formula

Watch the video for an example:

Cochran's Formula for Sample Size

Watch this video on YouTube.

The Cochran formula allows you to calculate an ideal sample size given a desired level of
precision, desired confidence level, and the estimated proportion of the attribute present in the
population.

Cochran’s formula is considered especially appropriate in situations with large populations. A

sample of any given size provides more information about a smaller population than a larger one,
so there’s a ‘correction’ through which the number given by Cochran’s formula can be reduced if
the whole population is relatively small.

The Cochran formula is:

Where:

 e is the desired level of precision (i.e. the margin of error),

 p is the (estimated) proportion of the population which has the attribute in question,
 q is 1 – p.

The z-value is found in a Z table.

Cochran’s Formula Example

Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large town, and want to find out how many
households serve breakfast in the mornings. We don’t have much information on the subject to
begin with, so we’re going to assume that half of the families serve breakfast: this gives us
maximum variability. So p = 0.5. Now let’s say we want 95% confidence, and at least 5 percent
—plus or minus—precision. A 95 % confidence level gives us Z values of 1.96, per the normal
tables, so we get

((1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)) / (0.05)2 = 385.

So a random sample of 385 households in our target population should be enough to give us the
confidence levels we need.

Modification for the Cochran Formula for Sample Size

Calculation In Smaller Populations
If the population we’re studying is small, we can modify the sample size we calculated in the
above formula by using this equation:

Here n0 is Cochran’s sample size recommendation, N is the population size, and n is the new,
adjusted sample size. In our earlier example, if there were just 1000 households in the target
population, we would calculate
385 / (1 + ( 384 / 1000 )) = 278

So for this smaller population, all we need are 278 households in our sample; a substantially
smaller sample size.

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Yamane’s Formula
Yamane’s formula is:

Where:

 e = precision level
 N = population size.

Watch the video for an example:

Yamane's Sample Size Formula

Watch this video on YouTube.

How to Find a Sample Size Given a Confidence Level and

Width (unknown population standard deviation)
Part two shows you how to find a sample size for a given confidence level and width (e.g. 95%
CL, 6% wide) for an unknown population standard deviation.

Example question: 41% of Jacksonville residents said that they had been in a hurricane. How
many adults should be surveyed to estimate the true proportion of adults who have been in a
hurricane, with a 95% confidence interval 6% wide?

Step 1: Using the data given in the question, figure out the following variables:
  za/2: Divide the confidence level by two, and look that area up in the z-table:
.95 / 2 = 0.475
The closest z-score for 0.475 is 1.96.
 E (margin of error):  Divide the given width by 2.
6% / 2
= 0.06 / 2
= 0.03
 : use the given percentage.  41% = 0.41. If you aren’t given phat, use 50%.
 :  subtract from 1.
1 – 0.41 = 0.59

Step 2:Multiply by . Set this number aside for a moment.

0.41 × 0.59 =  0.2419

Step 3: Divide Za/2 by E.

1.96 / .03 = 65.3333333

Step 4: Square Step 3:

65.3333333 × 65.3333333 = 4268.44444

Step 5: Multiply Step 2 by Step 4:

0.2419 × 4268.44444 = 1,032.53671
= 1,033 people to survey.
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How to Find a Sample Size Given a Confidence Level and Width (known
population standard deviation)

Part 3 shows you how to determine the appropriate sample size for a given confidence level and
width, given that you know the population standard deviation.

Example question: Suppose we want to know the average age of an Florida State College
student, plus or minus 0.5 years. We’d like to be 99% confident about our result. From a
previous study, we know that the standard deviation for the population is 2.9.

Step 1: Find z a/2 by dividing the confidence level by two, and looking that area up in the z-table:
.99/2 = 0.495.  The closest z-score for 0.495 is 2.58.

Step 2: Multiply step 1 by the standard deviation.

2.58 * 2.9 = 7.482
Step 3: Divide Step 2 by the margin of error. Our margin of error (from the question), is 0.5.
7.482/0.5 = 14.96

Step 4: Square Step 3.

14.96 * 14.96 = 223.8016

Find a sample size to estimate a population mean

Watch the video to find out how to find a sample size if you want to estimate means:

Sample Size for Population Mean Confidence Level

Watch this video on YouTube.

How to find a sample size in Excel.

Watch the video or read the steps below:

How to select a sample using Data Analysis in Excel 2013

Watch this video on YouTube.

How to use Excel Sampling to find a Sample

If you have a set of data and you know your sample size, you can use Excel’s Data Analysis
toolpak to select either a periodic sample or a random sample. A random sample is just that —
randomly selected from your data set. A periodic sample (also called a systematic sample) is
where Excel chooses the nth data item to include in your sample. For example, if you wanted to
choose every 5th number from the following list: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Excel would
return 8 and 13 (the 5th and 10th numbers in order).

If you don’t know what sample size you need, calculate it before using the Data Analysis tool
(using the methods outlined at the top of this article). The Data Analysis tool can help you
extract a sample, but it can’t help you decide on the size. Why? There are many “human”
factors that go into selecting a sample size including budget, prior research (you can use a
sample size from previous research) and tables constructed from previous research.

How to use Excel Sampling to find a Sample: Steps

Step 1: Enter your data items into Excel. You can enter your data into rows or columns. Ensure
the rows and columns are even; for example, enter data into column A to cell 12 and column B to
cell 12.
Step 2: Click “Data” and then click “Data Analysis.” If you don’t see Data Analysis on your
toolbar, load the Data Analysis Toolpak.

Step 3: Click “Sampling” and then click “OK.”

Data entered into a worksheet for Excel sampling:

the rows and columns are even.

Step 4: Click in the Input Range box and then select your entire data set.

Step 5: Click either “Periodic Sampling” or “Random Sampling.” If you choose periodic, enter
the nth number (i.e. every 5) and if you choose random sampling, enter the sample size.

Step 6: Choose an output range. For example, click the “New Worksheet” button and Excel will
return the sample in a new worksheet.

Step 7: Click “OK.”References

Bartlett, J. et al. (2001). Organizational Research: Determining Appropriate Sample Size in

Survey Research. Retrieved January 15, 2018 from:
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.486.8295&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
Evans, M.; Hastings, N.; and Peacock, B. Statistical Distributions, 3rd ed. New York: Wiley,
2000.
Israel, G. (n.d.) Determining Sample Size. University of Florida IFAS Extension. Article posted
on Tarleton State University website. Retrieved January 13, 2018 from
https://www.tarleton.edu/academicassessment/documents/Samplesize.pdf.