INTRODUCTION Objectives Computers are being used in all facets of our life. In this chapter, the application of computers for discrete manufacturing will be discussed. Overviews of computer applications that will be affecting the manufacturing industry are presented. After completing the chapter the reader will be able to * Understand the various spheres of manufacturing activity where computers are used + What is meant by product cycle with the differences between the conventional and computer-based manufacturing systems * Definitions of various computer-based applications + Discuss various facets of the design process * Computer Aided Design and its applications + Various types of manufacturing organisations * Computer Aided Manufacturing and its applications * Meaning of Computer Integrated Manufacturing 11 ll COMPUTERS IN INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURING With an increase in.the need for quality_ manufacturing along with the factors ‘of short Jead-times and short product lives and increasing consumer awareness regarding the quality of the product, it is becoming increasingly important for the manufacturers to initiate steps to achieve all these. View this against the fact that the developments in microelectronics in the recent past have made higher computational ability available at a low cost. Thus, it becomes imperative that manufacturing bas to take advantage of the availability of low-cost yet more powerful computers, Hence, the use of Computer Aided Engineering, particularly for mechanical industries, should now be a reatisable goal.2 ¢ Bay ©AD/CAM: Principles and Applications ‘The rok , le of computers in manufacturing may be broadly classified into two groups 1. Computer inufacturing process iter monitoring and control of the manufacturing proces’ with the preparations for actual many. 2 2. Manufocturing support applications, which deal essentially ¢ and post-manufacture operations om ane ae category are such applications where the computer is directly interfaced with the manufacturing a for monitoring and control functions in the manufacturing process industry (chemical processing), a number of process paramet {pecifcations in the computer memory, suitable ations may be initiated BY the conte for the purpose of regulating the process. Altemately, a human operator looking at the PRET may initiate the controlling ctcas Thi is nor rectrcted to the chemical process industry but could include any other type as well, such aging. The subject matter in this book may not go into this specific area in a great measure though ection with the numerical-control machine tools and other process. For example, in 2 continaoy ers may be monitored. With built as pa some aspects of control will be dealt with in cont material-handling equipment. In the second category, are all the support functio completion of manufacturing operations. The types of support thi Lomputer Aided Design The use of compater methods 19 develop tl Nmmeneional form, such that the geometric and manufacturing equirshe ded Design and Drafting Combining the CAD function w ith drafting to generate the purpose of downstream processing. The use of computer methods t ns that computers can provide for the successful fat can be envisaged are the followin; the geometric model of the product ints can be examined. in three- (CADD—Computer A production drawings of the part for the CAE—Computer Aided Engineering analysis, optimisation, manufacturability, et of a product design. GAM_—Computer Aided Manufacturing Generally refers to the computer software used to develop the Computer Numerical Control part programs for machining and other processing applications. CAPP—Computer Aided Process Planning The use of computers to generate the process pl complete manufacture of products and parts CATD—Computer Aided Too! Design Computer assistance to be used for developing the tools for aamufacture such as jigs and fixtures. dies, and moulds. cap—Computer Aided Planning The use of computers for mai requirement planning, computer aided scheduling, etc. (AQ—Computer Aided Quality Assurance ‘The use of computers and computer-controlled equipment for scsessing the inspection methods and developing the quality control and assurance functions. GAT_-Computer Aided Testing Refers to the software tools that can take a system throu, phases of response against the expected results. “The use of computers in manufacturing is 2 methodological approach to the enterprisé i order of broad technologies that have become realisable, trial performance. This requires a range the development in computer technology. The fotal components that can be assumed to consist of © 6fiaterlinked domains are shown in Fig. 1.1. 10 support basic error checking, lans for the .ny of the planning functions such as material igh its various 10 improve thanks 10 a number ESIGN PROCESS: = an activity that needs to be well organised and should take into account al! infh esponsible for the success of the product under development. A product can range from a si0i jis functional in itself like a wrench to the assembly of a Jarge number ‘of components all luences that are gleKey CIM Technologies ‘Computer networks ‘System Design & Analysis Distributed Processing Database Management Modeling and Simulation Expert Systems Quality Engineering Feature and Solid Modeling ‘Variational and Parametric Modeling Computer Graphics Graphic Standards IGES, DXF, STEP. etc. Design analysis tools FEM, FEA, Simulation Mechanisms Test and Analysis Design Too!s Mechanical Hydraulic, Electronics, ete. Mechanisms Production Activity Machining, Assembly Material handling, Storage Production Control Loading, Scheduling, Balancing, Capacity Planning Quality Control 3 Intredction ty Factory Level Production planning Production management MPS, MRP, MAP Il JIT, OPT Bill of materials Capacity Planning Inventory Control Manufacturing Information Generation Process Planning Production Planning CNC Part programming Robot Programming CMM programming < al Nae Fig. 1.1. The influence of computers used in manufacturing environment of which will contribute to the functioning of the part, such as,an automobile engine. The complexity of the design process increases with the number and diversity of co for each component. The various faculties that are responsible two headings as follows: Product Engineering * Product functions + Product specifications + Conceptual design + Ergonomics and Aesthetics Standards Detailed design Prototype development * Testing Simulation Yonents present in the final part. Since there are such a large number of influencing factors, itis impossible to specify a design procedure a successful product can be classified underi CADICAM: Principles and Applecations + Analysis Strength Kinematics Dynamics Heat Plow Design for manufactare Design for assembly + Drafting Manufecturing Engineering + Process Planning Process sheets Route sheets + Tooling Cutting tools Jigs and fixtures Dies and moulds © Manufacturing Information Generation CNC part programs Robot programs Inspection (CMM) programs © Prxtuction Organisation Rill of materials Material requirement planning Production planning Shop-flooe control Plant mutation # Maskenng and Distribution Packaging Fig. 1.2 Stages in the design processIntodnction gay 1.2.1. Problem Identification [ Probiont ‘The starting point of the design process Sr ee ee is the identification of the needs of an unsatisfied demand for a particular Pa product or conceptually a new to start a to identify some of the basic questions related to the product such as who, what, General where, when, why and how many should on be answered with fair accuracy. In order — Hon 81009 to provide answers to the above questions, Fig. 1.3 Processes involved in tho problem-identificat the design team may have to explore a number of sources and methods as shown in Fig. 1. Historical Information This is related to the already existing information ¢°! marketing surveys, etc. This should be able to answer questions like + The current technology + Existing solutions (even competitor's product details) Requirement Specification A clear definition of the requirements is understanding the product from the current business practices and mani also helps in understanding short-term or long-term potential of the new Market Forces Before going ahead with product design, itis also essential forces that will affect the product in one way or the other. General Solutions Having identified all the requirements and the controllin} specify a general solution, which will be broad and would not contain too many deta rcorting to past designs, engineering standards, technical reports, catalogues, handbooks helps in its further evaluation and refinement at a later stage. tiected through the literate,” stage. This helps specified at this an the plant. This facturing resources of product introduction. to consider the various market 1g factors, it would be possible to . This can be done by . patents, etc. This 1.2.2 Problem Definition ‘The next stage in the design process is the clear definition of the problem and coming up with all possible ideas for solutions. This stage may be carried out in various forms of components as shown in Fig. 1.4. Preliminary Design The necessary elements that will be important for the design process are identified at this stage. This basically identifies the likely difficulties to be faced in the design process as well as identify some important design elements that help in the design process. This is used further in developing the preliminary design solutions. Preliminary Sketches The basic solutions that have been identified in the earlier stage are to be detailed with the necessary sketches to examine their suitability for finalisation. Also, some notes related to the design Problem dafinition and conceptualisation Preliminary design Brainstorming Fig. 1.4 Processes involved in the problem-definition stageetching alone. The effort here Brainstorming This is basically a group solviny i hone of the design feo em - g Iving technique, where each one i spontaneously comes up with ideas. It ispecewsry to collect all the ideas during these sessions that are then be farther processed to identify a final solution. tage. It is necessary ‘ . sdentified in the previous stage. Its Evaluation of the Designs A number of concepts have ey aes i; i Taman factors, environment, to evaluate each of the choices in terms of feasibil haste 7 § onall the factors such maintainability ete. At this stage. it should be possible to identify the fal ee sous available. as market requirements, technical feasibility, economics, manufacturins 1.23 Geometric Modelling In the next stage, the identified solutions are further exp! ory y vari ses as shown in Fig. 1.5. . pecessary to employ computers atthe varias phases as shown in F sg Geomedte modeling prov ides a means of representing part geometry in traphical form, In fet, in many software packages, Etometric modelling constitutes the most impor- ser and complex part. It is important that the geometric model generated should be as clear and Comprehensive as possible so that the other modules of the modelling and manufacturing system are able to use this information in the most optimal way. In view of such varied applications, the geometric modelling technique used would have to provide all Fig. 1.5 Geometrc-modelng stage in such facilities for interaction. The modelling system the design process should be able to deseribe the parts, assemblies, raw material used, and the manufacturing requirements. ic models (of pans, assemblies, stock and tools), it would be possible to obtain manufacturing, and inspection plans and command data for numerically controlled machine tools. Vsualiztion One ofthe important requirements of modelling isthe ability to visualise the pat in actal veice condition, Ths requies a range of shading failies along withthe ability to give various colours and surface textures to the part. This would allow the part to be visible in actual condition without really making the prototype. Preliminary Analysis Ths will allow forthe simple analysis techniques such as volumes and masses, inertia, ali Ab te slut factors and ergonomic requirements can be analysed at this stage. tive Evaluat oon the data collected so far i mee ; it would be possible to rae the varios options in a of tech fea Tapa eg fe) ibility, market acceptability ll economics. This would allow for finalisis is n he net ge low for finalising the design, which can be conducted further thorough Jored for the final design solution. At this stage, it is Engineering Analysisce resak is achieved, wnt te desired gresct Analysis fis neces Scary te oe aS seers a see Amlytical mechods are feasible for simple sgapes and configeretions. Hosever. for comee shapes i is necessary to me fine element musty cecnds Finke Element Anat ysis is (FEA) sedel imap small eniform emesis ect ores oe seating aad boendeyy conditions for each of the Design fF elemaests. steses and sozins thos dered are assembly meet representative of the final values aw Many of the pans developed sill Fig. 1.6 “Analysis stage in the desig” Process Seeman components. some of which will | ve felative motion requirements under «ervice. Geometric modelling as deccribed earlier will ceoch susstance i his regard Kinemanicanulyne tyiterv aon the wert optimise the prodaet P = By provadng a fandancreal eodcmonsticn of ey daipn wil perfor in is real-world environment, 7% Linvcanesg. each ms bow os comet il behave i oon snd bow the inves parts MONE oMOCE exsreme conditions. provides the necessary insight for creating the best possible product GesiEn- Dynamic Analysis Foe corzin euipenent thats Lkly to be operating under high speeds. iis meCessary © Pree as chee arnons To doce contitsons Using this engineers can evaluate the designs for vibration Siquirements by performing dynamic time. frequency. random. and shack-respoase simulations, HeatiFlow Analysis This would allow Tor the evalsation of the part in terms of the heat-transfer analysis by evaluating the temperature. thermal stresses and the like. Similarly. it js also possible to evaluate the flow characteristics by employing the FEA techniques. Design for Manufacture and Assembly One of the 2nalyss methods that can be eared out in the early cere she detign for manufactre and assembly. Ths lows for 3 redaction of the assembly costs and Conpoocat count along with a reduction ofthe overall costs while improving the reliability ofthe product. Basdaerd and Deabunst have developed the methodologies and computer solutions for the same. The etncdclogy 10 be adopted is shown in Fig. 1.7. The following three principles are recursively applied to all the assemblies to develop 2 low-cost assembly. During the operation of the prodact, does the part move relative to all other parts already assembled” «Must the part be of a different material than or be isolated from all other parts already assembled? + Must the part be separate from all other parts already assembled. because otherwise necessary ‘assembly or disassembly of other separate parts would be impossible? Each of the components is further analysed to see if the selected material and manufacturing process is the hea or could a bent, low-cost option be obtained. The concept of features helps in this proc Some general guidelines that one may ave to consider while carying ut the manafactrability analysis eas follows: + Use standard processes and methods. + Limit the manufacturing processes to those already available : «Reduce the vatiery of manafacroring processes used. ‘and that the plant has expertise in. oy >Boslyn for manufacture (OFM) Produation Fig. 1.7 Mothodology of design for manufacture and assombly «Use standard (off-the-shelf) components In the design, Provide liberal tolerances such that overall manufactur ing cost «¢ Use materials that have better manutucturability, eee Since many of the secondary operations requir aoe uire additional cost, they should be minimised or + The design process should be commensurate © with the fevel of : " : producti ven pacers Mend xpi the spec Tear of sis Fools to he process to get better Prototypo Developmont coming, the deslyn to manafacto ' ina be in avtition to the cony ‘analy stent n yiterined a Peary in he nan he pc ma cat tone physical test onthe pt th ies as outlined in the the physical sunt bs often th pred f tne Comsuiny nnd exypena ay +8, Using conventional methods forIntroduction aga Rapid Prototyping (RP) Physical models which directly represent the component are muchbetterthan purecomputer visualisation, A real component helps in obtaining. the necessary information for manufacturing information generation as outlined later Rapid prototyping is a means through which the product geometry as modelled in the catlier stages is directly utilised to get the physical shape of the component. (0) Test and Evaluation In the earlier rocess stage, the component has been designed to in the design Pr take care of the stresses likely ‘come when Fig: 18 Prototype-development st29° the part is in the real world. Sometimes it may be necessary or desirable to carry out actual testing tO vere the computer simulations. The actual prototype developed earlier can be utilised for this purpose. ee {b) Design Refinement Having identified the final solution for the design, this stage helps in ne ed out the design. A careful evaluation of each feature and capability embedded in the design is to be carri al in this stage. There will not be any major changes done at this stage, but only minor modifications an enhancements, : (€) Working Drawings These refer to the final hard copies of the drawings of the components and assemblies describing the dimensional details along with the assembly procedures. The main function expected to be served by this is to provide information for the downstream applications in the manufacturing. 1.2.6 Manufacturing Process Development After finalising the product desigr important to move the product to the manufacturing stage. Already the geometric models ofthe individual components as well asthe assemblies are available both in electron. form as well as hard-copy form from the earlier stages, They are utilised for developing the necessary manufacturing processes again using computers to their fullest extent. The typical eomponcats Present are shown in Fig. 1.9. ——Process Planning Process planning isthe function of determining exactly how a satisfy the requirements specified atthe most economical cost. The importance of ood pres free ps overemphasized, pariularl fr mass production. A few minutes used to contest an oe pe et blanning ean save large costs that would be required to alter the tooling or build nen tooling. Parionenin mass production, any small ime Saved per component vould inthe end een lamge money Saige larly in oecpestan Since the geometric modes available tis possible to develop tooling ane inietion mould cavities, mould cores, mould bass, and other tooling Foe ss oesians such as Fixtures, Case of a simple injection mould can be conceit sube '8- For example, the cavity plate in the ‘mould housing (a rectangular block) after provi action of the part at the parting line from For example, some of the facilities provided j - metric Technologies Corporation are 4 i” the software Pro/ENGINEER too! design option from * Create multi-cavity layout configurations, includin « . . * Access the online components catalogues rand single, rectangular, circular and variable Futaba, Natio ich assemble and modify mould parts and mould ional, DMS and Progressive ‘“arance of holes for over 9,000 different ejector pins10 = CADICAM: Principles and Applications Manufacturing process: development We Production Process plant design planning information| requiremont design ‘Manufacturing simulation Fig. 1.9 Manufacturing-process-development stage in the design process « Select and quickly assemble user-customised injection-moulding machine mock-ups in order to check for possible interference + Create waterlines and instantly analyse for thin wall conditions «Simulate the mould-opening sequence, including interference-checking ‘+ Produce runners, gates and sprues instantly Dramatically shorten time-to-develop mould inserts, casting cavity and pattern geometry, while reducing modelling complexity Compensate for model shrinkage by enabling dimensioning or scaling of the entire model in X,¥and Z Eliminate the need to translate between part design, mould design and NC, due to seamless integration with other Pro/ENGINEER applications Manufacturing Information Generation ‘This aspect relates to the various part programs required during the manufacturing, They could be directly generated using the part model data, Some examples are CNC Part ‘programs, robot programs and inspection (CMM) programs. Software, often called the CAM systems or more appropriately called CNC programming systems, are lused to develop the NC part programs directly from the CAD data, This method of programming allows to visualise the part on-screen during each phase of the programming process. Being able to verily ech tool path in the computer instead of at the machine, reduces errors and saves valuable machine time. mputer calculates the mathematics involved in the part program and the post processor generates the rogram, both of which produce more accurate and error-free part programs. .Informa tion Requirement 7 t i part that could be direct Design This aspect relates to information pertinent 0 al reiirement planning. producio ted using the part mode! data, eatin pes are wll oF als. Time and Motion ee jon planning, shop-floor control and plant simulation. ae evel optimised. Some of the tines to aspect needs to be done to sce that the PM are manufacturing Ie cad machine tool set-up time, ete. to be optimised are the material handling manuf me, comPO roduction Plant Design of this, The actual plant to produce the design for he producti [AS described abov by optimising “f above, engineers have been striving to improve produc ee eee iad of the process by taking all the Jer a large amount of information whieh turing ¢ fon volumes for" part process turing hat, ivity of the manu Vion of refevance: 10 Vie of th ise through manual very wide and is nin Fig. 1.2. getting effort. Hence the applicati ever expandin See pplication of computers in design and manul .. Figure 1.10 indicates the various aspects of the design cycle as show the solutions as explained earlier are available from ‘or neutral data formats. — f data translators the ber :nefit of computer assistance. Presently, many of from art to part in i different aoe ee ‘often to be integrated through the help 0! far off when a truly totally integrated system available. Saree Computer assisted feed [*—] | Preble Sefiion and LL | Ceomatis modeling seme — Cau aol I eo Engnearing anaes andoptinisatin [| ae | Rapid prototyping | ae CNGMDDSSIASAS CIMERP. Fig. 1. 1.10 Com, ‘bina esign cycleCADICAM: Principles and Applications One of the most important ‘ons in manufacturing is the The product cycle with the computer assistance is shown in Fig. ads components for getting the various benefits associated with computer apple : : common databases associated with all aspects of manufacturing as show? in Fig. 1.12. E ae ale oa in the CAM would actually be sharing the database created in any module. ANY TNT to modify the data as required for that particular application. This approach Hateet modifications for any involved in maintaining the proloct database and atthe same tire includes the A sometimes aspect related to manufacturing. in contrast to the commion database approacts eevhich case care needs individoal modules in the production aspects may be taken from different VERO TN acy updating in all tobe taken to sce that information is properly transmited between the modules 22 8 the modules takes place properly at the right time, Fig. 1.11 The product cycle in a comeuterised manufacturing environment1. enaducion ao “ 1.3 || COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD) Computer aided desi ved in the desiem that are invol thus utilises the computer as a tool_far all functions Process, The main functiofis that would utilise the computer are Layout design for the overall assembI Individual component modelling Assembly modelling Interference and tolerance stack checking Engincering drawings Today’s CAD technology can provide the engin: a 2 3. CA process blanning Computer: aided design Design analysis, Finite element modeling ications Fig. 1.12 The common databases as linkage to the various computerised app! cerldesigner the necessary help in the following ways: al methods. Computer Aided Design (CAD) is faster and more accurate than coarse ene “The various construction facilites available in CAD would make the job o Pi associated drafting a very easy task. a ; i Th contrast with the traditional drawing methods, under CAD it is possible to manipulate various a eemsions, attributes and distances ofthe drawing elements, This quality makes CAD useful for design work. / : Under CAD. you will never have to repeat the design or drawing of any component. Once a component has been made, it can be copied in all further works within seconds, including any geometric transformation needed. You can accurately calculate the various geometric properties including dimensions of various components interactively in CAD, without actually making their models and profiles. With the constraint-based modelling methods that are prevalent in most of the commercially available CAD systems, itis possible to capture the design intent into the product model beyond the simple geometry. This will help in actually making modifications easily. Also, it is possible to try various options, thereby optimising the whole design process. Thus, the geometric modelling process can be driven by the physics of the process. Modification of a model is very easy and would make the designer's task of improving a given product simple to take care of any future requirements.a =~ Mae Big CADICAM: Principles and Appheati 8. Use of Use of standart components (at vais) kes ot very fast model-development wor, are number of components and subassemblies may be stored in Part Hvis tose Mee a used later ap (Gedimensional) visualisation capabilities io g, ved rom several ietent orientations Tisch nh explaining the concepts tothe tam, ame product and can gradually yy 1 of today’s industry and ja oP 9. Professional CAD packages. provide designers can see the products being de Lot making models of products for r. sation a sltancously on the st swer to the ne : Not only this, several designers ean work sit product in a modular fashion, This certainly provides the a” emerging on the horizon 1.4 || compureR Alpe MANUFACTURING (CAM) activity (for only mechanical engineering indus We can broadly categorise the industrial manufacturing ice., making discrete components) into the following: Mass Production - largo lots, 0.g., Automobiles Inth 4 few thousand to millions per annum. The very high volun and transfer lines to decrease the cost of production subs y, Also, these ensure that a very high dese facturing methods, once designed ang in be achieved with these systems, However, these 1m nua single product. Further, the lead time taken from te facility is very large, varying with the product hi the volume of production is very high, ranging fn justifies the use of special-purpose machin of accuracy ca fabricated, are very inflexible and can only be used fora {ge to the setting up of the manufacturing F -ategory are the automobiles, typewriters, eC. dustrial Machines, Aircrafts, etc. Batch production refers ‘a.component type. Thus, transfer lines may not be can be easily modified by the use of jigs and product design sta Examples in th Batch Production - Medium lot sizes, 0.9- In to the making of jobs in medium lots, say 100 t0 1000, for used in their production, but spec chines which fixtures for such jobs can be utilised. Job-Shop Production-Small lots or ono off, 6.9. Prototypes, Aircrafts, etc. Job-shop production refers othe memufacture of very stall ots often of single jobs. This may be required in special situations forthe purpose of proving a design, making prototypes, ing, or for special-purpose applications. In view jal-purpose machines or tooling can be economically justified. Hence. the mana- very lengthy and oft ‘of the very small Lot, no speci te to be carried on with the general-purpose machines and tooling, which facture ha ‘error-prone process. These are graphicall Where does CAM fi illustrated in Fig. 1.13. «i applicability? Practically, in all the ranges of production. However, its ws is more important in categories 2 and 3 by virtue of the added amount of data processing needed in these, In particular, the present trend of large varieties and lower product lives requires that the total manufacturi pad times be smaller. The only way to ensure this is to improve manufacturing methods and CAM proves indispensable in this regard. 4.4.1 Advantages of Using CAM Greater Design Freedom Any changes that are req A : quired in design can be incorporated at any design stg Bo Po a any delays, since there would hardly be a i Sean chad etme " Increased Productivity In view of the fact that the total mi ‘ ° Greater Operating Flexibility CAM enhances the fle ; pees ee es the flexibility in manufacturing methods and chan} ging ofrome Medium Low Medium Fig. 4.13 Manufacturing methods based on proaucio? would be greatly reduced. st wscuring « Bipods and contols a he manufacturing StSe mnyfacturing system ‘ould be highly reliable. : “AM system would include integrated diagnostics ANompared co the conventional manufacturing Shorter Lead Time Lead times in manufacturin Improved Reliability In view of the better manu! the products thus manufactured as well as the ma Reduced Maintenance Since most of te components of3C ‘and monitoring facilities, they would require less maintenanc methods. Reduced Scrap and Rework Because of the CNC being made by the stored geometry from the design st5¢ possible and almost no rework would be necessary- Botter Management Control As discussed above. since all the information and controlling functions are attempted with the help of the computer, a better management control on the manufacturing activity is possible. ‘All the above advantages when properly transl sed in production, and the part programs machines g 1uld be reduced to the minimum the scrap level wor ated, would mean a lower total cost and consequently, higher Fan ee therefore any manufacturing activity can get the benefits of Computes ‘Aided Manufacturing, ret job-shop production or massscale manufacture, However, etter results would be obtained when the Gesign and manufacturing activities ae properly integrated. Also, when there is a large variety of products design and ma equired inte existing prducton programme, CAM can easily manage the ecaey alterations. 5 [| CompureR a Se ee oe ant Oe a creep eee ia ct yt. Iris posible to wise compe in all aspects of the product the computer such that all the Pena ePDeeeY can be obtained by integrating all the functions through cremental improvements that are possible can be improved manifold. That ions16 CADIC DICAM: Prosiples and Applications | More details of the atchitectu, is what is normally termed as Ci leveled are ulicaseaita a ae Integrated Manufacturing or CI Lean Mant . utacturing It is generally cen in spite of the fat that 2 suber Of improvements having been re i a large achieved throug! red through the employment of computer and othe ion efforts. ther i my costs. Japanese 1 automat waste involved in the an production, which fina ease ° havea . which finally increases the wnnee sacs aoe this fact, and developed methodologies that lead to thre seduction af wate ing ma uring operations. Taichi C Yona ig with the development of methods to hi Ohno [Womack et af, 2003] is ere 7 Ay called 1eah manufacturing ng this philosophy which is no ich is nowt Beg. By followi wh stage gies that cae the waste at all stages of manufacturing at Toyota is system, the products are manufactured as required and not for Som in hunt of storage at throughout the product cycle, itis possible to reduce the ame jjtercsting case stud ind thereby reduce ¢ employed lean a Jarge amount of the hidden costs in the final product. Some thinking in their entire manufacturing operations are discussed 1” Chapter 24 formed many id ‘Six Sigma Six Sigma is consider ET 00 near et ix Sigma is considered the most important bur ines te ection reduction process, but y Jectronic manufacturing Sigma was original hal to reduce variation in € Frajority of industries as well 36 of management in the recent past. S progressed into a comprehensive statistically bused met k processes in Motorola Inc in the USA. Now it fs pet ly adopted PY stipe opts soa even a new brand name of ‘ind Six Sigma. The UK De for all walks of life such 25 government de ‘Lean Sigma is coined to combine the concepts Of ean Trade and Industry defines Six Si driven analysis can focus on any elemento jn design, manufacturing and customer-orien The DMAIC model for process improvement is stands for + Define opportunity = Measure performance + Analyse opportunity + Improve performance = Control performance Further details of Six Sigm: perfect quality. hasis on statistical panufacturine fethod for achieving He ‘and has a strong emph jgma as ‘at ff production or servic ted activities. used as Ine basis for Six-Sigma implementations: DMAIC ns are discussed in a as employed in the entire manufacturing, oper Chapter 23. BER cavrcane rrincpes and Appticanons L Do not use M Miscellaneous function N Sequence number ° Reference rewind stop P ‘Third rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension parallel to X* Q Second rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension parallel to Y* R First rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension parallel to Z* s ile speed function fm ‘Tool function u Secondary motion dimension parallel to X* v Secondary motion dimension parallel to Y* w Secondary motion dimension parallel to Z* x Primary X motion dimension x Primary ¥ motion dimension Zz Primary Z motion dimension * where D, E, P,Q, R, U, V, and W are not used as indicated, they may be used elsewhere. The complete part program for a given component consists of a beginning code of % which sigi the start of the tape (in case of paper tapes) oF beginning of a program if direct computer communication involved such as in DNC mode. A part program consists of a large number of blocks (similar to sentences in a letter), each representing an operation to be carried out in the machining of a part. Each block always starts with a block number used as identification and is programmed with an N word address, This must be programmed at the beginning of every block. As per ISO 2539, it has a minimum of three digits, e.g., NOO9, NO28. However, some control manufacturers, notably Fanue, dispense with this requirement, In their case, only those blocks which are tobe specifically addressed as per the requirement of program flow would need to be given a block number. Other blocks can do away with this requirement. This saves valuable RAM space in the controller where the part programs are stored, Each block can have one or more of the word addresses as explained above in a sequence. A typical ISO format for a block is shown below: NS G2 X453 253 253 U.V.Wal.J.KuP5 S474 M2 * This shows a typical sequence in which the word addresses should occur in the block. However, itis not necessary that all these addresses should be present in each of the blocks or the sequence is important, The word addresses can occur in any sequence. The numerical values immediately after word address indicate the maximum number of digits that are allowed for that particular address character, Fr example, G, the preparatory function is followed by two- digit information, say GOO (0 G99. The unsigned numbers indicate thatthe numerical value given would be without any sign, Also, a single digit indicates that the numerical value to be given is When real values are to be given, two digits indicate them, the frst one representing the numberof digits before the decimal place while the later is for those after the decimal place. For example, X#53 indicates that five digits before the decimal and three afte it are needed to describe the word address X. The + indicates that this address can be given with a sign. The + sign need not be given, since itis automatically assumed. {As pet the standards followed, a decimal sign should not be given, its positon being de specifications, However, many of the controllers allow a decimal point, and itis better for integer. ned by the format sy understandingcxcrngemin: Hi to program directly the numbers with decimal point. In this book, all the dimensions are shown in decintal point deviating from the standard, but following the industry practice Since each function is indicated hy its address character, the order of writing words in a block is not important except that the letter N should come night in the beginning and the end of the block should be placed where the information for that black is completed. Fanuc uve the end of block character as °,', Others treat the *Cartiage Return’ and ‘Line Feed’ as End of Block (1:08). In this book, we will use (*) as the end of block for easy understanding. though this is not required to be punched in the actual part program. In the variable block format, the number of words and characters are variable, ie., if any word is not required in any block then it need not be written and also if the value of any function remains the same in the next operation then it need not be repeated in the block. The following examples will clarify these details, NI10 GOI X-312.55 Y14.5 212.565 F200 $1500 T1103 MO3 * NIISY187.0 70% In the block for the operation number 110, the value of functions G, X, F,.’T and M will be the same as in the operation number 115; only the values for the functions ¥ and Z will change to 187.0 and zero respectively. This feature of the word-addess format, and also that the order of words is not important, makes the writing of programs very convenient, Since the programming format for various control systems are not identical and may differ from ISO recommendations, it is important that the relevant programming manual should be consulted while preparing, the program. 13.2.2 Coordinate function As discussed above, the coordinates of the tool tip are programmed for generating a given component geometry. The coordinate valucs are specified using the word address such as X. Y, Z, U, V. W. 1,5, K, ete. All these word addresses are normally signed along with the decimal point depending upon the resolution (at Teast 1 jim or less for precision CNC machine tools) available in the machine tool, Some examples are X123.405 Y-34.450 13.2.3 Feed Function i" Generally, the feed is designated in velocity units using the F word address, For example, F150 means that the feed rate is specified as 150 mm per minute. This is the actual speed with which the tool moves along the programmed path. However, depending upon the programmed path, there could be some deviations in the Actual feed followed by the controller. Also, the contioller calculates the actual feed rate of each of the axis. Once the feed rate is programmed in a block, it remains in force in all the subsequent blocks till it is replaced by another F value, ic. it is modal. “The feed rate programmed can be overridden by a setting on the controller console, in steps of 10% between 0 and 180%. However, in some situations this override will not work, for example, in case of thread cutting or thread milling By using an appropriate G code, it is also possible to change the feed rate units from mm per minute to mm per revolution or vice versa. 13.2.4 Speed Function In some of the CNC machine tools, spindle speeds are set manually and so are not to be programmed. However, most of the CNC machines that are coming now have the capability for the stepless variation spindle speeds. Hence, they need to be programmed using the spindle speed word S. Bee360 CADICAM: Principles and Applications an © ‘The speed can be set directly in the revolutions per minute or RPM mode using the S word address as follows: : : ‘$1500 means. that spindle speed is to be set at 1500 rpm. However, in some cases such as in turning centres, when the work surface controls the actual cutting speed then a direct RPM program would make the cutting speed vary whenever the work diameter changes. This is harmful from the surface finish as well as the tool-life point of view and hence another option for spindle. speed function is the constant surface speed. When this option is exercised, the spindle speed is specified not in RPM but in metres/minute or feetminute depending upon the units chosen, 13.2.5 Tool Function All NC machines are generally equipped with turrets or tool magazines with Automatic Too! Changers (ATC), which enable the positioning of the pre-set tools in a few seconds. Thus, the ratio of cutting time to total machine time is considerably increased, for The tool function is normally indicated by the word address. This may have 2 or more digits depending upon the too! magazine capacity. Most general is 2 digits such as T15. This causes the tool magazine position 15 or tool number 15 to be brought into the spindle replacing the already present tool in the spindle. The tool replaced from the spindle is brought back to the empty position created when the tool 15 was loaded, In machines where tool change is carried out manually, the word ‘T* causes the stopping of the machine spindle and a light signal appears indicating to the operator that he has to carry out the tool change, the order ‘of which he must already have been instructed about. Tool offset, to be discussed later, can also be programmed by using the same T word, ¢.g., T1513 which means tool no. 15 (i... the tool located in the position 15 in the magazine) is to be loaded in the spindle and the value in offset register 13 is to be taken into account when this tool carries out the operation. 13.2.6 Comments Itis possible to add comments in the program to clarify the individual functions that are used in the program. For this purpose, parentheses are used. When the controller encounters the opening parenthesis then i ignores all the information till it reaches the closing parenthesis. An example is shown below to show the method used. t NO10 G00 Z50.0 Mos (spindle stops and rapidly moves up) NOI XOYO (rapid move to start position 0,0) NOI2 M30 (end of program and tape rewind) 133 || PREPARATORY FUNCTIONS This is denoted by °G’. It is a pre-set function associated with the movement of machine axes and the associated geometry. As discusses earlier, it has two digits, ¢g., GO1, G42, and G90 as per ISO specifications However, some of the current-day controllers accept up to 3 or 4 digits. In this chapter, we will only discuss some of the regular functions. 1SO has standardised a number of these preparatory functions, also popularly called G codes. The standardised codes are shown below: CODE FUNCTION => Go Point-to-point positioning, rapid traverse = Gol Line intespotation ~ Go Circular interpolation, clockwise (WC)e G13-G16 G22-G29 G36-G39 — Goo G10 cu Gi2 Gi7 Gis Gio G20 G21 G30 G31 G32 G33 G34 G35 G40 v- Gal e - oe G45-G52 GS4-G59 G65S-G69 va Ga2 G43 Gs4 G53 G60 G61 Go2 G63 G64 G70 exc Prepomminn Ball Circular interpolation, anti-clockwise (CCW) Dwell Hold/Delay Parabolic interpolation Unassigned Acceleration of feed rate Deceleration of feed rate Linear interpolation for ‘long dimensions’ (10 inches-100 inches) Linear interpolation for ‘short dimensions’ (up to 10 inches) Unassigned Axis designation XY plane designation ZX plane designation YZ plane designation Circular interpolation, CW for “long dimensions’ Circular interpolation, CW for ‘short dimensions" Unassigned Circular interpolation, CCW for ‘long dimensions" Circular interpolation, CCW for ‘short dimensions’ Unassigned Thread cutting, constant lead ‘Thread cutting, linearly increasing lead ‘Thread cutting, linearly decreasing lead Unassigned Cutter compensation—cancels to zer0 ane -uru Cutter radius compensation—ofset left a4 oF aaa Cutter radius compensation—offset right cha Cutter compensation—positive [ea mise) Cutter compensation—negative Unassigned Deletion of zero offset Datum point/zero shift Target value, positioning tolerance 1 ‘Target value, positioning tolerance 2, or loop cycle Rapid traverse positioning Tapping cycle Change in feed rate or speed Unassigned Dimensioning in inch units5 ead CADICAM: Principles and Applications G1 Dimensioning in metric units G72-G79 Unassigned — G80 Canned cycle cancelled 681-689 Canned drilling and boring cycles 690 Specifies absolute input dimensions Specifies incremental input dimensions Programmed reference point shift Unassigned Feed rate/min (inch units when combined with G70) Feed rate/rev (metric units when combined with G71) Spindle feed rate for constant surface feed Spindle speed in revolutions per minute G98-G99 Unassigned Many of the control manufacturers follow these standard codes without altering the meaning. However, some manufacturers do change them to suit their way of programming, It is generally possible to include more than one G address in one block, provided these functions are not mutually exclusive. For example, G02 and G03 (see details given later in this section) together in one block are normally not permissible. If they are given, the latter G code will become operational overriding the earlier from the same category. In Fanuc, controls up to 5 G codes can be given in one block, However, in MAHO Philips 532 system only one G code needs to be given. Though this makes the reading of the program ‘easier, it unnecessarily increases the number of blocks in a program and the subsequent increase in the size of the part program. Another aspect that one should normally remember is that some of the G codes are modal, which means that they behave as settings to the control. Once given they remain operational till cancelled by another G code from the same group. A few other G codes are non-modal, which means that they remain operational in the block in which they are programmed. When we are describing the G codes, it is made clear as to which is modal and not. ‘Also, some of the G codes are default or ‘turn-on’ codes. This means that they are operational when the controller is started. Also, when the program is completed, generally the controller is reset back to the original default settings. Hence care has to be taken by the programmer to understand the default codes in operation. This is also mentioned along with the G code description, ‘A few of the usual preparatory functions which are generally present in all machining centres and are uniformly followed by all controlier manufacturers are given below: Motion group * G00 Rapid positioning Gol Linear interpolation G02 Circular interpolation clockwise G03 Circular interpolation counter-clockwise G04 Dwella CNC Proms ‘Active plane selection group “GIT XY plane selection Gis XZ plane selection ois YZ plane selection Cutter compensation group * G40 Cutter compensation, cancel Gil Cutter radius compensation left GAD ‘Cutter radius compensation right Units group * G70 Inch units Gil Metric units Hole-making canned cycle group * G80 Canned cycle cancel G81-G89 Canned cycles definition and ON Coordinate system group * G90 Absolute coordinate system G9 Incremental coordinate system Pre-set G92 ‘Absolute pre-set, change the datum position “The * sign indicates the generally accepted default or turn-on code in operation, However, some control manufacturers allow this to be modified to whatever suits them. The above i only a possible indication but not in any way standardised by ISO. In the following, we will give a description of the way to use these G codes. 43.3.1 Coordinate System Group, G90 and G91 The input of dimensional information can be Y f done either in the absolute or in the increme- nial system. The preparatory function G90 is used for absolute programming. In the absolute system, the dimensions are given with respect 0 ‘a common datum chosen by the programmer. It must be programmed and can be cancelled by the function G91 (and also when the program statement has the word M02 or M30). In Fig. 13.8, OX and OY are the datum. Whatever may be the route of the move, the programmed X and Y values of each position remain the same. Suppose the route is 0-A-B-C. ThenHamm CADICAM: Principles and Applications N07 G90 GOI X5.0 Y10.0 F200 NOO8 X25.0Y15.0 NO009 X35.0 5.0 This system is generally advisable for programming, as there are few chances of errors. When the tool is in a particular quadrant, such as the first, then all the coordinate values are positive; similarly, with all the other quadrants of geometry. Thus, it is suggested that the new programmers should always make use of the absolute system till they become familiar with the programming system. ‘The incremental type, denoted in the program by the word G91, is also available on all NC equipments. This is generally the “Turn-on mode’ and can be cancelled by the word G90. The end of the program words MO2 or M30 also sets it. In the incremental system, the data is incremental to the previous block. Unlike as with G90, the programmed data changes only if the route of the move is altered. Referring to the same figure (Fig. 13.8), the program for route 0-A-B-C is NOO7 G91 GOI X5.0Y10.0 F200 N008 X20.0 Y5.0 N009 X10.0 Y-10.0 useful when the ‘8 5 holes, 31.250 mm apart along the X axis would simply be programmed for each feature as X31.25; while in absolute programming, one would have to calculate the value for each position, i.e., X31.25, X62.5, X93.75,.. It is also important while one follows the incremental Programming system, to take care of the direction in which the movement is taking place, irrespective of the quadrant in which the tool is moving. Ina program, both the systems may be followed but it should be done carefully. In the incremental system, any error done in a single block is carried forward and no correction can be done. Also, the errors in the transmission system result in having the errors accumulated, while that does not happen in the case of an absolute coordinate system. 13.3.2 Units Group, G70, G71 This group of codes specifies the units in which the program is to be interpreted, G70 stands for programming in inch units while G71 stands for programming in mm units. Any one of these can be made as turn-on code depending upon the default units likely to be used, Most of the controls destined for areas other than North America generally have a default G71. This can be easily changed when necessary. In any case, it is a better practice to make the habit of giving this code as the very first code in the part program. A given program should be written only in either inch or mm units, but not both. Hence, only one of the two codes should be present in one program. In Fanuc controls, normally G20 and G21 are used for the units in place of G70 and G71. This can be changed optionally to 70 and 71 using the programmable functions of the control system. 13.3.3 Active Plane-Selection Group, G17, G18, G19 Some of the functions in NC control can only work in a plane rather Fig. 49.9 XY plane selection for than in all the 3 possible coordinate axes. This, therefore, requires the vertical-axis milling selection of an active plane. This can be done by using these codes. The machinesCNC Programming 65, iypical coordinate system and the co g plane labelling are shown in Fig. 1 eee G17 XY Plane Selection This is the default turn-on cade. This allows for the working to be carried out in the horizontal plane in case of vertical-nxis milling machines shown in Fig. 13.9. In the case of 2.5 axes machines, in x given block only X and ¥ coordinates are to be specified while the Z coordinates are to be specified in a separate block. For a horizontal-axis machine, the working plane is the vertical plane perpendicular to the spindle axis. Similarly, XY plane selection for horizontal-axis machining centres is shown in Fig. 13.10. G18 XZ Plane Selection This allows the working to be carried out in the XZ plane (Fig. 13.11). In the case of 2.5 axes machines, in a given block only X and Z coordinates are to be specified while the ¥ coordinates are to be specified in a separate block. G19 YZ Plane Selection This allows the working to be carried out in the YZ plane (Fig. 13.12). In the case of 2.5 axes machines, in a given block only ¥ and Z coordinates are to be specified while the X coordinates are o be specified in a separate block Fig. 19.10 XY plane selection for horizontal-axis milling machines 13.3.4 Preset, G92 ‘As described earlier, each of the machine tools has a separate machine reference point. However. this point is Fig, 43.44 XZ plane selection for horizontal-axis not very convenient to use as a coordinate datum for the mmiling machines part, Most of the NC machine tools allow for a “floating datum’ to be fixed anywhere in the machining envelope of the machine tool. As a result, the programmer can choose a convenient position on the part as datum, which may be referred to as ‘program zero point”. ‘The same will have to be communicated to the NC controller as datum, “The choice of the datum as explained earlier is to suit either the setting of the component or to simplify the coordinate calculations. It is necessary in the beginning to make the system understand the coordinate datum position of the part, which is different from the machine reference point. To do this, we make use of the G92 code. The part, which was pre machined, is clamped at a suitable position on the machine table. A known tool or a setting mandrel of known diameter is, Kept inthe machine spindle. This tool is then brought to aknown position near or on the workpiece blank, called the set point. The same is then programmed in the part program using the G92 code, For example, in Fig. 13.12 YZ plane selection for Fig. 13.13, the workpiece of dimensions 200 x 170 x 30 mm is located horizontal-axis milling on the machine bed with the longer edge along the X-axis. The tip of machinesBag cece remanent apricano the setting too held in the spindle, is made to touch the point A, Le. the certing position. At that instant, the program block entered is NOLS G92 X200.0Y170.0 7500 Depending upon the point being touched. the coordinate ean be specified, taking the diameter of the probe touching the workpiece “The tool tip is to be set at a distance of SO from the top surface by means of a suitable gage G53 to G56 are the other codes used for setting the programmable datum positions. These allow for fixing a number of positions on the machine table whose coordinates can be entered into the controller as a permanent memory. When required. their positions can be simply called by giving the particular G code in the program. This is also be useful for machining a batch of components, all of which are. located ‘on the machine table cach at the positions indicated by G53, G54, ete. Fig. 13.13 Setting the workpiece on 433.8 Motion Group, G00, G01, G02, G03 halal? This is the most important group of codes used in part ¥ 4 programming. GOO is the tum-on code from this list. More explanation is given below Rapid Positioning, GOO This is used for moving the tool at a rapid rate (normally, the maximum available feed rate such as 8000 or 40 000 mm/min) along the axes involved for achieving the position programmed. The path taken by the tool to reach the programmed point is . == not important for this code. - ‘This is a modal (stays active till cancelled by any ee x other function of its family, i.e. G01, G02, G03) function a land is also the “turn-on mode” (available as soon as the system is switched on or When a new program starts) Referring to Fig. 13.14, from the position A, itis required to achieve the po ‘This is typical to all machining situations when the tool has to be brought close to the component before any cuting commences. Its obvious that this movement is in the air (cutting air) and so to minimise the idle time, it should take place at the maximum feed rate of various slides involved. For this, the program block would be Fig. 13.14 Positioning, preparatory function GOO N105 G90 G00 X150.0 Y30.0 Ie will be noticed that the initial path is at 48 degrees because both the X and ¥ slides move at the same feed rate (assuming the motors are of the same rating) till the required Y ordinate value is achieved, after which only the X slide moves till the position B is achieved. This is one way of achieving the final position. There could be other possible methods implemented by different controllers. “The rapid positioning is actually a 3D positioning, such that positioning can be achieved simultaneously 4p all the 3 anes as shown in Fig. 13.15.Absolute programming A 10 B 110 G99 Goo xs0.0¥45.02 409 — 1D $120 X90.0790.0 270.0 Incremental programming A to B NI10. G90 Goo XS0.0Y45.02Z 400 N120G91 X40.0 45.0 230.0 Incremental programming B10 A f N110 G9 G00 X90.0 90.02. 70.0 ary. N120 G91 X-40.07-45.0 7-300 Unear or Straight line interpolation, GO1 This codeis generally used when the material is to be cut using a feed rate. When the motion = desired along a straight line at a given feed rate, this function is used. It is modal. If a cut has to be made from D to E (Fig. 13.16) at a feed rate of 250 mm per minute, then the block would be pete NIIS GOI X110.0 Y30.0 F250 In this case, the controller moves all the three axes at a rate such that the resultant velocity along the line matches the programmed feed rate, Similarly, for the motion command shown in Fig. 13.15, 2 Absolute programming A to B ; _N119 G90 GO X50.0 ¥45.02 40.0 N120GO1 90.0 ¥90.0 270.0 F350 Incremental programming AtyB = — NI10 G90 G00 X50. ¥45.02 40.0 NI20 G91 GOI X40.0 Y45.0 230.0 F350 Incremental programming B to A 110 G90 GOO X90.0 90.0 Z 70.0 N120 G91 GOl X-40.0 ¥-45.0 Z-30.0 F350 Circular Interpolation, G02 / G03 When an arc is to be traversed in a plane, the function G02 or GOS is used if the direction of the motion is clockwise or anti-clockwise respectively, looking in the negative direction of the axis perpendicular to the plane. Referring to Fig. 13.17, when the motion is from the F to G in the XY plane, the program block would be. as per ISO, N125 G02 X65.0 60.0 135.0 1.10.0 F250_) But, if the motion were from G to F then it would be N130 G03 X15.0 Y30.0 1-15.0 5-40,0 F250 Fig. 13.16 CNC Programming Sh Oper NO ae Fig. 13.15, ing, preparatory eee 5 x o near interpolation, preparatory function GO1 Y yy Fig. 13.17 Circular interpolation, preparatory= function G02/GO3woe ADAM Principles and Applicatrons Here, (X, ¥) are the coordinates of the destination and (J. J) the distances. along the reference. axes of _ from the starting point of the are. It is essential that the coordinates of the destination the centre of the arc In some systems, (J. J) are the coordinates of the centre of ~ghould be correct and within the prescribed limits. the arc. ‘Some systems carry out circular interpolation when the value of the are radius is given, being positive if the angle subtended by the arc at the centre is less than 180 degrees. and negative, if otherwise. Assuming the radivs and the angle subtended to be 40 mm and 100 degrees respectively then N10 G02 X65.0 Y60.0 R40.0 F250 Itis possible to draw a complete circle which would mean that the destination coincides with the starting point. Then 1N310 G02 135.0 J-10.0 F250 It will be noted that the destination need not be stated, since its coordinates are the same as that of the starting point already entered in the previous block. One should check up from the controller programming manual as to which procedure is to be followed. It may be noted that a full circle cannot be obtained with R-value. ‘The circular interpolation is 2D interpolation and can only be carried out in any plane. For example, in Fig. 13.18 is shown a typical circular slot in the XY-plane which can be machined using a slot drill in a vertical-axis milling machine. This will be the most common form of usage. However, sometimes it may be necessary to machine circular profiles in other planes as well. An example is shown in Fig. 13.19 for the XZ plane. In such cases, it becomes necessary to specify the plane to be used with G17, GI8 or G19 codes. x Fig. 13.18 Circular interpolation in Fig. 18.19 Circuter interpolation in eee ee XZ plane using G18 plane cemenee! selection Dwell, GOs This is to give a delay in the program. When the G04 code is ‘ 1 ay in th um. Wh encountered, the controller stops at that particular point for a specified time mentioned in the block. After that time, the controller Cai to pa the next block in the program. The delay time is normally mentioned in seconds using the X word sditress. In some controls, a word other than X'may also be used. For example, in Fanuc controls, the P word address is used to specify the dwell time in milliseconds. An example is shown below: ,axcriconnne [ill NOESOAI NLD Tic cathe for a stoppage af the control five a perdeat of B eevonats This cals fie a sopyAAge of the contra Hee porieat oF 8 cewents, No decimal plat Pygramening with P wont aktress in Benue controls, 4184 |] MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS, I NOES GOH PRON Thece feactions as tually operate some contents an the machine toot andl thus affect the munalng of the machine, Generally, oaly OEM code «© cupyOEdt hy Ne given in a single Mlowk, However, some contraltery allow fo wy oF mere M cones to be given im a Nook, provi these are mo ray eNeTAST, 6 coolant ON {MOTD arnt OFE (MOY) cannot be given in ane Mook Less mater of M ovvtes have teen stantantised by ISO compares t9 G ovate in view ofthe diteet content exercised by these o the machine tool. The ISO standant M codes are shown below cope FUNCTION a Program stop, spindle and cootant off Mot Optional programmable stop M02 End of program—often interchangeable with M30 Mos Spindle on, CW Mot inatle on, COW, Mos Spindle stop Moo ‘Wot change M07 Coolant supply No. Lon Mos Coolant supply No, Zon Moo Coolant off M10 Clamp Mu Unclamp Miz Unassigned MIs Spindle on, CW + coolant on Mit Spindle on, CCW + coolant on MiSs Rapid traverse in + direction MIO Rapid traverse in - direction MI7-MIS Unassigned Mio Spindle stop at specified angular position M20-M29—_ Unassigned M30 Program stop at end tape + tape rewind M31 Interlock by-pass. M32-M35 Constant cutting velocity M36-M39——_ Unassigned. MIO-M4S Gear changes; otherwise unassigned M46-M49— Unassigned Ms0 Coolant supply No. 3 on MSI Coolant supply No. 4 oney CADICAM: Principles and Applications MS2-M54 Unassigned Mss Linear cutter offset No, | shift MS6 Linear cutter offset No, 2 shift MS7-MS9——_“Unassigned M60 Piece part change M61 Linear piece part shift, location 1 M62 Linear piece part thift, location 2 M63-M67_ Unassigned M68 Clamp piece part Moo Unclamp piece part M70 Unassigned M71 Angular piece part shift, location J Mr Angular piece part shift, location 2 M73-M77——_ Unassigned MTB Clamp non-activated machine bed-ways M79 Unclamp non-activated machine bed-ways M80-M99 Unassigned ‘Some of the common miscellaneous functions often found in many a controller are the following: MOO ‘This terminates the auto-operation of the machine after completing the instructions in the block in which it has been programmed. This ix called ‘program stop" and if it is required to continue With the rest of the program, the ‘start’ button on the console is ty be pressed. ‘This is useful for changing the clamp position of to carry out inspection of a particular dimension after a machining ‘cat is taken. This being a paute function, and calls for the attention of the operator, delays the Completion of the program and therefore should be avuided as far ax possible. This is ‘optional stop’ and stops the machine, as in the case of MUX), only if the ‘optional stop’ switch on the controller console is ‘ON*. This ix useful when inspection is to be carried out on some components and not all in a given batch ‘This is ‘end of program’ and it causes the stopping, of the machine and clearing of all the control registers. Another code 430 aluo does the same function, The miscellaneous function for machine spindle control for clockwise rotation. ‘This starts the spindle to merve in the clockwive direction at the speed set earlier using the § word address, When iC piven in a block, itis the first code to be executed before all the other codes in a block are acted wpe. The miscellaseous function for machine-spindle control for counter-clockwise rotation. This Marts the spindle to move in the counterclockwise direction at the speed set earlier using the S wend addcess, When itis given in a block, iis the first code to be exccuted before all the other Cotes in a thocts are acted upon. [Bee teivcellanens function for sopping the machine spindle. When it is piven ina bloc, itis the last code to te executed afterall the other codes in a block ate acted upon, 1s for took change, Are for ‘Coolant | On’excrenomner Sl M08 — Are for ‘Coolant 2 On" M09 — Is for ‘Coolant Off" MI3 cous function for machine-spindle control for clockwise rotation and the starting of 1 simultancously. This starts the spindle to move in the clockwive direction at the speed set earlier using the § word address, When it is given in a block, it is the first code to be executed before all the other codes in a block are acted upon M30 itis similar to M02. It indicates ‘end of tape’ and ‘tape rewind’. If a paper tape is used. the tape is rewind till the % sign is encountered, For machines working with RAM, the active program comes to the beginning. Many a times, M02 and M30 are synonymous in operation in modern- controllers. 13.5 || PROGRAM NUMBER In many of the latest CNC systems, there is provision for labelling the program at the start itself which facilitates searching. from stored programs. ‘The symbol used for the program number in Fanuc controls is “0' or *’, followed by its number, For example, O23 or :238, Such information does not interfere with the NC program, Invariably, in most of the components there are a number of repetitive features, e.g.. pattern of holes. profiles, etc. Instead of writing blocks for each of them repeatedly in the program as per process plan, the facility exists for writing the subprograms for each feature and entering them with labels at the end of the main program. In the main program, where these are required, they are called by an appropriate block, €.2-- in Fanuc controls, M98 P1001, i.c., miscellancous function 98 is call for subprogram (also called subroutine), the number after *P? referring to the subprogram being called. The subprograms are ended with the word *M99" in Fanue controls. Example 13.1 The component to be machined is shown in Fig. 13.20. It is assumed that the pocket comcast js through and hence only the outside is to be machined as a finish cut of the pocket. The tool to be used is a 20 mm diameter slot drill. If an end mill is to be used, the program should be modified with a hole to be drilled at B first before the end mill is used. The setting is done with point the ‘Aas reference (0, 0, 0) and the reference axes are along X and ¥ directions. A typical program, as per 150 (except the decimal point), for this would be No01 G92 Xo YO 20 absolute presetting at A Noo2 690 absolute programming 003 Goo x25.0 25.0 22.0 TO1 $3000 Mo3 tool brought rapidly at B, 2 mm above XY plane | NOO4 G01 Z-12.0 F120 tool goes down to full depth No05 ¥75.0 proceeds to C NOO6 X65.0 proceeds towards right to D NoO7 Go2 ¥25.0 10 3-25.0 cuts curved profile till E NoO8 GO1 X25.0 proceeds to B No09 22.0 tool moves 2 mm above the XY plar NO10 Goo 250.0 MoS No11 xo Yo Nota M30)FEB cape ricer ant arrears othe graphical Simulation of the above is shown in Fig. 13.21, simulating the material-removal process ‘on the machine tool. Fig. 13.21 Simulation of the above part program for the component shown in Fig. 13.20 he component to be machined is shown in Fig. 13.22. The outer profile needs to be machined using a slot drill of 016 mm. Fig. 13.22 Component for Example 13.2 Fig. 13.23 Too! path for machining the ‘component for Example 13.22exc roemnie The ares system shown 3 the centiog Tae ne comanent is given in Figs 13:23. The pat tobe taken bythe tal 8 ‘i re complete part program with all the necessary M codes is given below: 01002. 3“ : C NO10 G71 692 x0 Yo 250 ae NO15 G90 it 5 (Absolute programming) taod wee Mo6 {<< (Toot change speed setting) 0 M03, } {Rapid move to clearance plane) _ J 8030 G01 7-5.0 F100 (Feed to the required depth) (Cut along straight tine) (Grcular move) (Cut along straight line) (Cut atong straight line) (Circular move) (Straight line to the intersection point) (Straight line to the intersection point) (Feed to clearance plane stop spindle) NO35 YB0.0 F120, N040 G02 X20.0 98.0 R20.0 F100 NO45 Got x98.0 oso Y20 NOS5 GO? XB0.0 ¥2.0 R18.0 NO60 Go1 x18.757 NO65 X2.0 Y18.757 NO70 22.0 MOS NO75 GO Xo Yo 750 (Rapid to set point) Nos0 Moz (End of program) The reader would have noticed that the toot Ye eye has been moved along a path which is offset from the original contour by a value equal to the radius of the cutter. Further, it became necessary to calculate the new intersection points which sometimes require the use of trigonometry. For example, see the path taken by a cutter of radius R as shown in Fig. 13.24. To calculate the actual cutter path, it is nec- essary to evaluate the AX and SY using the following formulae. AY=Rtan (2) Fig. 13.24 Offset Too! path for machining contours that are not parallel to the principal axes -a' ave Rtan (2 2 It is possible to derive similar formulze for other contour situations as well. Further, most of the new controllers are pro- vided with cutter radius compensation options. In such cases, it is not necessary to calculate such intersection values. The details are given later. ‘The graphical simulation of the above is shown in Fig. 13.25. : 4 ‘simulating the material-removal process on the machine tool. Fig. 13.25 Simulation of the above part program for the ‘shown in Fig. 13.22 ce374 CADICAM: Principles and Applications = 13.6 ll TOOL-LENGTH COMPENSATION In the programs discussed so far, only one tool was used to perform the machining function, Hence, th workpiece setting is performed with the single tool. However, in cases where there is more thn one tp programming becomes cumbersome. ifthe programmer has to take care of the individual too! le purpose of programming the Z depth in each case In NC practice, all tools are measured in the 7 4 assembled state using a tool pre-setter as explained in Chapter 11, and this information is always kept upto date (Fig. 13.26). For the tools being used, the difference in length, with respect to the pre-setting tool, is recorded and is manually entered and stored with the associated tool number. Whenever these tools are called into action by programmed instruction, the respective compensation values are activated and automatically taken into account in the tool motion, The following program (——————;—— example explains how tool-length compensa i i i i is automatically taken care of. Tot 1 2 3 Fig. 13.26 Tool-length compensation NO03 M06 TOL N006 M06 TO2 In these program blocks, M06 refers to tool change and TOI, 02, ... refer to the tools to be loaded. ‘Whenever the tool is ground or replaced, the new values are entered to replace the earlier ones and thus the program remains unchanged. This is an essential facility, without which the multiplicity of the programs for each job/tool combination is enormous and futile. It will be understood that the values entered compensate for the difference in lengths and thus all tools ‘effectively’ become independent of tool dimensions, if the dimensions of all the tools are stored. When programming, the tool dimensions are not considered since the compensation values are calculated by the control system itself during manufacturing. 1137 || CANNED cycLes Itis found many a times that a series of motions are to be repeated a number of times, many of which are fairly common to all the positions, For example, in the case of a drilling operation, the tool (twist drill) has to Position a little above the hole in rapid position, then move to the required depth with the given feed rate and then the tool has to return to the top of the hole as shown in Fig, 13.27. The same actions are to be repeated for each of the holes. For each of the operations, 3 NC blocks to be written, out of which two blocks need to be repeated without any change for each of the holes to be drilled in the same plane. It, therefore, is possible to define a canned eycle or fixed cycle which can repeat all thes? motions without having to repeat the same information for each of the holes. The most common cycles that: 375 ENC Programming aba are useful are for the hole-makis i fached tn slag oe rae peaions such as drilling, reaming. tapping, ete. The advantages to be eecn i Fig. a8 yeles gauged by looking at the part programs below for the component Fig. 13.27 Typical motions embedded in Fig. 13.28 Example for canned cycles G81 canned cycle For the component shown in Fig. 13.28, the NC program for drilling the three holes without using canned cycles is shown below: " ma £1), NOIO GOO X25.0 ¥35.0 22 My / NOIS GO] Z-18.0 F125 __NO20 G00 22.0% [ NO25 X55.0 Y50.0 * / —_NO35 GOI Z-18.0 F125*- _NO40 G00 22.0 * NO45 X75.0Y70.0 NOSO GOI Z-18.0 F125 * NOS5 G00 Z2.0 * \ 065 X0YO Z50*—~ For the same component, the NC pr og NO10 G81, X25.0 Y35.0 Z-18.0 R2,0.F125,* NO1S X55.0Y50.0 * ~N020 X75.0Y70.0* NODS, = oe yam using canned cycles is shown below: > fyfin CADICAM: Principe and Applications In the canned cycles, the additional data such as the clearance plane position has to be specified. For ‘example, the G81 canned cycle is used for carrying out the drilling operations for through holes. The actual operations embedded in the GST canned eyele are shown in Figs 13.27. The format to be used as follows: [Noost XY ZR | X.Y Referto the centre coordinates of the point where the dling isto be carried out Z —_ Refer to the final depth of the hole to be drilled R Refer to the position of the clearance plane (same asthe Z-axis postion of the clearance plane) Table 13.2 Standard canned cycle motions Camed cpite |, ROR “Ar programmed depth end offeed point) Used for number surface Dwell Spindle speed Spindle return | ie e = | G80 of = Stop = ‘Cancel canned cycle | cst Constant i Rapid Drilling, centre drilling | Gs? Constant Yes pa Rapid Counter sinking, counter boring | G83 Intermittent — Rapid Deep-hole drilling G8s ‘Constant - Reverse, Feed Tapping G8s ‘Constant ie - Feed Reaming G86 Constant a Stop Rapid Boring Gs? Constant _ Stop Manual ‘Multiple boring Gs Constant Yes ‘Stop Manual Boring cso Constant Yes = Feed Boring 1e, which is modal. Asa result, for any point specified when G81 is in force the drilling “Ac a result, to cancel the canned cycle, it is necessary to use the code G80. The effect g canned cycle in force and make GOO operational. Any coordinates to which the spindle should move can be programmed in the G80 block. ‘There area number of canned cycles identified by ISO in this category. The typical motions embedded in various canned cycles as per ISO are shown in Table 13.2. G81 is acanned cycl action will be repeated. of G80 is to cancel the exis The component to be machined is shown in Fig. 13.29. Write a pro i ned cycles to rill all the holes shown in Fig 13.29. ae NO10_671/G92%Q YO 250 NO15 G90)’ + : woz0T01 $800 M06 ozs G82 x25 Y25Z-5 R2 P2 F125.MO3. |) | (Centre drill all hotes) nosoxesv75> eo 03s x75 25 ( 040 G80 X-50 YO 750 MOS, 0 NOS; a eesCNC Programming ay 10 All dimensions in mm Fig. 13.29 Component for NC program in Example 13.3 {_2-—-no4s To2 S800 Mos (Finish drill the ¢ 20 hole) NO5O G81 X25 Y25 2-13 R2 F125 MOB NO5S G80 X-50 YO Z50 MOS & NO6O T03 $800 M06 _ (Finish Drill the ¢ 10 holes) NO65 G81 X25 Y75 2-13 R2 F125 M03 NO70 X75 Y25 NO75 G80 X-50 ¥-50 250 MOS Nogo Too Mos Nog0 Moz The graphical simulation of the Example 13.3 is shown in Fig. 13.30, simulating the material-removal process on the machine tool. Example 13.4 The component to be machined is shown ecm jn Fig. 13.31. Write a program using canned cycles to drill all the holes shown in Fig 13.31. Fig. 13.30 Simulation ofthe program % for Example 13.3 01303 No10 G71 G92 XO YO 750 NO15 G90" Noo T01 $806 Mos *~ : ~ fons Ga x15 ¥25 7-5 R2P2 F125 M03 (Centre drill all holes) ) No30 X135 151 =— « N03 x75 ¥50_/Bae CADICAM: Principles and Applications No30 x135 Yas, “NO35 X15 YB5 i NO4O G80 X-50 YO Z50 M05 | No4s To2 $800 Mos NOSO G81 X75 Y50 2-13 R2 F125 M03, NO5S5 G80 X-50 YO 250 MOS, ., NO60 103 S800 MO6 f i apne Finish ail the 2 bole) diyetian (Finish drill the 10 holes) No6S G81 X15 Y15 2-13 R2 F125 M03 NO70 X135 Y15 NO35 X135 YB5 No30 X15 Y85 NO75 G80 X-50 Y-50 250 MOS NoBO Too MOS Nog0 Moz | | : The graphical simulation of the Example 13.4 is shown in Fig. 13.32, simulating the material-removal process on the machine tool. 4x010mm dia holes, L150 —— All dimensions in mm Fig. 13.31 Component for NC program Fig. 18.32 Simulation of the program in Example 13.4 for Example 13.4 Example 13.5 The component to be machined is shown in Fig. 13.33. All the hol eS are to be machined using the tools specified. The point to be noted in the above component is that the top surface is at th: the clearance plane will be different for each of these planes. Hence, the this into account while using the appropriate canned cycle. completely. \le-making operations ree different levels as such, ‘the part program will have to take The following part program machines the partCNC Programming Cutting tool: 1. Center dei! 2.Twist drill O6 mm 3. Twist drill O 8.5 mm 4. Top M10 NO10-671-G92-K0-YO-250- No15 G90 ‘ “\--No20-701 5800 #06) “pot (Centre drill all holes) No25 GB2 X20 Y34 7-5 RA F125 MO3 NO30 X20 Y84 No35 G80 X60 Y16 =.) Nogo G82 x60 Y16 2-25 R1B)F125, No4s Y40 7 Nos0 Yoo NO55 YB4 No6O G80 26 No6S G82 X95 Y16 7-13 R6 F125 NO70 Y84 NO7S X115 Nogo 84 NoBs G80 22 MOS