ENGINEERING

Metrology and
METROLOGY
Quality Control &
QUALITY CONTROL
• FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY OF A
MEASURING SYSTEM
• The accuracy of an instrument depends on 5
basic elements (SWIPE)
• S- Standard
• W- Workpiece
• I- Instrument
• P= Person
• E- Environment
 Types of Error/Sources of Errors
• While taking measurements with the help of
different measuring instruments, several types
of errors may arise.
• These errors can be broadly classified into
two categories, namely
(a) Controllable or Systematic errors and
(b) Random errors.
Controllable or Systematic Errors:
• These errors are controllable, If proper
attempts are made to analyze these errors,
they can be identified, reduced and
controlled.
 1. Ambient or environnemental errors:
• Variations in the atmospheric conditions from the
internationally agreed standards (such as 20°C
temperature and 1.01325 bar pressure) may
introduce errors in the measured sizes of
component.
• Variation in the atmospheric temperature is more
severe factor. Error occurs in the measurement due
to expansion or contraction of either component
being measured or measuring instrument.
• The internationally agreed temperature during
measurement is 20°C. Therefore the measuring
instruments or gauges are made and calibrated to
correct sizes at 20°C temperature.
 2. Stylus/Contact pressure:
• Stylus or contact pressure applied to measuring instrument and the
work-piece being measured at the time of measurement is important
to have precise measurement. Stylus or spindle of the instrument is
made up of harder metal.
• Therefore, if contact pressure applied is more than required, it may
distort the work-piece damaging its shape, or dimension being
measured.
• This will introduce an error in measurement due to improper
contact/stylus pressure applied.
• Whenever any component is measured after applying contact
pressure (stylus
• pressure), its surface may get deformed.
• For example: If diameter of shaft is to be measured by using
micrometer, then variation in the contact pressure applied by the
anvils of micrometer on the surface of shaft (whose diameter is to be
measured) may lead to errors in readings.
• To avoid this effect of variation in contact pressure, the micrometer is
fitted with a ratchet mechanism with an operating thimble. The ratchet
slips, when the contact pressure applied is greater than the minimum
required contact pressure.
Total Reading= MSR+CSR*LC
3. Avoidable errors/Observational errors:
• When reading is taken with the help of a pointer,
then some error may be induced in measurement, if
the graduated scale does not lie in the plane, in
which, the pointer moves. This type of error is called
as parallax error.
• One more observational error may occur due to
incorrect positioning of measuring instrument. It is
called as instrument location errors.
• For example: Temperature measurement of air in a
room. If a measuring
• instrument such as, 'Thermometer is placed in
sunlight, it may be heated due to direct radiations
incident on its surface. Therefore, the reading given
by thermometer will be obviously inaccurate, and
more as compared to room temperature.
 Random errors/Unavoidable errors:
• This type of errors are accidental in nature, and they
occur randomly at any time.
Specific causes of their occurrence cannot be
determined by any method.
• Therefore they cannot be predicted or avoided.
• Random errors are non-consistent
• Sources of these random errors may be,
• (i) Small variation in the positions of standard and
the work-piece being measured, during set up of
measuring arrangement.
• (ii) Operator error in reading pointer type displays or
engraved scales.
Traceability
 Traceability
• It is property of the result of a measurement or
the value of a standard whereby it can be related
to stated references, usually national or
international standards, through an unbroken
chain of comparisons all having stated
uncertainties.
• The first thing to notice is that only the result of a
measurement or the value of a standard can be
traceable.
• Measuring equipment cannot be traceable in and
of itself.
Generalized Measurement System

2 3
1
Introduction
All comparators consist of three basic features

1) A sensing device
• which faithfully senses the input signal

2) A Magnifying or amplifying system

• to increase the signal to suitable magnitude.
• Mechanical, Optical, Pneumatic and electronic methods are used for this
purpose.

3) A display system (usually a scale and pointer)

Which utilizes the amplified signal to provide a suitable readout (data).
 Essential characteristics of a comparator

1. Robust design and construction

2. Linear characteristics of scale
3. High magnification
4. Quick in Results (scale)
5. Versatility(Vernier, Dial Gauge flatness taper
comparator)
6. Minimum Wear of contact Point (Height Gauge,
Carbide tip)
7. Quick insertion of work piece
8. Compensation from temperature effects
9. Means to prevent damage (cover)
 Working principle of a Mechanical Comparator

 A mechanical comparator employees mechanical

means for magnifying the small movement of the
stylus the magnification of the small stylus movement
is obtained by means of levers, gear trains, rack and
pinion or a combination
 The usual magnification obtained by these comparators
ranges from about 250 to 1000
 Construction & Working
• The simplest type of mechanical comparator
• It consists of a base with a rigid column rising from its rear
• An arm mounted on this column and it carries a dial gauge at its
outer end
• The indicator is set at zero by the use of slip gauges
• The part to be checked is placed below the plunger
• The linear movement of the plunger is magnified by means of
mechanical means to a sizable rotation of the pointer
• This type is generally used for inspection of small precision
machined parts
• This comparator is ideal for the checking of components with a
tolerance of + 0.005 mm
DIAL GAUGE
 Advantages of mechanical comparators

 Cheaper than all the other type of comparators

 Does not require any external source of power
 These comparators use a linear scale that can be easily
understood.
 Usually these comparators are robust and compact but
are very easy to handle
 These are small in size and can are portable from one
place to other very easily without much difficulty
 Disadvantages

• Contains more number of moving parts so there

develops friction which in turn reduces the accuracy
• Slackness in the moving parts reduces accuracy
very drastically
• Limited range of the instrument is another
drawback as the pointer moves over a fixed scale
• Parallax error may also arise when proper scale is
used
 Reed type of Mechanical Comparator

• The parts and their construction are very simple in

this mechanical comparator. In reed type
mechanical comparator there are five major parts
used for its construction and they are listed below.
• Plunger
• Blocks
• Reeds
• Pointer or Needle
• Scale
• Plunger
The plunger is a small metal component that acts as a sensing probe in this
mechanical comparator. In other words, the plunger is called as spindle. It is a
necessary component that helps in sensing the dimensional variations in the
workpiece to measure.
• Blocks
There are two blocks placed inside this comparator. Among two blocks, one is fixed
and another one is movable. The movable block is attached with the spindle or
plunger at the bottom. Mostly the blocks are made up of metals.
• Reeds
Like blocks, there are two pairs of reed placed inside the comparator. A pair of the
reed is placed horizontal and the remaining pair is placed vertically. The horizontal
reed bridges the fixed block and the movable block in the middle position. The
upper end of the movable block and the fixed block is attached with the vertical
reeds.
• Needle or Pointer
The pointer or needle is placed in the junction of the vertical reeds. Pointer is
usually made up of plastic, aluminium, acryl material or other lightweight materials.
• Scale
A graduated scale is used to give output readings as per the deflection of the
pointer. The measurement readings are printed on a graduated plate in the
comparator case and the whole setup is enclosed by the fibreglass.
 It is a simple mechanical comparator developed by the Sigma
Instrument Company, USA. A linear displacement of a plunger
is translated into the movement of a pointer over a calibrated
scale.
 The plunger is the sensing element that is in contact with the
work part. It moves on a slit washer, which provides
frictionless linear movement.
 A knife edge is screwed onto the plunger, which bears (stands)
upon the face of the moving member of a cross-strip hinge.
This unit comprises a fixed member and a moving block,
connected by thin flexible strips at right angles to each other.
 Whenever the plunger moves up or down, the knife edge drives
the moving member of the cross-strip hinge assembly. This
deflects an arm, which divides into a ‘Y’ form. The extreme
ends of this Y-arm are connected to a driving drum by means
of phosphor-bronze strips.
 The movement of the Y-arm rotates the driving drum and, in
turn, the pointer spindle. This causes the movement of the
pointer over a calibrated scale.
L.V.D.T.
• The structure of LVDT is similar to the transformer; it consists of
one primary winding, i.e., P and two secondary windings, i.e.,
S1 and S2. The primary and secondary windings are wounded
on a hollow cylindrical shaped structure, called former.
• The primary winding is at the centre of the cylindrical former
and the secondary windings are present on both sides of the
primary winding at an equal distance from the centre.
• Both the secondary windings consist of an equal number of
turns
• The primary winding is connected with the constant source of
the AC power supply.
• The movable part of LVDT is a separate arm that is made up of a
magnetic material. It is usually a soft iron core
• The core can freely move within the hollow coil (former), and
the object whose displacement is to be measured is attached to
the core through a non-magnetic rod.
• The working of LVDT is based on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction that states that “the net induced emf in the
circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux across
the circuit, and the magnetic flux of the coil wounded with wires can be
changed by moving a bar magnet through the coil.”
• As the primary winding of the LVDT is connected to the AC power supply,
the alternating magnetic field is produced in the primary winding, which
results in the induced emf the secondary windings.
• Let us assume that the induced voltages in the secondary windings S1 and
S2 be E1 and E2 respectively.
• As both of the secondary windings have an equal number of turns, and they
are placed at an equal distance from the primary winding, hence at the
normal position when the core is placed at the centre, the rate of change of
magnetic flux will be the same in both the secondary windings.
• This implies that the induced emf’s E1 and E2 in the secondary windings S1
and S2 respectively will be the same, i.e., E1=E2.
• Hence, the net induced emf (Eo) in the circuit at the normal position of the
core is zero (E1-E2=0). The normal position of the soft iron core at which
the net induced emf is zero is called the ‘Null Position’ of the LVDT.
• E0= E1 -E2
 Wringing of Slip Gauge:
• The measuring face of the gauges is flat and it possesses
high surface finish.
• If two slip gauges are forced against each other on
measuring faces, because of contact pressure, gauges stick
together and considerable force is required to separate
these blocks.
• This is known as wringing of slip gauges. Thus, wringing
refers to condition of intimate and complete contact and of
permanent adhesion between measuring faces.
• Slip gauges are wrung to build desired dimension. Slip
gauges are wrung together by hand and no other external
means.
 Wringing of Slip Gauge:
• In wringing, the two slip gauges are first cleaned to remove
dirt and then they are placed together at right angles in the
form of cross and then rotated through 90°, while being
pressed together.
• This method causes less rubbing of surfaces. Almost any
dimension may be built by suitable combination of gauges.
• Wringing phenomenon is purely due to surface contact and
molecular adhesion of metal of blocks.
• Hence, wringing is defined as the property of measuring
faces of gauge blocks of adhering, by sliding or pressing the
gauge against measuring faces of other gauge blocks or
reference faces or datum surfaces without the use of
external means.
INTERFEROMETRY,LIMITS FITS TOLERENCE
CHAPTER 2
• This instrument, as the name suggests, is mainly used for checking the flatness of flat surfaces. This
interferometer was designed by National Physical Laboratory
• The flatness of any surface is judged by comparing with an optically flat surface which is generally the base
plate of the instrument.
• This instrument essentially consists of a mercury vapour lamp. As we are interested in having single
monochromatic source of light, the radiations of the mercury lamp are passed through a green filter.
• The wavelength of the
resulting monochromatic radiation is of the order or 0.0005 mm.
• This radiation is then brought to focus on pinhole in order to obtain an intense point source of light. A mirror
is used in order to deflect the light beam through 90°.
• The pinhole is placed in the focal plane of a collimating lens, thus the radiations out of the lens will be
parallel beam of light. This beam is directed on
the gauge to be tested via an optical flat.
• The fringes formed are viewed directly above by means
of a thick glass plate semi-reflector set at 45° to the optical axis.
The gauge to be tested is wrung on the base plate whose surface is finished to a degree
comparable to that of the highest quality gauge face.
• As the optical flat is placed above it in a
little tilted position, interference fringes are formed; one between rays reflected from the under
surface of the optical flat and those reflected from the surface of the gauge, and the other
between rays reflected from the under surface of the optical flat and those reflected from the
base plate.

If the gauge face is flat and parallel to the base plate, then the optical flat being equally
inclined on both the surfaces the fringe pattern from both the gauge face and the base plate
will consist of straight, parallel and equally spaced fringes. When the
gauge is flat but not parallel to the base plate, then straight and parallel fringes of different
pitch above the gauge face as compared with those of the base plate are seen.