UNIT 1: To Be Adjectives

1. Verb to BE

Almost all verbs express some type of actions, others don't. the verb to be expresses
conditions and states that we do not expect to change. it is also called stative verbs. These
verbs express descriptions, relationships, emotions, etc. For example:
I am happy today. She is a doctor. Peter and Paul are brothers.

Statement: She/he/it/ is in English 101. I am Allen. They/we/you are architects.

Negative: I am not a programmer. We are not going there.
Question: Is she happy about her grade? Are you sick today?
Short answer: No, he isn't. // Yes, they are.

2. There is/There are

There in There is and There are has no meaning. Is is used to fill the subject position. There
is and There are are used to introduce a topic that you haven't mentioned before. For
example: There is a steak in the refrigerator. Should we eat it?
They are also used to make announcements, describe things, and state facts.

Statement: There is someone at the door. There are many trees in the backyard.
Negative: There is not anything in here. There are not two rats in the box. Only one.
Question: Is there a message for me? Are there any animal doctors around here?
Short answer: No, There isn't. // Yes, there are.

3. Wh-words + To be

Wh-words such as where, what, when, who, etc. are used to ask questions about locations
(where), people (who), things (which), and state, quality of the action (how), justification of
an action or state (why). For example:

What is your major? My major is English.

Where are you from? We're from Colombia.
How am I doing this? You're fine.
Why is she sad? Because she is not going to the party.

Summary
  present tense past tense
singular plural singular plural
1st person I am we are I was we were
2nd person you are you are you were you were
3rd person he/she/it is they are he/she/it was they were

 Pronouns  TO BE  happy.

 He, she , it   is  going to the park.
 I  am  at school.
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 You, they, we  are
 Yes/No Questions:  Pronoun  
 Is  he  a doctor?
 Wh-questions   TO BE  Pronoun
 Where   are  they?

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 UNIT 2: Types of Sentences

1. Parts of Speech

Parts of speech are the basic types of words that English has. Most grammar books say that
there are eight parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions,
prepositions and interjections. We will add one more type: articles.

It is important to be able to recognize and identify the different types of words in English, so
that you can understand grammar explanations and use the right word form in the right place.
Here is a brief explanation of what the parts of speech are:

 Part of
Explanation  Examples
Speech
 class, boss, tree, arrival,
 It names a person, place, thing, idea, living
 Noun cowboy, thought,
creature, quality, or action.
computer
 run, walk, think, feel,
 Verb  It describes describes an action or a state
want, love
 It describes a noun. It tells you something  red, big, amazing, fast,
 Adjective
about the noun. important, intelligent
It describes a verb. It tells you how  Slowly, carefully, here,
 Adverb something is done. It may also tell you when yesterday, well,
or where something happened. tomorrow
It is used instead of a noun, to avoid  I, you, he, she , it, we,
 Pronoun
repeating the noun. they
It joins two words, phrases or sentences  but, so, and, because,
 Conjunction
together. or, yet, although, if
It usually comes before a noun, pronoun or  on, in, by, with, under,
 Preposition noun phrase. It joins the noun to some other through, at , along,
part of the sentence through, up, down, over
 It is a word which express emotion or  Ouch!, Hello!, Oh no!,
 Interjection surprise, and it is usually followed by Wow!, Ha!, Hurray!, My
exclamation marks. God!, Hey!
 Article  An article is used to introduce a noun  the, a, an

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence is made up of two simple sentences joined by a comma and a

coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon. For example:

Mary is going to the party and she is wearing her red dress.
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I can't speak now, but I will soon.
Over 10 percent of the students dropped out; They were forced out by poverty.

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is made up of a simple sentence and one or more dependent or

subordinate clauses. There are three different types of subordinate clauses:

 Adverbial clauses are introduced by a subordinating conjunction such as after,

although, as, because, before, once, though, until, whether, if, how, while, where,
while. For example:
While I was at the bathroom, a big fight started in the dancing area.
 Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pronouns such as who, whom, that,
which, whichever, whomever, whoever. For example:
You may invite whomever you like to the party.
 Noun Clauses are introduced by that, whether, if, or questions words. For example:
It would be interesting to know where Susan is from.

4. Fragments

A fragment or incomplete sentence is a subordinate clause that stands alone, or it is without

an independent clause. In written academic English it is never appropriate. However, in
spoken English it is very common to use incomplete sentences or fragments. For example:

Why did you miss classes yesterday?

Because I was sick. (I missed classes because I was sick)
Beautiful day! ( It's a beautiful day!)
Found an apartment yet? (Have you found an apartment yet?

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 UNIT 3: Count & Uncountable Nouns

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

In English, there are two kinds of nouns: count nouns and non-count nouns. It is important to
understand the difference between them, because they often use different articles, and non-
count nouns usually have no plural

1.Countable nouns

They deal with things that we can count: one dog, a mule, one man, the barber shop.

They usually have a singular and plural form: two dogs, ten mules, six men, ten barber shops.

2. Uncountable nouns

They deal with things that we do not usually count: tea, sugar, water, air, rice, etc. or for
abstract ideas or qualities such as knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love.

They do not usually have a plural form. Examples of common uncountable nouns:
money, advice, information, furniture, happiness, sadness, news, research, evidence, safety,
beauty, knowledge.

You can usually work out whether a noun is count or non-count by thinking about it. Count
nouns are usually objects which can be counted. Non-count nouns are often substances (such
as sand, water or rice) which cannot be easily counted, or they may be large abstract ideas
such as "nature", "space" or "entertainment".

You can put "a" or "an" before count nouns. For example: I have an apple. She doesn't need
a table. You can also use "How many" with count nouns: How many horses are there in the
farm?
You can put "some" before noncount nouns. For example: I have some chocolate at the
party. I just had some rice for lunch. You can also use "How much" with non-count nouns:
How much traffic is there in San Francisco?

3. Container, Piece, and Measurement Words

Many things that you can buy in a supermarket are noncount i.e. soap, cereal, butter, beef,
ice, etc. However, we often want to talk about certain quantities of these things. In order to do
this, we divide them into units that can be counted. Here is where the container words
become handy.
Container words.: a can of..., a box of..., a bowl of ..., a glass of ...i.e. I bought two boxes of
cereal.
Piece words: a piece of, a slice of..., a bar of ...i.e. A slice of pizza. Who needs a piece of
paper?
Measurement words: a quart of..., a liter of...: i.e. She has to get two quarts of milk.

At the brunch, Angela had a bowl of Jell-O, a piece of cake, two slices of cheese, and a cup
of coffee.
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 UNIT 4: Singular & Plural
1. Using nouns to refer to groups--making Generalizations

When nouns are used in this way, we are referring to all the member of a group. We use no
determiners. For example: I like apple juice. I like apples. Apple juice is delicious. Apples are
delicious.

In the examples above , we were not mentioning any specific apple. Instead we are making a
generalization.

2.Regular Count Nouns

Count nouns that add -s or -es to the singular for are regular plural nouns. You may now look
at the the Support level to check the rules for these plural endings.
If the word ends in a vowel plus -y (-ay, -ey, -iy, -oy, -uy), add an -s to the word: tray--trays,
key--keys.

3. Irregular Count Nouns

Count nouns that have a special plural form are irregular plural nouns. Their plural is more
difficult to guess. You will need to memorize or use their form in many contexts. For
example: The goose is flying north. The geese are flying north. Some irregular nouns are:
man-men, person-people, foot-feet, tooth-teeth, mouse-mice, ox-oxen, wife-wives.

Some irregular nouns have the same singular and plural forms: A sheep is eating grass. Two
sheep are eating grass. That species is beautiful. Those species are beautiful.
Some irregular nouns always take the plural form. For example: The police are on the way.
The cattle are in the bar. the faculty are in meeting now. Some others are: jeans, pants,
clothes, goods, glasses, shorts, scissors, etc.

4. Noncount Nouns
Noncount don't have plural forms. They're always singular. For example: A lot of information
is needed. Pollution is a serious problem in New York.
Noncount nouns occur alone or with certain expressions of quantity such as a little, a great
deal of, a lot of, etc.

5. Pronouns

Subject, object and possessives

Pronouns are words used in place of nouns. We use them instead of repeating noun phrases that
refer to specific people or things

subject object possessive possessive

pronoun pronoun adjective pronoun
I me my mine
you you your yours
she her her hers
he him his his
it it its its
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we us our ours
they them their theirs
 Give it to me. It's my bag. It's mine.
 Give it to her. It's her bag. It's hers.

6. Possessive Pronouns

In English possessives agree with the possessor. (Allen's book=his book).Examples:

Jane's brother is married to John's sister. That is, her brother is married to his sister.

Possessive pronouns are not preceded by an article.

Examples:
a. These books are yours. They are your books.
b. This camera is mine. That camera is his.
c. These photographs are mine. Those are hers.
d. Is this their picnic? No, it is ours.
e. I think this is your passport. Yes, it is yours.

7. Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used in three main situations:

1. When the subject and object are the same. For example: I cut myself. John shot
himself.
2. As the object of a preposition, referring to the subject. For example: I bought a
present for myself. Ron is talking to himself.
3. When you want to emphasize the subject. For example: I'll do it myself. They ate all the food
themselves.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
PERSON 1st 2nd 3rd
SINGULAR: myself yourself himself, herself, itself, oneself
PLURAL: ourselves yourselves themselves
4.

Reflexive pronouns are often used to emphasize ( frequently in the form preposition+
reflexive pronoun). For example:
Mary can look after herself.
Let her speak for herself.
Misty told herself that she would never marry again.
Dan's old enough to dress himself.

8. Indefinite pronouns

These are made by combining every, any, some, no with one, body, and thing. Thus
we can have the following combinations: everybody, anyone, everything, something,
no one, nobody,anybody, anything, etc.

They all refer to people or things. You can limit your generalization by using nearly
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or almost. For example: Almost Everybody that I know studies English. Nearly
everything in the room is mine.

When these pronouns are the subject of a sentence, the verb is always singular.
Example: Everybody likes Amanda.

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 UNIT 5: Determiners & Adjectives

1. Adjectives

Word order

When adjectives come before a noun, they usually have to go in a particular order, like this:

opinion size/age/shape color nationalit materia noun

y l
(a) nice     Egyptian cotton scarf
(an) ugly old       man
lovely straight black     hair

We would like to replace our ugly blue sofa, but we can't afford it.
She's got a nice Egyptian accent when she speaks English.

Adjectives are often intensified or softened with adverbs such as extremely, very, quite,
rather, somewhat, fairly. For example: I can't stand the rather ugly smell of her perfume.

2. Determiners
These are words used before a noun to limit its meaning in some way.
Every and all can be used as determiners. The noun that immediately follows every is always
a singular count noun. All is used with noncount and plural count nouns. For example: All
progress is the result of hard work. All children need love. Every child meeds love.

Some quantifiers can be used with noncount and plural count nouns. Much is used in
American English mainly in questions and negative statements. For example: My chemistry
teacher did not have much time and he gave a little help.

A few / a little of / a lot of / much / many

  Uncountable noun Plural countable noun

 a little coffee
 a lot of coffee  a few apples
+  a great deal of coffee  plenty of apples
 quite a bit of coffee  a number of apples
 plenty of coffee
 (not) much coffee  (not) many apples
-
 (not) a lot of coffee  (not) a lot of apples
 many apples?
 much coffee?
?  a lot of apples?
 a lot of coffee?
 plenty of apples?

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She hasn't got much money but she's got a lot of friends.
Have you got a lot of flour? We've got a little flour.
There is a great deal of international students at KU.

 3.The Articles

The three articles — a, an, the — are adjectives. "The" is called the definite article because it
names, specifically, a noun; "a" and "an" are called indefinite articles because they don't.
These words are also called determiners because they are followed by a noun.

"The" is used with specific nouns. "The" is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something that is one of a kind: The moon circles the earth.
Most place nouns do not require "the"---for example the names of continents, states, nations,
cities do not require "the".

 4. Demonstratives

The determiners this, that , these, those are called demonstratives. They are pointing words,
that is, This, or these point out something nearby in space or time. That or those point out
something further away in space or time. For example: These cookies are good. I think I'll
have a few more. Who is that girl standing at the bus stop?

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 UNIT 6: Present Time
1. Present States--The Stative verb BE

The simple present tense is used to describe present state. Certain verbs , usually called
stative verbs, often appear in these sentences. The most common stative verb is be (am, is,
are). For example: Statement: He is a doctor.
Negative: Mary isn't a good friend.
Questions: Are there good beaches around here?

2. Other Stative verbs

Some stative verbs refer to state of feeling or attitude. Some of them are love, like, prefer,
appreciate, hate, detest, care, mind, need, wish, etc. For example: Amanda wishes she is
rich. Do you mind if I open the door? I don't care whether it rains or not.

Other stative verbs refer to state of ownership, possession and measurement such as have,
own, possess, belong to, contain, consist of, involve, weigh, measure, cost, etc. For
example: How much does a good computer cost? The book does not contain the information I
need.
Stative verbs of state of mind: remember, recall, forget, mean, understand, agree, feel,
guess, know, etc.
Stative verbs of sense perception: hear, see, feel, smell, notice, etc.
Stative verbs of appearance: look, appear, seem, sound, taste,

Click here to see more stative verbs.

3. Uses of the Present tense

A: to make a statement about actions that are continuing or things happening repeatedly.
e.g. Jean lives in France. Mary watches television each evening.
B: to give instructions/directions.
e.g. You take the first left then take the next right.
C: to tell jokes and stories.
e.g. A man comes into the pub and he says ............
D: to ask a simple question using do/does.
e.g. Do you like English food? Does your father speak English?
E: short answers to a simple question.
e.g. Do you enjoy English food? Yes, I do.

4. Habits, Routines, and Timeless Truths--the Simple Present Tense.

The simple present tense is also used for current habits, routines, and truths. These are actions
that are repeated over and over again. For example: Water freezes at 0 Celsius.(truth)
I always take the 7:00 a.m. bus to go to work. (routine).
Frequency adverbs are usually used with this tense for repeated actions. Some of them are
always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, seldom, never, etc.
The most common position for frequency adverbs is immediately before the simple present
tense verb. For example: My boss frequently blows his nose.
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Adverbial phrases of frequency usually go at the end of the sentence. For example: all the
time, from time to time, every now and then, once in while, every day, etc.

5. The present continuous tense

This tense is used for two main types of actions:

1. A temporary action happening now (but it will stop in the future). For example: Allen is
winning the game.
2. A definite plan for the future. Bob is leaving for Seattle on Friday.

5. Drawing Conclusions from evidence--Modal Verbs

Modal verbs can be used when you draw conclusions from evidence. Thye indicate that the
things are probable, possible, or impossible.

 Probable: must
 Possible: may, might, could
 Possible not: may not, might not
 Probably not: must not
 Impossible: cannot, could not
 Ability: can
 Inability: can't

Example:
Ron: Where's Emily?
Anne: I'm not sure. She could be upstairs, or she could be outside.
Bob: Oh, she must be upstairs. I saw her go up there ten minutes ago.

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 UNIT 7: Past Time
1. Past Events and Situations--Simple Past and Present Perfect

To form the simple past of most verbs simply add -ed to the base of the verb. For negative
sentences and questions use did and the base of the verb. For example:

Statement: Ricky Martin sang a beautiful song at the concert in Kansas City.
Negative: I did not want to drive through the desert.
Question: Did you watch TV yesterday?
Short answer: No, I didn't. // Yes, I did.

The present perfect is formed with the auxiliary verb HAVE (has or have) and the past
participle (-ed or -en) of the verb. For most of the verbs, the past participle is the same as
the simple past form. For example:

Statement: My mother has objected to my wedding plans.

Negative: I have not smoked a cigarette in a week.
Question: Has your sister been to museum yet?
Short answer: No, she hasn't. // Yes, she has.

Present perfect needs has / have + a past particle : 

he / she / it : use HAS

She has studied English for a long time.     has + studied

I / you / we  / they : use HAVE

They have eaten at McDonald's                have + eaten

The present perfect is often used to refer to recently completely actions. In questions, you
usually use the adverb yet. For example: Have you eaten yet? No, I haven't./ Yes, I have.

In positive statements with the present perfect you usually use the adverb already. For
example:
I have already finished my homework, but I haven't had any food yet.

We usually use the present perfect tense with the adverb ever to ask whether an event has
happened anytime before now. For example: Have you ever visited Costa Rica?

To ask or tell about things that happened at a specific time in the past, use the simple past
tense. For example: When did you last visit Costa Rica?

2. Irregular Verbs

Some English verbs are irregular and therefore you must learn them individually. For a
complete list of irregular verbs go to the Support level now. Although many verbs in English
form their past tense with -ED, some do not.
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Among them is the verb TO BE with its two different form: was and were. For example:
Statement: She/he/it/I was in the park yesterday. They/we/you were happy about it.
Negative: I was not at school last week. We weren't there last Monday.
Question: Was she happy about her gift? Were you sick last week?
Short answer: No, he wasn't. // Yes, they were.

3. Past Situation and habits--Used to

When you want to show a past habit or a situation that was true in the past but doesn't exist
anymore use the expression used to. For example:

Mike used to bite his nails. Now he chews his pencil. (past habit)
Bob used to be overweight. Now he is thin. (past situation)
I used to play basketball. (memories)

4. Past probability, Possibility, and Impossibility

In order to show that you had the ability or opportunity to do something in the past but you
didn't do it, you use the modals (must, might, could) + have + the past participle of any verb.
For example:

I could have passed the course, but I didn't.

Mary could have taken the bus, but she walked instead.
John looked very tired this morning. He must have worked late last night.
Brian's office's closed. He must have already left.

5. Could and Couldn't for Past Ability and Inability

To show that someone was able or unable to do something in the past, use could or could not
For example:

When I was in High School I couldn't speak English, but now I can.
At elementary school I could play the flute, now I can't.

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 UNIT 8: Future Time

1. Future Time

English does not have a true future tense. Many verbs are used to refer to the future time
in terms of plans (I'm going to a party tonight), intentions ( I'm going to try to finish my
project tonight), predictions (it will be sunny tomorrow), scheduling ( the game starts at
1:00p.m.), and requests (Will you please help me do this).The Future time describes
events/activities that are to happen later the same day or in near or distant time after the
immediate time

The future can be expressed in four ways in English:

A:. by using the Simple Future Tense will/shall with an infinitive.

e.g. The teacher will give me the answer on Monday.

B: by using the Present Continuous Tense of the verb to go with an infinitive when the
action is to take place very soon:

e.g. I am going to wash my car.

C: by using the Present Continuous Tense with a word/phrase indicating the future:

e.g. The Channel Tunnel is opening for passenger travel next year.

D: by using a statement beginning with let us or let's when wishing to ask a question:

e.g. Let's go to the cinema this evening! (Shall we go to the cinema this evening?)

Let's eat our lunch now! (Shall we eat our lunch now?)

2. Plans

The most common verb pattern to use in talking about plans are:

 BE GOING TO + base form : She's going to the party tonight.

 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: They are staying at the Burgos Hotel next week.
 You may use expressions such as Maybe, Perhaps, Probably, I think, it's possible
+ will : Probably I'll stay at the Burgos Hotel.

3. Intentions

When we intent to do something, we have a goal or purpose in mind. Intentions can be

expressed with be going to or will.
I am going to try to finish the homework in a hour.
Jaime will try to stop smoking by the year 2000.

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4. Predictions

We usually use will or be going to to make predictions, that is, to tell what you think
will happen in the near future.
Bob believes that Allen will win the lottery very soon.
It is probably going to rain in the afternoon.

5. Scheduling

We usually use the simple present tense to talk about scheduled events.
Spring break begins on March 22.
The football game starts at 7:00 p.m.
The game ends at 3:00 p.m.

6. Requests and Offers

 When you ask someone to do something.

Will you (please) help me carry this?, Could you.., Would you..., Why don't you
help me..
The responses are usually Certainly. Sure. O.K., Of course, All right,.I'll be
happy to.
 When you ask someone not to do something
Will you please not smoke?, Would mind not smoking?, Could you not..., Would
you not
 When you ask permission to do something
May I (please) close the door?, Do you mind if I..., Could I..

7. Future Possibility and Probability

 When something in the future is not certainty but merely a possibility you use
may, might, could. For example: The weather may/might/could be better later
tonight.
 When you expect something to happen but you are not quite certain, you use, will
probably, should. For example:
The weather will probably be better tonight.

8. Obligation and Advisability

 The modal must is used to express obligation or necessity. it is similar in
meaning to have to. For example:
You must be 21 to buy liquor in most States. or You have to be 21 to buy liquor.
 Must not expresses prohibition. For example:
A doctor must not operate on a person without being certified to do so.
 Do not have to expresses the absence of necessity. For example:
A person does not have to be a US citizen to get a driver's license.

 Should, ought to, are used to express advisability. For example:

You should insure your belongings in case someone steal them from you.

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17
 UNIT 9: Passive Voice

1. Passive Voice

Sentences are passive when the subject does not perform the action. Instead, the subject
receives an action or is the result of an action. The person or thing that performed the action
may be unimportant or unknown in a passive sentence.

The passive voice is formed with a form of be and the past participle of the main verb. For
example:
Dinner is served from 5:00 to 8:00.
many people were injured by the tornado last night.
The letter was mailed by Nick.

Passive sentences focus on the noun that is the receiver or result of an action rather than the
noun that is performing the action (the agent). In fact passive sentence very often do not
mention the agent at all. For example:
Super computers were developed in order to solve complex problems.
The mail is delivered at noon.

Passive sentences are used to make sentence sound more impersonal. For example:
Passengers are requested to remain seated.
An errors was made in this months payroll.

Overview

Tense or Model Passive Sentence

Simple Present The TOEFL exam is given every six months
Simple past The TOEFL exam was given last month
Simple Future The TOEFL exam will be given every year
Present
The TOEFL exam is being given every year
Continuous
Present perfect The TOEFL exam has been given every year since 1950
The TOEFL exam had been given before the Vietnam War
Past perfect
occurred
Simple Modal The TOEFL exam should be given to every Foreign student
The TOEFL exam should have been given to all entering US
Past Modal
colleges.

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 UNIT 10: Adjective Clauses & Phrases
1. Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses. They come after nouns and modify them.
In other words, they tell the listener or reader more about the person or thing that the noun
refer to. The pronouns that often begin adjective clauses are called relative pronouns ( that,
which, who, whom, whose, where) For example:
A person who sweeps the floor on buildings is known as janitor.
A person who sails is a sailor.
The man who sold the red house is a friend of mine.

2. Reducing Adjective Clauses to Adjective Phrases

If the subject relative pronoun is followed by the verb be in any tense, both the relative
pronoun and the verb be can be omitted. For example:
The realtor who is selling the house is Ann.--> The realtor who is selling the house is Ann.
The garment that is worn by priests is usually white.-> The garment that is worn by priests is
usually white.

3. Relative pronouns as objects

The object relative pronouns for people are who, whom, that. Whom is more formal than
who. The object relative pronouns for things are which, that. For example:
The candidate who more votes gets become the president.
The first time that I voted was in 1982.
You may omit the relative pronoun in restricted adjective clauses. For example:
The first time I voted was in 1982.

4. Restricted/Nonrestricted Relative Clauses

The two main types of adjective clauses--restrictive and nonrestrictive-- have distinct
meanings and uses.
A restrictive adjective clause gives information that helps to uniquely identify the noun that it
describes. For example:
My sister who attends KU is very shy. (I have two sisters. one attends KU , the other
doesn't)

A Nonrestrictive adjective clause, on the other hand, adds extra information about the noun it
modifies. This information is not necessary to identify the noun. For example:
Mary, who attends KU, is very shy.

Summary

Noun in main Clause Relative Clause Rest of main Clause

The man who called is an old friend of mine.
The woman whom I met lives near my house
The letter that Mary received was very important.
The book which we discussed was a best-seller.
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The writer whose book we discussed will visit with us next week.
UNIT 11: Degree

1. Comparative Adjectives

To make the comparative adjective form of the most one-syllable adjectives, add -er e.g. fast-
> faster.
For one-syllable adjectives that end in one consonants preceded by one vowel, double the
consonant and add -er e.g. big->bigger.

For most multi-syllable adjectives and adverbs, the comparative is formed by putting the
word more or less before the adjective or adverb e.g. more difficult.

Many adverbs end in ly so you just need to use more to form the comparative e.g. more
lonely.

You use the word than before the second member in a comparative sentence e.g. John is
happier than Mary.

Number of syllables Comparative Superlative

one syllable + -er + -est

tall taller tallest

two syllables + -ier + -iest

(ending in 'y')
noisy noisier noisiest
happy happier happiest

OR more most
modern more modern most modern
famous more famous most famous

three syllables or more more most

important more important most important

expensive more expensive most expensive

Adjective Comparative Superlative

cheap cheaper than the cheapest
hot hotter than the hottest
friendly friendlier than the friendliest
beautiful more beautiful than the most/ least beautiful

Irregular

Adjective Comparative Superlative

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good better than the best
bad worse than the worst

2. Making comparative sentences with Adverbs

Comparative sentences show that there is a difference between two people or two things with
regard to one aspect or quality. You can indicate how great the difference is by adding an
adverb before the comparative word.
Large Difference =====> Small Difference
Considerably/
much/a lot quite a bit somewhat a little/a bit slightly

Examples:
Dan is considerably taller than Nick.
Dan is slightly taller than Adam.

3. Using as...as to Express Equality

You can use as + adjective/adverb ...as to express equality.. For example:

Boxing is as dangerous sport as Football is.
She likes Novels as much as short stories.
Math is as hard course as literature.

Using not as ...as to express Inequality

In the following sentence, which girl is taller? answer: Emily

Susan is not as tall as Emily.
You may use the adverbs considerably, much, quite a bit to express inequality more
precisely. For example:
Susan is not nearly as as tall as Emily.

Other types of comparative sentences can use three times, twice, a third, half. For example:
A Honda Accord is almost twice as expensive as a Chevrolet.
A Nissan Sentra costs about half as much as a Honda Accord.
A Corvette costs over five times more than a Nissan Sentra.

You can also use Less to express inequality. For example:

Emily is less athletic than Misty.
I like Michael Jordan less than I like Shaquille= I like Shaquille more than I like Michael.

4. Comparing Quantities

Comparative sentences can focus on nouns as well as verbs.. We can also compare the
quantities of people or things. For example:
Brian has more friends than Bob
Bob has fewer friends than Brian.
Claudia has more money than Adriana, but Robert doesn't have as much money as Peter.
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Bob has the fewest friends of all the people I know.
My dad has the least money of all his friends.

5. Expressing Cause and Effect with So/such and that

So/such gives extra emphasis to an idea.

So is used before adjectives (without nouns).

 She is so kind.

Such is used before nouns (with or without adjectives).

 She is such a kind person.

So and such can be followed by a clause of result or consequence beginning with that.
Sometimes that is omitted.
 It was so hot (that) I went swimming.
 It was such a hot day (that) I went swimming.

6. Too and Enough with Nouns

Too + adjective expresses a problem.

 I can't drink this coffee. It's too hot.

Adjective + enough expresses as much as is necessary.

 Now it's cool enough to drink.

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 UNIT 12: Verbals
1. Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds (verb + -ing) and infinitives (to + verb) are forms of verbs that act like nouns and
pronouns. Examples:
Swimming is fun (Subject)
Alex like swimming. (Object)
He's good at swimming. (Object of preposition)

Ali quit smoking in 1977. He just decided to quit one day.

A gerund is a verb + -ing.  An infinitive is to + the verb.

 

In both the examples above, the gerund and the infinitive are the objects of the verbs in the
sentence. However, as noun substitutes, gerunds and infinitives can also be the subject of a
sentence.  

Smoking is hard habit to give up. To quit takes a lot of will power.

Some common verbs are always followed by a gerund:

Bob admitted taking the money from the desk.

The teacher considered calling the police.
Misty said she was so embarrassed that she felt like dying.
The teacher finally said she would recommend giving Jeannie a light
punishment.

Some verbs are always followed by infinitives.

The president said he aimed to bring down taxes.

He asked Congress to pass a tax reduction bill.
The president's party consented to lower the taxes.
However, the opposition refused to cooperate.
The president promised to fight for lower taxes in the next term.

Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive.

Monica's husband, Bob, began taking cooking lessons last month.

Soon he began to try out all his new creations on her.
Helen said she likes eating as much as Bob likes to cook.
She loves to sample his new recipes and she loves not cooking herself.
However, she told me she regrets eating so much rich food.
She's going to try eating less of his great food...and, she's going to try not to
hurt Bob's feelings!

2. -ed / -ing Adjectives

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Here are some of the most common errors using adjectives ending in -ing and -ed.The correct
form is given first:

Correct Forms Common Errors

There are few people, there's no food and the This party is no fun at all. It's very bored.
music is lousy. This party is very boring.
When the adjective ends in -ing, it means that the person or thing causes this particular effect.
Rules frustrate me. Rules are frustrating.
Snakes terrify me. They are such terrifying creatures.
Nobody is having fun at this party. Everyone Nobody is having fun at this party. Everyone
is bored. is boring.
When the adjective ends in -ed, it means that the person or thing experiences this particular
effect.
Rules frustrate me. I am frustrated when I have to learn them.
Snakes terrify me. I'm always terrified when I see one.
3. Go + Gerund

This combination is usually used in many expressions related to recreational activities and
shopping. For example:
go boating, go canoeing, go fishing, go sailing, go camping, go hunting, go skating, go
shopping, go skiing, go sightseeing, etc.

4. Remember, Forget, Stop, regret

After the verbs remember, forget, stop, regret the difference between the infinitive and the
gerund concerns time and order of events. For example:
Infinitive:
I remembered to mail the letter. = First I remembered. then I mailed the letter.
Gerund:
I remembered mailing the letter. = First I mailed the letter. then I remembered it.

Infinitive:
I forgot to go to the meeting. = First I forgot. So I didn't go.
Gerund:
I forgot going to the meeting. = First I went to the meeting. Then I forgot about going there.

Infinitive:
I stopped to smoke. = First I stopped what I was doing. Then I smoked.
Gerund:
I stopped smoking. = First I was a smoker. Then I stopped.

Infinitive:
I regret to tell you that you failed the course = First I regretted it. Then I told you.
Gerund:
I regret telling you that you failed the course. = First I told you. Then I regretted it.

5. Let, Make, Have, Help

After the verbs let, make and have you must drop the infinitive to and use the base of the
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verb. For example:
I let him borrow my car. = I allowed him to borrow my car.
They make our cat stay outside. = They force our cat to stay outside.
I had the barber cut my hair. = I asked the barber to cut my hair.

Note: the verb help can be used with or without the infinitive e.g. I wanted to help her to do
the homework. or I wanted to help her do the homework.

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 UNIT 13: Nouns, Clauses & Reported Speech
1. Noun Clauses as Subjects

Noun clauses are that clauses that have a subject and a verb. There is no comma between the
main clause and the that clause. For example:
That several students came late to class annoyed the professor.
The fact that you are from South America made you ideal for the job.

It is common in speaking to move the noun clause to the end of the sentence and to put it in
the subject position e.g. It annoyed the teacher that Albert smoked in class.

2. Noun Clauses as Objects

In this case, the word that is put before the clause, but it is not required e.g. The teacher
reported that Albert smoked in class. or The teacher reported that Albert smoked in class.

3. Noun Clauses made from Questions

Questions can made into noun clauses and become subjects and objects. Noun clauses that
are made from information question usually begin with the question word when, who, why,
etc. e.g. Amanda wondered why Nick broke up with her.// It is a mystery why Nick broke up
with Amanda.
Noun clauses that are made from yes-no questions begin with if, whether e.g. Amanda
wonders if Nick will talk to her again. it is unknown whether the weather will be warm or
rainy.

4. Reported Speech- Pronouns

We can tell about what someone said in two ways. We can use the exact words of the speaker
or writer. This is called quoted speech. We must put quotations marks at the beginning and
at the end of the quote. For example:
"I don't like your attitude," Joanna said to Jill.

Another way to tell about what someone said is to change the quote into a noun phrase. This
is called reported speech. For example:
Jill said that it wasn't his fault.

5. Reported Speech-Statements

The most common verbs used to report statements are say and tell. When tell is used in
reporting speech, it is always followed by a noun or a pronoun indicating the person spoken
to. For example:
Mike said that we were going to the beach on the weekend.
Mike told us that we were going to the beach on the weekend.

Other reported speech verbs commonly used are: add, admit, claim, declare, explain, indicate,
mention, observe, state, reply, point out, etc.

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it is important to note that if a statement was put into reported speech, the reporting verb is
usually in the simple past and the verb in the reported statement is usually changed to a past
tense.
Simple past =======> simple past

present progressive =======> past progressive

present perfect =======> past perfect

will =======> would

can =======> could

"You are working hard," my teacher said to me.-> The teacher announced that I was working
hard.

6. Reported Speech- Questions

Yes/No questions in reported speech begin with the word if or whether. Information
questions (Who, what, etc.) in reported speech begin with the question word and also use the
statement word order.
The most common verb to report questions is ask. For example:
"Is the fire under control?" (Mike to John)
Mike asked John if the fire was under control.

"How did you pass the test?" Mary to Pete.

Mary asked Pete how he had past the test.

7. Reported Speech-Imperatives

When we report orders, suggestions, or requests, we can use a verb like tell, order, request,
ask, warn, urge plus a noun or pronoun followed by an infinitive. For example:
"Drive carefully," the man said to Cris.
The man told Cris to drive carefully.

"Don't touch the art works," the teacher warned the kids.
The teacher warned the kids not to touch the art works.

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 UNIT 14: Present, Future & Past Perfect
1. Present Perfect

The PRESENT PERFECT TENSE is formed with a present tense form of "to have" plus the past
participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form). This tense indicates either
that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the past or that the action
extends to the present:

Singular Plural
I have visited Paris several times we have visited Paris several times
you have visited Paris several times you have visited Paris several times
he/she/it has visited Paris several times they have visited Paris several times

Examples:
For five generations, members of my family have been doctors.
Vaughan has batted clean-up since he came to the Redsox.
She has swum the English Channel every summer.

2. Future Perfect

The FUTURE PERFECT TENSE indicates that an action will have been completed (finished or
"perfected") at some point in the future. This tense is formed with "will" plus "have" plus the past
participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form): "I will have spent all my
money by this time next year. I will have run successfully in three marathons if I can finish this one."

Singular Plural
I will have walked 22 miles we will have walked 22 miles
you will have walked 22 miles you will have walked 22 miles
he/she/it will have walked 22 miles they will have walked 22 miles

Examples:
By this time next week, I will have worked on this project for twenty days.
Before he sees his publisher, Charles will have finished four chapters in his new novel.
How long will it have been since we were together?

3. Past Perfect

The PAST PERFECT TENSE indicates that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some
point in the past before something else happened. This tense is formed with the past tense form of
"to have" (HAD) plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form):
I had walked two miles by lunchtime. I had run three other marathons before entering the Boston
Marathon .

Singular Plural
I had walked we had walked
you had walked you had walked
he/she/it had walked they had walked

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Examples:
Aunt Glad had invested heavily in the air-conditioning industry before the Great Crash of
1988.
She had swum the English Channel every summer until 1997.
How long had it been since you saw each other?

4. Present Perfect Progressive

The PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates a continuous action that has been finished at
some point in the past or that was initiated in the past and continues to happen. The action is usually
of limited duration and has some current relevance: "She has been running and her heart is still
beating fast." The present perfect progressive frequently is used to describe an event of the recent
past; it is often accompanied by just in this usage: "It has just been raining."

Singular Plural
I have been walking we have been walking
you have been walking you have been walking
he/she/it has been walking they have been walking

Examples:
Maria has been writing her dissertation for the last six years[, but she finished yesterday].
Have we been telling the truth to consumers about tobacco? Haven't we been lying to
teenagers about smoking?

5. Future Perfect progressive

The FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates a continuous action that will be completed at
some point in the future. This tense is formed with the modal "WILL" plus the modal "HAVE" plus
"BEEN" plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "Next Thursday, I will have been
working on this project.

Singular Plural
I will have been walking we will have been walking
you will have been walking you will have been walking
he/she/it will have been walking they will have been walking

Examples:
By the time he finishes this semester, Geraldo will have been studying nothing but parasites
for four years.
Will they have been testing these materials in the lab before we even get there?

6. Past Perfect Progressive

The PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates a continuous action that was completed at some
point in the past. This tense is formed with the modal "HAD" plus "BEEN," plus the present participle
of the verb (with an -ing ending): "I had been working in the garden all morning. George had been
painting his house for weeks, but he finally gave up."

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Singular Plural
I had been walking we had been walking
you had been walking you had been walking
he/she/it had been walking they had been walking

Examples:
Hemingway had been losing his self-confidence for years before the publication of Old Man
and the Sea.
Had they been cheating on the exams before the school put monitors in the classroom?

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 UNIT 15: Conditional Sentences

1. The Zero Conditional (Type 0)

The zero conditional is a structure used for talking about general truths, or scientific
facts -- things which always happen under certain conditions.

A zero conditional sentence consists of two clauses, an "if" clause and a main clause
(note that most zero conditional sentences will mean the same thing if "when" is used
instead of "if"). For example:
If the "if" clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the "if" clause comes second,
there is no need for a comma.
The simple present tense is the tense use in both clauses. Examples:
If you cross an international date line, the time changes.
Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air.

2. First Conditional (Type I)

The first conditional (also called conditional type 1) is a structure used for talking about
possibilities in the present or in the future.Type 1: if + present + future.

Example:
If I have the money, I will buy this car.
If it's sunny, we'll go to the park.
Peter will be sad if Susan leaves.
If you cook dinner, I'll wash the dishes.

Among other variations the structure if + present + present is also possible. It is used
when the results are habitual or automatic. Example: If a commodity is in short, supply
prices tend to rise.

3. Second Conditional (Type II)

The second conditional (also called conditional type 2) is a structure used for talking
about unreal situations in the present or in the future.Type 2: if + past + conditional

Example:
If I had the money, I would buy this car. (Since I do not have the money I cannot buy
any new car). The action in type 2 is characterized by unreality.
If I were you, I would drive more carefully in the rain.
If dogs had wings, they would be able to fly.
Paula would be sad if Jan left.

4. Third Conditional (Type III)

The third conditional (also called conditional type 3) is a structure used for talking about
unreal situations in the past. In other words, it is used to talk about things which DID

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NOT HAPPEN in the past. Type 3: if + past perfect + perfect conditional

Full form : If I had studied harder, I probably would have passed the exam.
Contracted form :If I'd studied harder, I probably would've passed the exam.

Example:
If I had had the money, I would have bought this Audi. (But I did not have it, and so did
not buy).
If you had driven more carefully, you would not have had an accident. (You had an
accident because you didn't drive carefully enough.)
If we had played a little better, we could have won the game.(We didn't play well, so we
lost the game.)
The action in type 3 is characterized by impossibility.

While type 1 and type 2 focus on the present or future, the time in type 3 is the past
and signifies a completed action in the past. The condition, therefore, cannot be fulfilled
because the action in the if-clause did not happen.

Summary

IF-CLAUSE RESULT Explanation

CLAUSE
simple present simple present if-clause uses simple present
verb verb result clause uses simple present
If it rains, my car window <-expresses an established or
If it gets cold leaks. predictable fact, or it expresses a
enough, water becomes ice. general truth
If I don't do my
homework, I learn nothing.
If Marie doesn't she gets hungry at <-expresses a habitual situation or a
eat dinner, midnight. habitual activity.
If I exercise, I look great!
If someone calls, take a message <-gives a command
please.
simple present modal + simple if-clause uses simple present
verb present verb result clause uses modal + verb
If it rains, my window might <-expresses a fact 
leak.
If the phone rings, I will answer it. <-expresses a future situation
If the weather is we can go to the <-expresses a future activity
sunny, beach Sunday.

5. Wish Sentences

The verb wish expresses a desire for a situation that does not exist right now in the
present. A wish is a desire to change a real situation into an unreal one. The unreal
situation is expressed in the simple past. For example:
I wish I lived in a house. I live in an apartment.
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Wish sentences often express regret about a situation that you would like to change e.g.
A:Can you help me? B: No, I'm sorry. I wish I could, but I have an appointment.

In order to express future actions that you want to happen , you use would e.g.
I wish the bus would come. I'm cold.
I wish you'd have a car to take me to the beach.
I wish I were thin.
I wish I hadn't said that. (If fact, I said it)

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Reference
Net Grammar @ http://netgrammar.altec.org/main.html

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