INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

LECTURE NOTES

FOR

DEGREE, CERTIFICATES AND DIPLOMA STUDENTS

PREPARED BY: MR. ABDUL KARIM KAMARA

B.Sc. (Hons) in BUSINESS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
NJALA UNIVERSITY, NJALA CAMPUS

ICT is not the future of our children’s education, it is the present and we need to make investment in ICT now
 Why ICT?
Technology refers to methods, systems and devices, ICT facilitates communication anywhere, anytime
which are a result of scientific knowledge, being used and by anyone. It has become easier to communicate
for practical purposes. worldwide through the use of ICTs, for example, social
media sites and apps, blogs, wikispace, etc. The use of
ICT is time saving and cost effective in various ways.
INTRODUCTION TO ICT
ICT Definition
ICT is an acronym of Information and Communication Technologies. The set of technologies
developed to manage information and send it from one place to another. They cover a wide range
of solutions. They include technologies to store information and retrieve it later. And also, send
and receive information from one site to another. Or-else, process information to calculate results
and prepare reports.
Information and communications technology (ICT) is an extensional term for information
technology (IT) that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration
of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals) and computers, as well as
necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage and audiovisual, that enable users to access,
store, transmit, understand and manipulate information.
Pros of ICT’s:
 Provide great benefits and advances in health and education.
 Develop people and social actors through support and exchange networks and discussion list.
 Support business people, locals to present and sell their products through the Internet.
 Allow interactive learning and distance education.
 Distribute new knowledge for employ ability.
Cons of ICT’s:
 Lack of privacy
 Isolation
 Fraud
What is Communication Cycle?
Definition: The communication cycle is defined as a communication process that explains how
the system of delivering and understanding messages functions. In a communication cycle, a
sender, message, encoder, channel, decoder, receiver, noise, feedback sorts of elements are
comprised.
The communication cycle needs both a message sender and a message receiver to understand
the identical meaning of what one wants to say and what the other understands. If not, it will
lead to miscommunication. The appropriate use of such a cycle optimizes the outcomes of one’s
verbal or nonverbal signals, communication skills, body language, etc.

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Different elements around which the process of communication functions in a cyclic setup are
1. Sender
The sender starts by deciding whether it conveys the words or not. The sender processes the
thoughts; this involves forming the opinions, clarity, and how to send out the message.
Knowledge of the audience is a crucial point at this stage.
Sender analyses the audience, how the receiver will perceive it. The rule here is to keep the
message as straightforward as possible and be in direct words.
The sender’s feeling is also put in these few words and what emotion the sender wants.
2. Message
The idea has taken a form of a message. This is when the whole thought has evolved to go out
and find the receiver. The sender is sure here that the receiver will project the idea as his.
The sender designs the message as to which words and medium can suit his message type.
A message can be oral, written, sign language, and the individual tone to this is added or decided
by the sender as to what and how he wants the message to be perceived.
Message achieves the purpose when both sender and receiver understand the same meaning.
3. Encoder (Transmitter)
In this step, an individual or a machine works as an encoder for converting the idea, information,
or message in a form of a signal that can be easily transmitted to a receiver.

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The Shannon model was mainly designed for explaining communication through a few means of
communication like telephone and computers that use encoding abilities for converting our words
into binary digits or radio waves.
In verbal communication, this encoding can be understood as the process of converting an idea
into written or spoken words or even sign language while communicating with someone.
4. Medium or Channel
This stage involves the medium that one will rely on to interact. There can be a language
barrier to overcome, dialect change, or written or typed.
How it is to be registered, and what language to be used. How formal or how informal it should
be.
The mode of communication is crucial because it shows a person’s personality and how much
they care for the receiver.
Method of communication known by many can use an unusual mode to keep the secrecy like a
secret language or code known by both.
5. Noise
Noises are the interferences that occur in a communication cycle. These noises are known for
disrupting harmonious communication in different ways like if a sender includes technical jargon
in his or her messages that the receiver cannot understand then that jargon would be noise.
Also using heavy accents or participating in communication with prejudices or preconceived
notions is understood as noise. Loud concerts and a slow internet connection can also be common
noises in a process of communication.
Other forms of noise can be an encoding mistake done by a sender or a decoding mistake done
by a receiver. Such noises are internal noises while external noises are those in which something
external hampers the flow of communication.
6. Receiver (Decoder & Destination)
The communication has to reach the receiver for the last stage to step in. The message is
incomplete without a receiver as the transmission has to be experienced and portrayed in the
same manner in his head as sent by the sender.
The receiver has the responsibility of decoding the sender’s message, rolling it up as his
imagination, and coming with the same understanding as to the sender. It is crucial, or else a
misunderstanding may arise, which will lead to miscommunication. Though that will create
feedback, it won’t be accurate to the receiver’s assumed feedback.
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7. Feedback
Though the cycle continues, the last stage is when the receiver sends a reply to the sender. This
is like a ripple effect, and the infinity of communication is a stoppage. But the response is sent
only after decoding the message, where it is interpreted, decided to reply for, what to reply and
how to reply. The feedback is essential for the communication to continue or to bring out a
reaction.
Feedback cannot always be according to one’s desire. Still, that rejection is also a communication
that can lead to future communication—the infinite possibility of each person creating the
communication cycle every moment. Communication depends on the feedback for it to go on
infinitely.
What is a Communication Device? A communication device is a hardware device capable
of transmitting an analog or digital signal over the telephone, other communication wire, or
wirelessly.
There are two types of communication devices. They are wired devices or wireless devices.
Wired Devices
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) - Data Terminal Equipment, or otherwise known as DTE is a
computer or could be a communication device that generates its final destination of data. DTE's
do not communicate with each other, to do so they would need to use a DCE (Data Circuit
Terminating Equipment) to carry out the communication. The DTE doesn't need to know how
data is sent or received, the communications details are left to the DCE.
Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE) - The DCE would be your typical modern or any other
communication device. This provides connection for the DTE into a communication network and
back again. This also terminates and provides clocking (the clock rate determines the speed of
the link) for a circuit. The DCE performs functions such as signal conversation, coding and line
clocking when working in a data station.
Wireless Devices
3G - 3G stands for 'Third Generation' and this means that it is the third type of access to
technology. All mobile network operators in the UK do offer 3G services and of course, all mobile
phone manufacturers offer 3G phones that can use all sorts of services. 3G allows downloads to
happen with speeds of up to 7.2Mbps (Megabits per Second), which gives the capacity to
download content like music, games and of course, apps.

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GPRS - GPRS stands for "General Packet Radio Service". This enhances 2G phones to send and
receive data more rapidly. With a GPRS connection, your phones is always "on" and is therefore
able to transfer data immediately. In other words, this is the signal that you need in order to send
and receive data.
Mobile Phones - A mobile phone is basically a mini computer as it is small, hand-held and
pretty much does what a computer can do. It can send and receive data and it can also display
videos, pictures and can pretty much keep you connected to social networking sites.
Laptop - A laptop is a personal computer that has been produced because people wanted to be
able to work anywhere, whether it was at home or school or even at a friend's house. A laptop
combines the components and has inputs of a normal desktop computer that would include
speakers, screen display and a keyboard.
Netbook - A netbook contains the main features from a desktop computer. It will also have
things like Microsoft Word and other programmes but netbooks are not intended for keeping data
as it has a low RAM and Hard Drive Storage. Networks also have limited power as their batteries
are smaller than a desktop computer. Netbooks are however cheaper and you can easily replace
parts as they are also cheap, not to mention that you can carry it around.

Computer Concepts — Introduction to Computer

In today's world, we use computers for all our tasks. Our day-to-day activities: paying bills, buying
groceries, using social media, seeking entertainment, working from home, communicating with a
friend, etc., can all be done using a computer. So it is important not only to know how to use a
computer, but also to understand the components of a computer and what they do. This topic
explains all concepts related to computer in detail, from origin to end. The idea of computer
literacy is also discussed, which includes the definition and functions of a computer. You learn
about the components of a computer, the concept of hardware and software, representation of
data/information, the concept of data processing and applications of IECT.

What is a Computer? A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user,
processes it, produces results, displays them to the users, and stores the results for future usage.
Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any further information
regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and figures".
Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed data. To process the
data and convert into information, a computer is used.
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Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions:
Receiving Input: Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse,
digital pens, etc. Input can also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.
Processing the information: Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions
provided in the programs.
Storing the information: After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary
storage area.
Producing output: The processed information and other details are communicated to the outside
world through output devices like monitor, printer, etc.

History of Computers
The history of the computer dates back to several years. There are five prominent generations of
computers. Each generation has witnessed several technological advances which change the
functionality of the computers. This results in more compact, powerful, robust systems which are
less expensive. The brief history of computers is discussed below:
First Generation (1940-1956)

The first generation computers had the following features and components:
Hardware: The hardware used in the first generation of computers was: Vacuum Tubes and
Punch Cards.
Features
Following are the features of first generation computers:
 Supported machine language only
 It had slow performance
 It occupied large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
 It had a poor storage capacity.
 It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Huge size

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 Need of AC
Memory The memory was of 4000 bits.
Data Input: The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the computer,
mostly through punched cards and paper tapes.
The examples of first generation computers are:
1st programmable general-purpose electronic digital
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) computer built during the World war II by USA
 UNIVACTBM 701 ()
was the 1st general-purpose electronic digital computer design for business application
produced in USA
 IBM-701 Known as Electronic Data Processing Machine, known as the Defense Calculator.

 IBM-650 Magnetic Drum Data-Processing Machine is an early digital computer produced by IBM in the mid
1950s
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) Successor of ENIAC.

Second Generation (1956-1963)

Several advancements in the first-gen computers led to the development of second generation
computers. Following are various changes in features and components of second generation
computers:
Hardware: The hardware used in the second generation of computers were:
 Transistors a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power

 Magnetic Tapes

Features

It had features like:

 Use of transistors

 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers

 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers

 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers

 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers

 Faster than first generation computers

 Still very costly

 AC required

 Supported machine and assembly languages

Memory: The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits.

Data Input: The input was provided through punched cards.

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The examples of second generation computers are:

 IBM 1620

 IBM 7094

 CDC 1604 48 bit computer

 CDC 3600

 UNIVAC 1108 (Universal Automatic Computer)

Third Generation (1964-1971)

Following are the various components and features of the third generation computers:

Hardware: The hardware used in the third generation of computers were:

 Integrated Circuits made from semi-conductor materials

 Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes

Features

The features of the third generation computers are:

 Supports time-sharing OS

 Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations

 Easy to access

Memory: The capacity of the memory was 128,000 bits.

Data Input: The input was provided through keyboards and monitors.

Examples: The examples of third generation computers are:

 IBM 360/370

 CDC 6600

 PDP 8/11 Programmed Data Processor

Fourth Generation (1972-2010)

Fourth generation computers have the following components and features:

Hardware: The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were:

 ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology

 Semiconductor memory

 Magnetic tapes and Floppy

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Features

It supports features like:

 Multiprocessing & distributed OS

 Object-oriented high level programs supported

 Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved

 No external cooling required & affordable

 This generation saw the development of networks and the internet

 It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse

Memory: The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.

Data Input: The input was provided through improved hand held devices, keyboard and
mouse.
Examples: The examples of fourth generation computers are:
 Apple II 8 bit home computer

 VAX 9000 codenamed Aridus, is a discontinued family of mainframe computers developed and manufactured
by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
 CRAY 1 (super computers) stands for Completely Redundant Array of Yuppies

Fifth Generation (2010-Present)

These are the modern and advanced computers. Significant changes in the components and
operations have made fifth generation computers handy and more reliable than the previous
generations.
Hardware: The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are:
 Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nano technology

 Large capacity hard disk with RAID support

 Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing

Features

It supports features like:

 Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use

 Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors and Super Large Scale Integrated
Circuits.

 Rapid software development is possible.

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 ULSI technology Ultra Large Scale Integration an earlier measurement of transistor density on a chip

 Development of true artificial intelligence

 Development of Natural language processing

 Advancement in Parallel Processing

 Advancement in Superconductor technology

 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features

 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Memory: The capacity of the memory is unlimited.

Data Input: The input is provided through CDROM, Optical Disk and other touch and voice
sensitive input devices.
Examples: The examples of fifth generation computers are:

 IBM  Desktop  UltraBook

 Pentium  Laptop  ChromeBook

 PARAM  NoteBook

Generation & Description (Summary)

1. First Generation: The period of first generation: 1946-1959 (Vacuum tube based)

2. Second Generation: The period of second generation: 1959-1965 (Transistor based)

3. Third Generation: The period of third generation: 1965-1971 (Integrated Circuit based)

4. Fourth Generation: The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. (VLSI microprocessor

based)

5 Fifth Generation The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards (ULSI microprocessor

based)

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Characteristics of Computer System

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows:

Memory Speed

Characteristics
Automation of Accuracy
Computer

Reliability Diligence

Versatility

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while performing
mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per
second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.
Accuracy Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.
Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and accuracy.
It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of
human beings.
Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same
accuracy and efficiency.
Reliability

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A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set
of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention.
Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data. Secondary storage
are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.
Basic Applications of Computer
Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational
institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.
Home: Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching
movies or shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access,
etc. They provide communication through electronic mail. They help to avail work from home
facility for corporate employees. Computers help the student community to avail online
educational support.
Medical Field: Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history,
diagnosis, Xrays, live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices
to perform delicate operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality technologies are
also used for training purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.
Entertainment: Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual
entertainer in playing games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the
entertainment industry in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed from
computers to full screen televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous features.
Industry: Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory,
designing purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc.
Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible
corners like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from
different levels of people through the use of computers.
Education: Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations,
referring e-books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the
education field.

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Government: In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a
database of citizens and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defense organizations
have greatly benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket
launches, etc. Banking: In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers
and conduct transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have
reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.
Business: Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of
business is transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or
customers. Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze
investments, sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.
Training: Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save
money and improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time
and travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.
Arts: Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid
movement of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.
Science and Engineering: Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic
process in Science and Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of
Research and Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers.
Scientists use computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.
Military: Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military
also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been
used are: Missile Control, Military Communication, Military Operation and Planning, Smart
Weapons etc.
Communication: Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech
that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some
main areas in this category are:  E-mail  Chatting  Usenet  FTP  Telnet  Video-conferencing
Components of Computer System
Computer systems consist of three components as shown in below image: Central Processing
Unit, Input devices and Output devices. Input devices provide data input to processor, which
processes data and generates useful information that’s displayed to the user through output
devices. This is stored in computer’s memory.

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 CENTRAL
DATA DATA
OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES PROCESSING
UNIT

DATA

MAIN/INTERNAL MEMORY

Central Processing Unit: The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called “the brain of computer” as it
controls operation of all parts of computer. It consists of two components: Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), and Control Unit.

CPU

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

CONTROL UNIT

MAIN MEMORY
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Data entered into computer is sent to RAM, from where it is then
sent to ALU, where rest of data processing takes place. All types of processing, such as
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comparisons, decision-making and processing of non-numeric information takes place here and
once again data is moved to RAM.
Control Unit: As name indicates, this part of CPU extracts instructions, performs execution,
maintains and directs operations of entire system.
Functions of Control Unit Control unit performs following functions:
 It controls all activities of computer
 Supervises flow of data within CPU
 Directs flow of data within CPU
 Transfers data to Arithmetic and Logic Unit
 Transfers results to memory
 Fetches results from memory to output device
Memory Unit: This is unit in which data and instructions given to computer as well as results
given by computer are stored. Unit of memory is “Byte”.
Input Devices
1.Keyboard 2.Mouse (pointing device) 3.Microphone 4.Touch screen 5.Scanner 6.Webcam
7.Touchpads 8.MIDI keyboard 9.Graphics 10.Tablets 11.Cameras 12.Pen Input 13.Video Capture
Hardware 14.Microphone 15.Trackballs 16.Barcode reader 17.Digital camera 18.Joystick
19.Gamepad 20.Electronic Whiteboard
Input devices help to get input or data from user. Some of input devices are:
KEYBOARD: The keyboard was first peripheral device to be used with computers. It helps to
input text and numbers into computer. It consists of 104 keys and 12 functional keys.
MOUSE: A mouse is an input device which is also called as pointing device because it helps to
point data on screen. It also helps to select, highlight content and drag-drop controls.
TRACKBALLS: A trackball is also a pointing device which will work like a mouse. It is mainly
used for gaming and entertainment purpose.
DIGITAL PENS: A digital pen is another input device which is mostly used with tablets, PDAs,
etc. A digital pen is also called as a Stylus which helps to write or draw data over pad.
SCANNERS: Scanners transform printed material and photographs into a digital
representation. After scanning of printed material, page is represented in memory as an array
of pixels.

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BARCODE READERS: Barcode reader helps to read information which is printed as bars in
back of goods or items. Barcode readers are most widely used input devices which we can see
in most of products in our day to day life.
VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEM: Voice recognition system interprets or receives dictation or
spoken commands to authorize user.
TOUCH SCREEN: A touch screen is an input device which uses sensors to sense touch of users
to get input data.
Output Devices: Output devices help to display output to user. Some of output devices are:
Monitor 2. LCD Projection Panels 3. Printers (all types) 4. Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
5. Plotters 6. Speaker(s) 7. Projector
MONITOR: A monitor is most common type of output device. It is also called as “Visual Display
Unit”. The inputs given by keyboard or any other input devices will get displayed on monitor.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Flat panel display monitors are commonly used monitors.
PRINTERS: Printers are most common type of output devices which are used to take a hard
copy of any digital document. The two types of printers are impact and non-impact printers. Non-
impact printers such as laser and inkjet printers are less noisy, more reliable and faster and also
offer high quality compared to impact printers.
SOUND SYSTEMS: Sound systems are output devices which are used to get multimedia content
such as voice, music, etc., as output. Some of examples of sound systems are speakers,
headphones, and microphones.
Computer Memory: Computer memory refers to storage area where data is stored. It is of two
types:
 Primary Memory

 Secondary Memory

Primary Memory: Primary memory is the main memory of computer present in motherboard.
Primary memory is of two types; Random Access Memory and Read Only Memory
Random Access Memory: RAM is referred as temporary memory, in which, information stored
is lost once computer is turned off. It is a volatile memory. Instructions written in this memory
can be modified; hence it is also known as programmable memory. The two types of RAM are
Static RAM (faster and costlier) and Dynamic RAM.
Functions of RAM are as follows:
 It stores data till it gets processed.
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 It stores instructions for data processing.
 It acts as a working space where data processing takes place and intermediate results are
stored.
 It stores processed data/results before it is sent to output devices.
Read Only Memory: ROM is referred as permanent memory, in which information stored is
available even if computer is turned off. Instructions stored in this memory can only be read and
cannot be modified. Mostly ROM has a start-up instruction which is executed every time when
computer is switched on. Types of ROM are PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM
(Erasable PROM), EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM) and flash memory.
The below table jots down the major differences between RAM and ROM:

S.NO RAM ROM

1 It is volatile memory. It is non-volatile memory.
2 The contents are temporary; data is lost The contents are permanent; data is not
when electricity supply is lost. lost even when power is switched off.
3 Available in small storage capacity. Available in high storage capacity.
4 Processing speed is high. Processing speed is low.
5 User-defined programs can be stored. Generally, operating system supporting
programs can be stored.
6 Cost is very high. Cost effective.
7 It is of two types, SRAM and DRAM. It comes in different types such as
PROM, EPROM, EEPROM and flash
memory.

Secondary Memory: Sometimes when data to be processed is large, it cannot fit in primary
memory as it is limited, in such cases, we use supplement memory or secondary memory.
Secondary memory helps to store information permanently and is non-volatile. Examples of
secondary storage memory are compact disk, floppy disk, pen drive, external hard drive, etc.
Concept of Hardware and Software
The concept of hardware and software is explained in detail below:
Hardware: The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer. Computer
hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can use to control computer’s
operation, input and output. Examples of hardware are CPU, keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc.
Hardware Components
Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together. Some parts are
essential and others are added advantages. Computer hardware is made up of CPU and
peripherals.
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Software: A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a program.
Software instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine language,
and executed by computer. Software can be categorized into two types:
 System software

 Application software

System Software: System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It provides
a platform to run an application. It provides and supports user functionality. Examples of system
software include operating systems such as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.
Application Software: An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one or
more tasks. Examples of application software include Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle,
etc.

Differences between Software and Hardware are sorted out below:

S.NO SOFTWARE HARDWARE

1 It is a collection of programs to bring It includes physical components of
computer hardware system into computer system.
operation.
2 It includes numbers, alphabets, It consists of electronic components like
alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, ICs, diodes, registers, crystals, boards,
keywords, etc. insulators, etc.
3 Software products evolve by adding new Hardware design is based on architectural
features to existing programs to support decisions to make it work over a range of
hardware. environmental conditions and time.
4 It will vary as per computer and its built- It is mostly constructed for all types of
in functions and programming language. computer systems.
5 It is designed and developed by The hardware can understand only
experienced programmers in high level lowlevel language.
language.

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 6 It is represented in any high-level The hardware works only on binary codes
language such as BASIC, COBOL, C, 1’s and 0’s.
C++, JAVA, etc.
7 The software is categorized as operating The hardware consists of input devices,
system, utilities, language processor, output devices, memory, etc.
application software, etc.

Computers classification
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is
Considerable overlap:
• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition
to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for
displaying information, and a storage device for saving data.
• Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer,
but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor.
• Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
• Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
• Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.
Laptop and Smartphone Computers
LAPTOP: A laptop is a battery or AC-powered personal computer that can be easily carried and
used in a variety of locations. Many laptops are designed to have all of the functionality of a
desktop computer, which means they can generally run the same software and open the same
types of files. However, some laptops, such as netbooks, sacrifice some functionality in order to
be even more portable.
Netbook: A netbook is a type of laptop that is designed to be even more portable. Netbooks are
often cheaper than laptops or desktops. They are generally less powerful than other types of
computers, but they provide enough power for email and internet access, which is where the
name "netbook" comes from.
Mobile Device: A mobile device is basically any handheld computer. It is designed to be
extremely portable, often fitting in the palm of your hand or in your pocket. Some mobile devices

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are more powerful, and they allow you to do many of the same things you can do with a desktop
or laptop computer. These include tablet computers, e-readers, and smartphones.
Tablet Computers: Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable. However, they
provide a very different computing experience. The most obvious difference is that tablet
computers don't have keyboards or touchpads. Instead, the entire screen is touch-sensitive,
allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and use your finger as a mouse pointer. Tablet
computers are mostly designed for consuming media, and they are optimized for tasks like web
browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, and playing games. For many people, a "regular"
computer like a desktop or laptop is still needed in order to use some programs. However, the
convenience of a tablet computer means that it may be ideal as a second computer.
Smartphones: A smartphone is a powerful mobile phone that is designed to run a variety of
applications in addition to phone service. They are basically small tablet computers, and they can
be used for web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, playing games and more.
Computer Viruses
Viruses: A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs. For example, a
virus might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet program. Each time the spreadsheet
program runs, the virus runs, too, and it has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other
programs) or wreak havoc.
•E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail messages, and usually
replicates itself by automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in the victim's e-mail address
book. Some e-mail viruses don't even require a double-click -- they launch when you view the
infected message in the preview pane of your e-mail software [source: Johnson].
•Trojan horses: A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program claims to do one
thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it may erase your
hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate automatically.
•Worms: A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and security holes
to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another machine that has a specific
security hole. It copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and then starts
replicating from there, as well.
What are some tips to avoid viruses and lessen their impact?
 Install anti-virus software from a reputable vendor. Update it and use it regularly.

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 In addition to scanning for viruses on a regular basis, install an "on access" scanner (included
in most anti-virus software packages) and configure it to start each time you start up your
computer. This will protect your system by checking for viruses each time you run an executable
file.
 Use a virus scan before you open any new programs or files that may contain executable code.
This includes packaged software that you buy from the store as well as any program you might
download from the Internet.
 If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very careful about accepting files
or clicking links that you find or that people send you within the community.
 Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files, important email messages, etc.)
on disc so that in the event of a virus infection, you do not lose valuable work.

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