Data transmission Chapter 2

TYPES AND METHODS OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Data packets

Data sent over long distances is broken up into smaller packets to make it easier
to control and transfer. Each packet can be sent along a different route, allowing
for flexibility in case of network congestion or failure. However, the packets need
to be reassembled at the destination to retrieve the original data. This method of
data transmission allows for efficient and reliable transfer of information over
long distances.

Packet structure

A typical packet is split up into.

» a packet header

» the payload

» a trailer.

The packet header for each packet contains the sender's and receiver's IP
addresses, the sequence number, and the packet size. The payload of each packet
contains the actual data being sent. The packet trailer includes an identifier for
the end of the packet and an error checking method using cyclic redundancy
checks (CRCs). The CRC involves counting the 1-bits in the payload and comparing
it to the value stored in the trailer to check for transmission errors.

Packet switching

Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which a message is split into

packets that can be sent independently. Each packet is routed through a network
of routers based on their destination IP address. The routers determine the route
of each packet based on the number of packets waiting to be processed at each
node. Although the shortest possible path is selected, packets can still arrive at
the destination in a different order than they were sent.

Benefits of Packet switching

This text discusses the benefits of packet switching in communication networks. It

states that with packet switching, there is no dependency on a single
communication line. Instead, packets can be re-routed if a line fails, is busy, or
faulty. Additionally, expanding package usage is relatively easy, and it allows for a
high data transmission rate. Overall, packet switching offers more flexibility and
efficiency in communication networks.

Drawbacks of packet switching

The transmission of data packets over the internet can lead to packet loss and
errors, particularly with real-time streaming. This can be problematic for live
events as there is a delay while the missing packets are re-sent and re-ordered. To
avoid the network becoming overwhelmed with lost packets, a method called
hopping is used. Each packet is assigned a hop number, which decreases as the
packet passes through routers. Once the hop number reaches zero and the packet
hasn't reached its destination, it is deleted, and the receiving computer requests
for the missing packets to be re-sent.

DATA TRANSMISSION

Data transmission can occur over short or long distances and involves three
factors: the direction of data transmission, the method of transmission, and data
synchronization. The direction of data transmission can be unidirectional or
bidirectional. The method of transmission refers to how many bits can be sent
simultaneously. Data synchronization ensures that the received data is in the
correct order. These factors are typically addressed by a communication protocol.

Simplex data transmission

Simplex mode is a type of communication where data can only be transmitted in

one direction. It is a one-way communication channel. An example of simplex
mode is sending data from a computer to a printer. In simplex mode, the sender
can only send data and the receiver can only receive data, but cannot send any
back.

Half-duplex data transmission

In half-duplex mode, data can be sent in both directions, but not simultaneously.
This means that data can be sent from one point to another and vice versa, but
not at the same time. An example of half-duplex mode is a walkie-talkie, where
only one person can talk at a time. While one person is speaking, the other person
can listen, and then they can switch roles. This mode allows for communication in
both directions, but with a limitation on simultaneous transmission.

Serial and parallel data transmission

Serial data transmission involves sending data one bit at a time over a single wire
or channel. This method is commonly used for long-distance communication.
Despite its slower transmission rate compared to parallel data transmission, serial
data transmission ensures that data arrives at its destination in the correct order
since only one channel is used. An example of serial data transmission is
connecting a computer to a printer via a USB connection.

Parallel data transmission involves sending several bits of data down several
channels or wires simultaneously. Each channel or wire transmits one bit. This
method is faster than serial data transmission and is used for internal circuits in
computers where high-speed transmission is necessary. However, over longer
distances, data can become skewed and bits can arrive out of order. Therefore,
parallel data transmission is more suitable for short distances.

UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB)

The universal serial bus (USB) is a common type of input/output port on

computers. It allows for the transfer of data between devices and a computer.
USB cables have four wires, with two for power and two for data transmission.
When a device is plugged into a USB port, the computer automatically detects it
and loads the necessary driver software for communication between the
computer and device.

Benefits and drawbacks of USB systems

METHODS OF ERROR DETECTION

The need to check for errors

Data transmission can be vulnerable to errors such as corruption, loss, or even

gaining of data. Interference can corrupt or lose data during transmission, and all
types of cables are susceptible to electrical interference. Problems during packet
switching can lead to data loss or even gaining of data. Skewing of data, which
happens during parallel data transmission, can also result in data corruption if the
bits arrive out of synchronization.

The text discusses the problem of data corruption and the importance of error
checking in computer technology. The example of Figure 2.13 shows how data
corruption can make text unintelligible to a computer. The text then introduces
three methods of error checking: parity checks, checksum, and echo check. These
methods are used to detect errors in transmitted data to prevent data corruption.

PARITY CHECKS, CHECKSUM AND ECHO CHECKS

Parity checks

Parity checking is a method to ensure that transmitted data has not been
corrupted. It is based on counting the number of 1-bits in a byte of data. The
parity can be either even or odd. A parity bit is reserved to indicate whether the
number of 1-bits in the byte is even or odd. For example:
In this example, if the byte is using even parity, then the parity bit needs to be set
to 0, since there is already an even number of 1-bits in the byte (four 1-bits). We
thus get:

In this example, if the byte is using odd parity, then the parity bit needs to be set
to 1, since we need to have an odd number of 1-bits in the byte. We thus get:

The text explains that parity is a method used to detect errors in data
transmission. It mentions that parity can be either even or odd, and it depends on
the number of 1-bits in a byte. If the number of 1-bits is odd, the parity is odd,
and if it is even, the parity is even. The text also states that the recipient’s
computer re-calculates the parity of the byte received to detect errors. If there is
a change in parity, it indicates that a transmission error has occurred.

When two bits change value during data transmission using even parity, it
becomes difficult to identify the error through parity checking. Parity checking is a
technique where an additional bit is added to the transmitted data to detect
errors. In the case of even parity, the added bit ensures that the total number of
1s in the transmitted sequence is always even. However, if there are two or more
bit errors, the parity bit will remain correct, making it impossible to pinpoint the
errors.
The text explains that even parity checks may not catch errors if the corrupted
data still results in an even number of bits. Therefore, another method, called
checksum, is needed to identify errors in transmission. The text also mentions
that even though an error may be flagged, it is not possible to determine exactly
which bit is in error. To address this issue, parity blocks are used, where a block of
data is checked for parity horizontally and vertically. This method not only
indicates that an error has occurred, but also points to the location of the error.

Checksum

A checksum is a value calculated from a block of data to check for transmission

errors or corruption. It is generated using an agreed algorithm by the sender and
transmitted with the data. At the receiving end, the checksum is recalculated
using the same algorithm and compared to the transmitted checksum. If they
match, no errors have occurred; if not, the data block is requested to be resent.

Echo check

Echo check is a method used to check for errors during data transmission. The
data is sent to another device which then sends it back to the sender. The
sender's computer compares the original data with the returned data to check for
any differences. If there are no differences, it means the data was transmitted
correctly. However, if the two sets of data are different, it indicates that an error
occurred during the transmission process.
 CHECK DIGITS

Checksum and check digit are

methods used to detect errors in
data transmission. In checksum, an
additional value called the checksum is calculated from the data and sent along
with the data. At the receiving end, the checksum is recalculated and compared
to the sent checksum to check for errors. If they match, no errors have occurred.
Echo check involves sending a copy of the data back to the sender, who compares
it with the original data. If they are the same, there were no errors. Check digits
are the final digit in a code, calculated from all the other digits. They are used for
error detection in barcodes and can identify various types of errors.

There are a number of different methods used to generate a check digit. Two
common methods will be considered here: » ISBN 13 » Modulo -11

IMPORTANT: For examples check the Book page 60.

AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUESTS (ARQs)

ARQ, or Automatic Repeat Request, is a method used to check the integrity of

data after transmission. It involves the use of positive and negative
acknowledgements, as well as a timeout period. A receiving device uses an error
detection code to determine if the data received has any transmission errors. If
no errors are detected, a positive acknowledgement is sent back to the sending
device. If errors are found, a negative acknowledgement is sent and the data is
requested to be re-transmitted. If no acknowledgement is received within a set
time limit, the sending device will automatically resend the data until a positive
acknowledgement is received or a predetermined number of re-transmissions has
occurred.

SYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION

The purpose of encryption

Data transmitted over public networks can be intercepted by hackers. Encryption
helps minimize this risk by making the data unreadable to unauthorized
individuals. Although it cannot prevent interception, encryption ensures that
intercepted data is incomprehensible to eavesdroppers. This is crucial for
protecting sensitive and confidential information.

Plaintext and ciphertext

The original data being sent is known as plaintext. Once it has gone through an
encryption algorithm, it produces cipher text:

SYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION

Symmetric encryption

Encryption is used to protect data during transmission by making it unreadable to

unauthorized individuals. It involves transforming plaintext data into ciphertext
using an encryption algorithm and a key, and then decrypting it using the same
key. Symmetric encryption is a type of encryption that uses the same key for both
encryption and decryption. It involves shifting the letters of a message by a
certain number of places in the alphabet to create the ciphertext, and then
shifting them back to the original positions to retrieve the plaintext. However, the
security of symmetric encryption relies on keeping the encryption key a secret.

Asymmetric encryption

Symmetric encryption is a method of encrypting messages that uses both a public

key and a private key. The public key is made available to everyone, while the
private key is kept secret. To encrypt a message, the sender uses the recipient's
public key, and to decrypt the message, the recipient uses their private key. The
keys are generated using an algorithm, and while they are linked, one cannot be
derived from the other.

1 Jane uses an algorithm to generate a matching pair of keys (private and public)
that they must keep stored on their computers; the matching pairs of keys are
mathematically linked but can’t be derived from each other. 2 Jane now sends her
public key to Tom.

3 Tom now uses Jane’s public key to encrypt the document he wishes to send to
her. He then sends his encrypted document (cipher text) back to Jane.

4 Jane uses her matching private key to unlock Tom’s document and decrypt it;
this works because the public key used to encrypt the document and the private
key used to decrypt it are a matching pair generated on Jane’s computer. (Jane
can’t use the public key to decrypt the message.)