NATIONAL UNIVERSUTY OF SCIENCE &

TECHNOOGY

Mechanics of Solids
1/24/2021
Lab Reports
Name Registration No.
M Haroon 290104
Sardar Saifullah 284425
M Zaheer Ahmad 286655
M Bilal Dawood 287211

Submitted to:
Usman Hanif
 Experiment 1
Impact Test
Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the behavior of brittle and ductile under
different load impacts.

Objective:
To study the impact resistance of material using the Impact testing machine of Charpy
type in order to find how ductile and brittle materials behave under different loads so that we can
choose the suitable material.

Forms of Test:
This test can be performed in two ways.
➢ Charpy test
➢ Izod Test

Apparatus:
➢ Impact testing Machine
➢ Scale
➢ Standard specimens

Procedure:
Take test piece of different materials having dimension 10mmx10mmx55mm and a notch
in the middle of its length. Specimen is simply supported at the ends of anvils and raised
pendulum from one side. The pendulum has energy of 150J if we use small hammer. If we use
heavy hammer, then pendulum has 300J energy.
➢ Note Down the dimensions of the specimen and find the working area at the top of notch.
➢ Without placing the specimen at anvils, raised the pendulum and note down the reading
R1 in dial.
➢ Now release the pendulum and note down the dial reading R2.
➢ The difference between R1 and R2 gives the energy loss or zero error of Charpy test
machine.
➢ Now place the specimen at the anvils.
➢ Again, raise the pendulum and release it. The pendulum will swing eventually rupturing
the specimen.
➢ Note down the dial reading R3.
 ➢ The energy absorbed is required to produce the two fresh fracture surfaces and energy
will be recorded in the unit of Joule.
When pendulum is raised to a specific height, potential energy equal to 150 J is stored. This
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy when pendulum is released. During the
specimen impact, some energy is used in fracturing the specimen and some in swinging the
pendulum to the other side of machine. The greater the height of pendulum on the other side of
machine, lesser is the energy absorbed to fracture the specimen. Brittle materials absorb lesser
energy as compare to the ductile one.
Area of the specimen = 80 mm2
Length of side without considering notch = 55 mm2
Size of the Notch = 450 v, 2mm deep, 5 mm width and 0.25 mean radius
Aluminum test piece = 10mmx10xmm55mm
M.S test pieces = 10mmx10xmm55mm

Calculations:
Frictional Area of Energy of Net energy
Material Temperature Loss Specimen Rupture of rupture
(Joules) (mm-sq) (Joules)
Brass 27 4 80 9.5 5.5
M.S. (Mild 27 4 80 78 74
Steel)

Result:
Brass has less energy of rupture; it means brass is brittle material. On the hand mild steel
is has high energy of rupture; it means mild steel is a ductile material.

Precautions:
➢ Keep away from the machine during the impact test.
➢ The test piece has to be carefully kept so that area of impact is minimized.
➢ When the pendulum hammer is loaded at maximum position make sure that it is latched.
 Ductile Material
Stress

Brittle Material

Strain

Conclusion:
Two different materials were used in this experiment i.e., brass & mild steel. Now the
energy absorbed during impact is known as modulus of toughness. This energy is also calculated
as area under stress-strain curve. Hence, brittle materials absorb less energy (small area under
stress-strain curve) while ductile absorb more energy (large area under stress-strain curve).
Hence, brass absorbed only 5.5 joules while mild steel absorbed 74 joules. We can see different
characteristics on the fracture surfaces of broken specimens.
Energy absorbed can be calculated as
E = Mg(h-h’)
Where,
M = Mass of pendulum
G = Gravitational acceleration
 Experiment 2
Tensile Test
Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the elongation of any material.

Objective:
To study the tensile strength of a steel bar using computer-controlled testing machine.

Apparatus:
➢ Computer controlled universal testing machine (UTM)
➢ Steel Bar
➢ Electronic balance
➢ Measuring tape

Procedure:
➢ Measured the length of steel bar by using measuring tape.
➢ Note down the mass of steel bar by using electronic balance.
➢ Fixed the steel bar into the jaws of UTM
➢ According to the ASTM standards; the gauge length of steel bar should be 200 mm.
➢ Tightened the grips of UTM.
➢ Apply the axial pull to the bar and observe the stress strain curve on the computer.
➢ Keep applying the load till the bar is fractured and note down the value of yielding stress
and fracture load.
➢ The UTM provides the graph.

Calculations:
Total length = 0.610 m
Mass/Weight=1.374 kg/13.48 N
Density = M/V = 7857.18 kg/m3
Diameter = 19.11 mm
Area = πd2/4 = 286.68 mm2
Modulus of elasticity = E = 211 GPa
Fracture load = Pr = 206.8 kN
Yielding stress = 𝜎𝑦 = 568.2 x 106 N/mm2
 Strain at yield point ∈𝑦 = 2.69 x 10-3 = 0.269%

Ultimate strength = 739.4 MPa

Gauge length (G.L) = 8” = 200 mm
Elongation in length = 43 mm
∆𝑙
Strain at rupture = = 0.215 = 21.5%
𝑙

Conclusion:
The experiment shows that mild steel is ductile substance because area at the fracture
surface is reduced, which is the sign of ductility and stretching. The steel stretches until Ultimate
Stress is reached and then it fractures.
 Experiment 3
Compression Test on Wooden Sample, when load is
applied
➢ Parallel to Grains
➢ Perpendicular to Grains
Objective:
To determine compressive strength of the wooden sample and to observe its
anisotropic behavior, also to find the modulus of Elasticity.

Apparatus:
➢ 5000 KN Compression Testing Machine
➢ Wooden Sample
➢ Vernier Calliper
➢ Deflection Gauges.

Procedure:

Parallel to Grain:
➢ First of all, we selected two 4" x 4" x 4" specimens for the test and recorded any
significant defects in the specimens.
➢ Then we measured cross sectional area and size of each side of cube one by one and
precisely.
➢ Then we verified load application speed of 0.15 N/mm2 per second.
➢ After the verification of the load application speed, we placed the specimen in the
machine and applied a small holding load (under 100lb).
➢ We continued loading until a peak load is reached or, if no peak is reached, until the
load approached a constant value.
➢ We repeated the same procedure for other specimens too.
Perpendicular to Grains:
➢ First of all, we selected two 4" x 4" x 4" specimens and then recorded any significant
defects in the specimens.
➢ Then we placed the bearing plate on top of the specimen at the centre of the specimen
and made sure that the plate was perpendicular to the specimen, and preferably against a
radial surface, if possible
➢ Then we measured all sides of both specimens accurately, including area to be loaded.
➢ Then we verified load application rate of 0.15 to 0.35 N/mm2 per second.
➢ Finally, we placed the specimen in the machine and applied a small holding load (under
100lb).
➢ Then we continued loading until failure, or just beyond 0.1-inch deformation, which we
considered to be "failure by excessive deformation."

Observations:

Wooden Lengt Width Height Weight

Specimen Test type h (mm) (mm) (gm)
(mm)
Before Test 102 100 103 620
Parallel to
grains 620
After Test 100 99
104
441
Perpendicular Before Test 104 100 100
to grains After Test 104 112 83 441

Calculations:
Compressive strength once load is applied parallel to grains = (271+275+276) / 3 = 268MPa
Compressive strength once load is applied perpendicular to grains = (4.9+5.3+5.4) / 3 = 5.2MPa
Loadavg(perp) = (514+520+540) / 3 = 524.7KN
Loadavg(parallel) = (276.6+300+320) / 3 = 298.9KN
So
Ratio of the two loads = loadavg(perp) / loadavg(parallel) = 524.7 / 298.9 = 1.8
 For parallel grains:
Axial Strain = (103-99) / 103 = 0.04
Lateral Strain = Strain in length + strain in width = (104-102) 102+0 = 0.02
Poisons’ Ratio = Lateral strain / axial strain = 0.02 / 0.04 = 0.5
Youngs’ Modulus of elasticity = E = stress / strain (16.3+15.8+16) / 3 = 16GPa

For perpendicular grains:

Axial Strain = (100-83) / 100 = 0.17

Lateral Strain = Strain in length + strain in width = (112-100) / 100+0 = 0.12
Poisons’ Ratio = Lateral strain / axial strain = 0.12 / 0.17 = 0.71
Youngs’ Modulus of elasticity E = stress / strain = (20+16.9+15.6) / 3 = 17.5GPa

Results for Parallel:

Compressive Deflection
Load Deformation Stress
Sr # Strength Gauge E (GPa)
(KN) (mm) (MPa)
(MPa) reading()

1 276.6 271 170 1.7 271 16.3

2 300 275 190 1.9 294 15.8

3 320 276 200 2 314 16

Results for Perpendicular:

Deformation
Compressive Deflection
Load (mm)/Dimens Stress
Sr # Strength Gauge E (GPa)
(KN) ions after (MPa)
(MPa) reading
loading
1 514 4.9 260 2.6 514 20

2 520 5.3 320 3.2 520 16.9

3 540 5.4 360 3.6 540 15.6

Conclusion:
When the load is applied parallel to grains, the wooden sample will take more load to fail
and when the load is applied perpendicular to the grains, the wooden sample takes comparatively
less load. The strength of the wooden sample, when the load is applied parallel to the grains, is
about ten times more as compared to the load is applied perpendicular to grains.
 Experiment No 4
To determine the modulus of elasticity
Purpose:
To Determine Modulus of Elasticity of different materials and draw shear force and
bending moment diagrams for each case.

Objective:
To get the idea of modulus of elasticity of different materials and how shear force act on
ab body and cause bending moment.

Apparatus:
➢ Beam Apparatus,
➢ Beams of different materials,
➢ Weighs,
➢ Measuring Tape,
➢ Hanger
➢ L- keys

Procedure:
➢ Take a beam of measure its dimensions (b and d) using measuring tape. Note down the
dimensions.
➢ Attach beam to beam apparatus and measure the span length.
➢ Fix deflection gauge to the mid span of the beam accurately.
➢ We will then use the hook to start applying weight to the beam. We will then apply
varying weight to the beam and note down the respective deflection each time using
deflection gauge.
➢ We will use the respective values of Load(P) and Deflections (⧍) to calculate theoretical
Modulus of elasticity using formula E=PL3/48⧍I

Calculations & Observations

Aluminum:
Span of Beam=600 mm
Breadth of Beam,b =25 mm
Depth of Beam,d = 6mm
Moment of Inertia of Beam= bd3/12=4.5×10-10m4

Sr.
Deflections ⧍ (mm) Load (P) KN E=PL3/48⧍I(Gpa)
No
1. 0.28 2 71.4

2. 0.58 4 68.9

3. 0.89 6 67.4

4. 1.21 8 66.1

5. 1.71 12 70.1

Modulus of Elasticity =68.8GPa

Steel
Span of Beam = 600 mm
Breadth of Beam,b = 25mm
Depth of Beam,d = 6mm
Moment of Inertia of Beam= bd3/12=4.5×10-10m4

Sr. Deflections
Load (P) KN E=PL3/48⧍I(Gpa)
No ⧍ (mm)
1. 0.12 2 166.6

2. 0.24 4 166.6

3. 0.31 5 161.2

4. 0.45 7 155.5

5. 0.71 11 111.11
Modulus of Elasticity =152.2GPa
Brass
Span of Beam= 600 mm
Breadth of Beam,b = 25mm
Depth of Beam,d = 6mm

Moment of Inertia of Beam= bd3/12=4.5×10-10m4

Sr.
Deflections ⧍ (mm) Load (P) KN E=PL3/48⧍I(Gpa)
No
1. 0.21 2 95.2

2. 0.43 4 93.02

3. 0.65 6 92.3

4. 0.87 8 91.9

5. 0.99 9 90.1

Modulus of Elasticity =92.5GPa

Results
material Calculated (Gpa) Origina (GPa)
aluminum 68.8 70
steel 152.2 200
brass 92.5 110
S.F.D &B. M.D:

Summary of Final Results

Steel Aluminum Copper

Modulus of elasticity (E)
from experiment
152.2 68.8 92.5
Generally accepted values 200 70 110
Discussion of Results:

Calculated values of Modulus of elasticity of Steel,Aluminium,Brass are less than the

actual.It may be due to;
➢ Parallex error in determining deflection.
➢ Parallex error in determining span length.
➢ Mass hanger may not be at perfect center.

Graph between Load and Deflections:

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
deflection(mm)

1.2
1 steel
0.8 aluminium
0.6 brass
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
load (N)

Conclusion:
The calculate values area less than the expected values because of following possible reasons:
➢ Parallax Error while taking measurements.
➢ Systematic error in apparatus
➢ Mass hanger not exactly at center
 Experiment 5
To Perform Bending test on wooden beam.

Objective:
➢ To study bending or flexural behavior of the beam
➢ To determine modulus of rupture of the specimen

Apparatus:
➢ Wooden specimens 1.5”x3”x30” of deodar wood
➢ Micrometer or vernier caliper
➢ Permanent pen
➢ Flexural Machine or Universal Testing Machine

Theory:
Bend or flexure testing Wood has been used for building purposes from the very beginning of
history. It is weak building material, but it can be cut to any shape and size, and it is still being
used in building construction for many purposes.
Bending or flexure test is measure of tension stress of a material caused by bending
moment. It is also known as Modulus of Rupture.
It can be calculated from the following equation.
My
 max =
I

M = PL/4

I = bdᶟ/12

Y =d/2
Maximum deflection occurs at mid-point, and is given by the formula,
ȡ = PLᶟ/48EI

And E = PLᶟ/48Iȡ

Students should work out the stress at fracture loading and calculate Modulus of Rupture,

F.R = M(frac) x y/I

Loading Arrangement:
Loading arrangement for this experiment is shown in the figure below, where a point load is
applied at the mid span of the beam. The load could be applied at third points, which gives better
results.

Procedure:
➢ First of all measure the breath and height of the wooden sample with the help of steel scale.
➢ Fix the wooden beam sample in UTM.
➢ Fix the dial gauges under the beam as shown in the figureabove, according to the distances
shown.
➢ Now apply the load gradually on the beam and note down theamount of deflection against
each loading.
➢ Note down all the deflection up to failure of specimen and finallyfind the Modulus
of Elasticity, Modulus of Rupture from theirrespective formulae.

Precautions:
➢ Apply the load gradually so that deflection againsteach reading is read easily.
➢ Remove the gauges before the failure load, otherwise they may getdamaged.
➢ Stay away from the machine or otherwise the particles may hurt you.
Data and calculations:

Description Specimen 1

Thickness,b (mm) 43
Depth,d (mm) 76
Span length, L (mm) 605

Flexure load at maximum, Pmax (N) 11.6

Bending strength at maximum, 0.0424

σmaxb(MPa)
Deflection at maximum load -
Elastic modulus, E (MPa) -

Fracture details The Fracture was sudden.

Hence the material is brittle.

Results:
The data given in above tsble was used to calculate the strength of the wooden sample,
which came to be 0.0424 MPa or 42.4 kPa.
 Experiment 6
To find out Modulus of Rigidity (G) of different
Materials

Purpose:
To carry out torsion test in order to determine the following of a specimen,

➢ Modulus of rigidity.
➢ Shear stress.
➢ The general characteristics of torque and angle of twist relationship.

Objective:
To familiarize the students with mechanism of torque and its consequences on structures.

Apparatus:
➢ Beam bending/Torsion apparatus.
➢ Deflection gauge
➢ Vernier caliper
➢ Measuring Tape
➢ Machined specimen
➢ Weights and weigh hanger

Procedure
➢ Measure the overall length and diameter(d) of the test specimen.
➢ Fit the specimen in the beam bending/torsion apparatus, keep one end fixed while the
other free to rotate.
➢ Measure the span of the specimen, L.
➢ Note down the length of the lever arm (r).
➢ Fit the weigh hanger with the lever arm.
➢ Fix the dial gauge over lever arm and zero it.
➢ Apply the first load of 1N and note down the reading of the dial gauge. Also observe
the rotation of the specimen over free end.
➢ Then repeat the test by applying loads of 2N and 3N one by one and note down the
reading of the deflection gauge.
➢ Unload the specimen.
➢ Then calculate the angle of twist, torque and draw graph between torque and angle of
twist.

Observations and calculations:

 ➢ Gauge length of the specimen L = 530 mm
➢ Diameter of the specimen d = 8.3 mm
➢ Lever arm of the specimen r = 100 mm
Dial gauge Travel of lever arm r Angle of
Load Torque Shear
Obs. Reading (least after application of Twist
(mm)
P count 0.01 mm) loads (dial gauge T=P.r Stress/
(Radians)
No 100
(N) readingx0.01 mm) (N-mm) MPa
mm (s/r)

1 1 56 0.56 100 0.0056 100 12.4

2 3 219 2.19 100 0.0219 300 48.3

3 5 419 4.19 100 0.0419 500 92.5

5 7 627 6.27 100 0.0627 700 138.4

Graph between torque and angle of twist:

Precautions:
➢ Fit the specimen properly in the machine.
➢ Zero deflection gauge before starting experiment.
➢ Unload the specimen one by one after completing experiment.
Results:
Theory
T/ J = G  / L =  / r
• Modulus of rigidity (G) = TL / J  (psi)
• Shear stress () = G  r / L (psi)
=TL/GJ
TL=GJ
T=GJ/L
Since the graph is T vs :
T=m where m = GJ/L = 10300
Therefore, modulus of rigidity = m*(L/J)
➢ Polar moment of inertia (J) = D4 / 32 (inches4)
➢ m=10.3Nm
➢ J= 4.66x10-10
G = 1.17x1010 N/m2 = 1.70x106 psi

Conclusion:
Different materials have different moduli of rigidity. We performed this
experiment, drew a graph from the data and finally obtained the modulus of rigidity of the
sample.
 Experiment 7
To determine Crippling Loads for struts of varying
end fixing conditions
Purpose:
Its basic purpose is to find the buckling load of a strut with varying end conditions and to
verify Eulers’ critical load.

Apparatus:

➢ Beam bending and torsion apparatus.

➢ Strut test specimens

Related Theory:
Columns are defined as relatively long, slender members subjected to compressive stresses.
The most common example of a column is the vertical supporting member of a building. The
objective of this laboratory exercise is to verify Euler's formula for the critical load, Pcr, for
different end conditions, and to investigate the load-buckling behavior. The columns will be tested
within their elastic ranges. The material tested will be steel (E = 200 Gpa). Three similar columns
will be tested, all with different end conditions.
Procedure
➢ Measure the x-section of the test specimen(b,h).
➢ Fix the specimen in the apparatus, adjusting the desired end conditions.
➢ Measure the length (L) of the specimen (usually from one end of the rod to the other,
including the ball bearings in the case of the pinned conditions). Only one measurement is
required.
➢ Calculate the I(moment of inertia of the section) and note down modulus of elasticity,E.
➢ Next, calculate the theoretical (Euler's) critical load (Pcr) for the specimen using the
following equation (where Leff is the effective length of the specimen):

 2 EI
Pcr = 2
Leff
As we have to find out the relation between the different end conditions of a strut which
shows the buckling of strut over the apparatus. For this purpose, we adjust the strut over the
apparatus in all the three conditions.
➢ Fixed-Fixed.
➢ Fixed-Pinned.
➢ Pinned-Pinned.

In all the three conditions, find out the natural buckling of the strut with different end
conditions. Once load is applied, the strut is going to buckle, note the load at buckling (Natural
buckling load). Then release the load and force the strut to buckle in opposite direction and note
the load at buckling (Forced peak buckling load). Then take the average of the two loads as
average buckling load and tabulate them. In the same way find out the buckling for different
struts and compare their values with different end conditions. Finally compare these buckling
loads with Eulers’ theoretical values.
Students should draw the buckled figures of the strut for various end conditions.
Observations and calculations:
➢ Moment of inertia, I = 4.5x10-11
➢ Modulus of elasticity, E = 200GPa
➢ Length, L= 700mm Effective length L for each configuration

Natural peak Forced peak

Average
End conditions Strut number buckling load Buckling load
Buckling (N)
(N) (N)
Fixed-fixed 891
Fixed-pinned 437
Pinned-pinned 200S

End conditions Value of k Actual Pcr Theoretical Pcr % Error

Fixed-fixed 0.5 891 725 22.9

Fixed-pinned 0.7 437 370 18.1

Pinned-pinned 1 200 181 10.5

Conclusion:
Actual values are greater than theoretical values because some amount of force
was lost in friction energy and other forms of energy this explains why the least amount of
energy was lost in pinned-pinned condition.