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Negative Feedback Mechanisms: Lesson 15.2

This document discusses negative feedback mechanisms in the body that help maintain homeostasis. It provides examples of negative feedback loops that regulate temperature, osmotic balance, glucose levels, blood pressure, and the menstrual cycle. The key aspects of negative feedback mechanisms are that they function to reduce any deviation from the normal set point and keep variables close to a particular value through sensors that detect changes and control centers that initiate actions to return conditions to normal.

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Jazmine Mariez
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
58 views20 pages

Negative Feedback Mechanisms: Lesson 15.2

This document discusses negative feedback mechanisms in the body that help maintain homeostasis. It provides examples of negative feedback loops that regulate temperature, osmotic balance, glucose levels, blood pressure, and the menstrual cycle. The key aspects of negative feedback mechanisms are that they function to reduce any deviation from the normal set point and keep variables close to a particular value through sensors that detect changes and control centers that initiate actions to return conditions to normal.

Uploaded by

Jazmine Mariez
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 


  
Lesson 15.2 
Negative Feedback Mechanisms 
 
Contents 
Introduction 1 

Learning Objectives 2 

Warm Up 2 

Learn about It! 3 


Negative Feedback Mechanisms 4 
Examples of Negative Feedback Mechanisms 6 
Temperature Regulation 6 
Osmotic Balance 8 
Glucose Level Regulation 10 
Blood Pressure Regulation 11 
Menstrual Cycle 13 

Key Points 15 

Check Your Understanding 16 

Challenge Yourself 18 

Bibliography 18 
 
   

 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

Lesson 15.2 

Negative Feedback Mechanisms 


 

 
 

  Introduction 
All  products,  when  newly-released  to  the  market,  receive  feedback  from  consumers.  This 
feedback  is  any  information  gained  from  consumer  reviews  regarding  the product. Similar 
to  this,  our  body  also  has  feedback  mechanisms  that  function  in somewhat the same way. 
Changes  and  stimuli  can  be likened to consumer reviews which the body needs to respond 
to.  If  there  is  a  change  in  the  systems  of  our body, the process of feedback triggers certain 
results.  This  change  can  be  an  increase  or  decrease  to  the  system  to  bring  it  back  to  its 
normal  state.  How  do  these  systems  work?  In  this  lesson,  we  are  going  to  discuss  the 
natural feedback or response of our body when its normal state is disrupted. 
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    1 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
 
 

Learning Objectives  DepEd Competency 


 
In this lesson, you should be able to do the  Describe examples of homeostasis 
(e.g., temperature regulation, 
following: 
osmotic balance, and glucose levels) 
● Define negative feedback  and the major features of feedback 
mechanisms.  loops that produce such 
● Explain the different examples of  homeostasis 
(STEM_BIO11/12-IVi-j-3.) 
negative feedback mechanisms. 
 
● Illustrate the major features of the   

negative feedback loops. 

  Warm Up       
  Body Control Center    15 minutes 
This  activity will have you control different variables (blood delivery, oxygen, blood pressure, 
body  temperature,  and  glucose  level)  in  a  virtual  person.  Your  goal  is  to  maintain 
homeostasis and you will need to control specific parameters to do so. 
 

Material 
● Internet-connected device 

 
Procedure 
1. Access the given link below to manipulate the activity: 
 

Body Control Center  


PBS and WGBH Educational Foundation, “Human Body 
Regulation,” PBS Learning Media (PBS and WGBH Educational 
Foundation,2020),https://pbslm-contrib.s3.amazonaws.com/
WGBH/conv16/conv16-int-bcc/index.html?fbclid=IwAR1tQn0s-   
_dXUQOYf-N6O5RudmgPwn5b_d9AtFiu2RwF3vZESpY75Hxqo-
k, last accessed on May 27, 2020.    

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    2 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
2. The  activity  shows  some  of  the  body’s  interrelated  variables  of  homeostasis,  which 
can  vary  due  to  different  conditions.  Take  note  that  in  this  activity,  these  variables 
are independent of each other. 
3. You need to monitor each variable through the monitor display.  
4. You may control these variables whenever they decrease or increase. 
5. The  virtual  person  will  do  different  activities  such  as  standing,  resting,  and  running, 
but the variables will still change depending on the condition of the virtual person. 
6. The  goal  of  this  activity  is  to  manipulate  each  variable  to  achieve  the  homeostatic 
state of the virtual person. 
7. After doing the activity, form groups of three to discuss the following: 
a. variables involved 
b. actions and reactions 
c. ways of maintaining homeostasis 
8. Answer the guide questions afterward. 
 
Guide Questions 
1. In the activity, how do you know that the virtual person achieved homeostasis? 
2. When  the  virtual  person  is  running,  why  do  you  think  do  you  need  to  increase  the 
breathing rate and perspiration of the virtual person? 
3. In  the  activity,  how  will  you  normalize  the  blood  pressure  if  it  increases  beyond  the 
normal range? 
4. Why  is  it  important  to  maintain  homeostasis  in  the  body  regardless  of  the  activity 
being done? 
 

  Learn about It! 


Our body is regulated by different feedback mechanisms that can alter certain parameters if 
the  stable  state  is  disturbed.  In  the  previous  lesson,  you  have  already  learned  about  the 
general  mechanisms  of  the  body  regarding  its  response  to  certain  changes  due  to  stimuli 
that  affect  internal  and  external  factors.  This  lesson  focuses  on  the  details  of  the  feedback 
mechanisms that will bring the body back to a state of homeostasis. 
 
 
 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    3 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

How do negative feedback mechanisms function in 


  the body? 
 
 
Negative Feedback Mechanisms 
Our  body’s  systems  are  mostly  regulated  by  negative  feedback  mechanisms,  which 
function  to  maintain  homeostasis.  These  mechanisms  are  dubbed  as  “negative”  because 
any  deviation  from  the  set  point  is  met  by  a  response  that  helps  in  reducing  the  change 
that was detected. As a result, the feedback maintains the variation within a normal range.  
 

 
Fig. 15.2.1. The negative feedback loop consists of the stimulus, sensor, control center, and 
the effector.  
 
Negative feedback is the primary homeostatic mechanism that keeps the variable close to 
a  particular  value  or  set  point.  A  homeostatic  mechanism  has  a  sensor  and  a  control 
center.  The  sensor  detects  a  change  in  the  internal  environment;  the  control  center  then 
initiates  an  action  to  bring  conditions  back  to  normal  again.  When  normal  conditions  are 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    4 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
reached,  the  sensor  is  no  longer  activated. 
Hence,  a  negative  feedback  mechanism  is 
present  when  the  output  of  the  system 
dampens  the  original  stimulus.  This  is 
shown in Fig. 15.2.1. 
 
A  home  heating  system  is  often  used  to 
show  how  a  negative  feedback  mechanism 
works.  Suppose  that  you  set  the  thermostat 
at  25°C.  This  is  the  set  point. The thermostat 
has  a  thermometer,  which  is  a  sensor  that 
detects  when  the  room  temperature 
deviates  from  the  normal  set  point.  The 
thermostat  also  contains  a  control  center; 
it  turns  the  furnace  off  when  the  room  is 
warm  and turns it on when the room is cool. 
When  the  furnace  is  off,  the  room  cools  a 
bit.  When  the  furnace  is  on,  the  room 
warms  a  bit.  In  other  words,  typical  of 
negative  feedback  mechanisms,  there  is  a 
fluctuation  above  or  below  normal.  These 
responses are illustrated in Fig. 15.2.2. 
 
 

How can a home likened to the body regarding the 


feedback mechanism shown in home heating 
 
systems? 
 
 
 
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    5 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
Examples of Negative Feedback Mechanisms 
Negative  feedback  mechanisms  are  essential  for  maintaining  the  proper  conditions  in  the 
body.  When  there  are changes in the variables that are being monitored or regulated by the 
control  center,  negative  feedback  mechanisms  bring  the  body  back  into  a  stable  state. 
These  variables  include  temperature,  osmotic  balance,  glucose  level,  blood  pressure,  and 
menstrual cycle.  
 
Temperature Regulation 
The  sensor  and  the  control  center  for  body  temperature  are  located  in  a  part  of  the  brain 
called  the  hypothalamus  (shown  in  Fig.  15.2.3.).  The  hypothalamus  is  found  at  the  brain’s 
base and performs many processes that help control many bodily functions. 
 

 
Fig. 15.2.3. The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that regulates the pituitary gland. It also 
controls most of the variables that may disturb homeostasis.  
 
When  the  body  temperature is above normal, the control center directs the blood vessels of 
the  skin  to  dilate.  This  results  in  increased  blood  flow  near  the  surface  of  the  body,  where 
heat  can  be  dissipated  to  the  environment.  In  addition,  the  nervous  system  activates  the 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    6 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
sweat  glands,  and  the  evaporation  of  sweat  helps lower body temperature. Gradually, body 
temperature  decreases back to 37°C. Body temperature does go below that point because a 
body  temperature  below  normal  brings  about  a  change  toward  a  warmer  body 
temperature. This is illustrated below in Fig. 15.2.4. 
 

 
Fig. 15.2.4. When the body exceeds its normal temperature, this serves as a stimulus to 
control the nerve cells in the skin to stabilize the temperature back to normal through a 
negative feedback loop.  
 
When  body  temperature  falls  below  normal,  the  control  center  directs  (via  nerve  impulses) 
instruct  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  to  constrict.  These  constrictions  make  the  blood 
vessels  more  distant from the surface of the skin, thus minimizing heat loss that would have 
otherwise  occurred  through  the  dissipation  of  heat  to  the  environment.  This  action  then 
conserves  heat.  If  body  temperature  decreases  even  lower,  the  control center sends nerve 
impulses  to  the  skeletal  muscles,  and  shivering  occurs.  Shivering  generates  heat,  gradually 
increasing  body  temperature  back  to  37°C.  When  the  temperature  rises  to  normal,  the 
control center is inactivated. This process is illustrated in Fig. 15.2.5. 
 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    7 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

 
Fig. 15.2.5. The regulation of the temperature is also being monitored through the 
hypothalamus of the brain. The body will respond to stabilize the body temperature 
through the negative feedback mechanism. 
 
Osmotic Balance 
We  all  know that doctors typically recommend drinking eight glasses of water every day. It is 
because  this  amount  of  water  is  for  the  appropriate  balance  of  electrolytes  in  the  body 
while  maintaining  normal  bodily  functions  for  other  processes.  This  intake  of  water  is 
balanced  out  with  the  loss  of  fluids by processes like urination, defecation, sweating, and 
respiration.  The  solutes  present  in  the  body  fluids  are  mostly  mineral  salts and sugars. The 
body’s  fluids  include  blood  plasma,  the  cytosol  within  cells,  and  interstitial  fluid,  the  fluid 
that  exists  in  the  spaces  between  cells  and  tissues  of  the  body. It  is  the  role  of  osmotic 
regulation or osmoregulation to keep these solutes at ideal concentration.  
 
Osmosis  is  the  diffusion  of  water  across  a  membrane  in  response  to  osmotic  pressure 
caused  by  an  imbalance  of  molecules  on  either  side  of  the  membrane.  Water  moves  from 
the  area  with  lower  concentration  of  solutes  across  the  membrane  to  an  area  of  higher 
concentration.  In  relation to this process, osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt 
and  water  balance  (osmotic  balance)  across  membranes  of  the  body’s  fluids,  which  are 
composed  of  water  plus  electrolytes  and  non-electrolytes.  Electrolytes  are  solutes  that 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    8 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
dissociate  into  ions  when  dissolved  in  water.  Electrolytes  and  nonelectrolytes  contribute  to 
osmotic  balance.  Maintaining  this  balance  is  essential  in  ensuring  that  many  processes  in 
the body remain optimal.  
 

 
Fig. 15.2.6. The water level in the body is monitored by the hypothalamus of the brain. It 
can detect the body’s water balance and react accordingly. 
 
The hypothalamus can detect the change in the water level in the blood of the human body 
through  osmoreceptors.  There  are  two common ways in which the human body constantly 
performs  osmoregulation in the body; these are through dehydration and waterlogging. If 
the  water  level of the body is critically low, the hypothalamus sends a signal to the pituitary 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    9 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
glands  to  secrete  an  antidiuretic  hormone  (ADH).  This  hormone  will  be  released  to  the 
blood,  and will eventually reach the kidneys. ADH will then signal the kidneys to increase the 
rate  of  water  reabsorption to return to the blood and decrease the water removed from the 
body  through  urine.  The  kidneys  will  not  stop  absorbing  water  until  the  pituitary  glands 
send signals to reduce the production of hormones. This process is shown in Fig. 15.2.6. 
 
Waterlogging,  sometimes  known  as  overhydration,  is  the  opposite  of  dehydration.  In  this 
case,  the  hypothalamus  is  signaled  that  the  level  of  water  in  the  bodily  fluids  is too high. In 
response,  a  signal  is  then  sent  by  the  hypothalamus  to  the  pituitary  gland,  which  stops the 
production  and  secretion  of  antidiuretic  hormones  making  the  kidney  cease  the 
reabsorption  of  water  from  the blood. This also increases the amount of urine formed since 
fluids  merely  pass  through  the  ducts  of  the  kidney  without  being  reabsorbed.  If  the 
continued  increase  of  water  levels  is  not  prevented,  the  cells  of  the  body  may  become 
waterlogged which may cause them to burst. 
 
Glucose Level Regulation 
Our  body  converts  carbohydrates  from  the  food  that  we  eat  into  glucose,  which  is  our 
primary  source  of  energy.  The  blood  sugar  level  is  a  measure  of  how  effectively  the  body 
uses  glucose,  which  may  vary  throughout  the  day.  Insulin  and  glucagon,  which  are  both 
hormones secreted by the pancreas, keep the level of blood sugar within a healthy range.  

The  blood  sugar  levels  remain  high  if  the  body  does  not  convert  enough  glucose.  The 
pancreas  releases  insulin,  which  helps  the  cells  to  absorb  glucose  which  reduces  blood 
sugar  levels.  A  high  amount  of  insulin  in  the  blood  signals  the  liver  that  blood  glucose  is 
high.  The  liver  will  then  absorb  the  glucose  and  convert  it  into  a  storage  molecule  called 
glycogen.  On  the  other  hand,  when  blood  sugar  levels  are  too  low,  the  pancreas  releases 
glucagon.  Glucagon  instructs  the  liver  to  release  the  converted  glycogen  into  glucose  to 
normalize the blood sugar level. These processes are seen in Fig. 15.2.7. 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    10 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

 
Fig. 15.2.7. The blood glucose level can decrease or increase beyond the normal range. This 
can be stabilized through the hormones insulin and glucagon during the negative feedback 
mechanism.  
 
Blood Pressure Regulation 
The maintenance of blood pressure is another example of a negative-feedback mechanism. 
Normal  blood  pressure is responsible for moving blood from the heart to tissues. The blood 
supplies  the  tissues  with  oxygen  and  nutrients  and  removes  waste  products.  Thus,  normal 
blood  pressure  is  required  to  ensure  that tissue homeostasis is maintained. Blood pressure 
depends  in  part  on  contraction  (beating)  of  the  heart:  as  heart  rate  increases,  blood 
pressure increases, and as heart rate decreases, blood pressure decreases.  
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    11 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

 
Fig. 15.2.8. Whenever the change in the blood pressure is detected by the receptors, a 
negative feedback mechanism is taking place to bring it back to its normal rate.  
 
The  receptors  that  monitor  blood  pressure  are  found  within  large  blood  vessels  near  the 
heart.  These  baroreceptors  sense  blood  pressure,  in  that  if  blood  pressure  rises  slightly, 
the  receptors  detect  the  increased  blood  pressure  and  transmit  that  information  to  the 
control  center  in  the  brain.  The  control  center  causes  the  heart  rate to decrease, resulting 
in  a  decline  in  blood pressure. If blood pressure decreases slightly, the receptors inform the 
control  center,  which  increases  heart  rate,  resulting  in  a  rise  in  blood  pressure.  As  a  result, 
blood  pressure  is  maintained  within  a  normal  range.  These  processes  are  shown  in  Fig. 
15.2.8.  

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    12 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
Menstrual Cycle 
The  menstrual  cycle  and  the  changes  that  occur  in  puberty  in  females  are  controlled  by 
the  hormones  estrogen,  luteinizing  hormone  (LH),  and  follicle-stimulating  hormone 
(FSH).  Estrogen  controls  the  secretion  of  the  two  pituitary  hormones  through  the 
hypothalamus,  which  controls  the  pituitary  gland.  This  happens  when  the  estrogen  level 
rises  in  the  blood.  The  hypothalamus  will  control  the  pituitary  gland  to  stimulate  the 
secretion  of  LH  and  FSH.  The  follicle-stimulating  hormone  causes  the  maturation  of  an  egg 
in  the  ovary.  Then,  the  luteinizing  hormone  stimulates  the  release  of  the  egg.  Lastly, 
estrogen  is  involved  in  the  repairing  and  thickening  of  the  uterus  following  menstruation, 
while  another  hormone  called  progesterone  helps  in  maintaining  the  uterine  lining.  These 
functions can be seen in Fig. 15.2.9. 
 

 
Fig. 15.2.9. A high level of GnRH produces LH and FSH, which then produces high levels of 
estrogen. If the level of estrogen in the body is high, the production of GnRH will be 
inhibited.  

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    13 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
The  negative  feedback  loop  can  also  be  seen  in  the  menstrual  cycle.  The  hypothalamus 
produces  gonadotropin-releasing  hormone  (GnRH),  which  signals  the  pituitary  gland  to 
produce  FSH  and  LH.  The  FSH  tells  the  ovaries  to  produce  estrogen  so  that  high  levels  of 
estrogen  will  inhibit  the  production  of GnRH. This will eventually make the pituitary to make 
less FSH that causes ovaries to make less estrogen.  
 

What is the role of pituitary glands in the different 


processes involved in negative feedback 
 
mechanisms?  
 
 

Did You Know? 


Birds  and  mammals  are  “warm-blooded”  or  homeothermic.  They 
have  mechanisms  to  regulate  their  body  temperature.  This 
approach  is  energetically  expensive,  but it provides an evolutionary 
advantage of being able to adapt to many different temperatures.  
 
All  invertebrates,  including  fishes,  amphibians,  and  reptiles,  are 
“cold-blooded”  or  poikilothermic.  Their  body  temperature 
fluctuates  depending  on  their  environmental  temperature.  This 
approach  saves  energy,  but  it  restricts  the  ability  of  the  species  to 
live in extremely cold and hot environments.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    14 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

Key Points 
___________________________________________________________________________________________ 
 
● Our  body’s  systems  are  regulated  by  negative  feedback  mechanisms,  which 
functions  to  maintain  homeostasis.  This  feedback  maintains  the  variation  within  a 
normal  range.  It  is  dubbed  as  negative  since  the  changes  are  met  with  a  response 
that decreases their magnitude. 
● The  sensor  and  the  control  center  for  body  temperature  are  located  in  a  part of the 
brain called the hypothalamus.  
● When  the  body  temperature  is  above  normal,  the  control  center  directs  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  skin  to  dilate.  The  result  is  that  more  blood  flows  near  the  surface  of 
the body, where heat can be lost to the environment.  
● Water  intake  is  balanced  out  by  processes  like  urination,  perspiration,  defecation, 
and more. 
● The  blood  sugar  level  is  a  measure  of  how  effectively  the  body  uses glucose, which 
may  vary  throughout  the  day.  Insulin  and  glucagon,  which  are  both  hormones 
secreted by the pancreas, keep the level of blood sugar within a healthy range.  
● The  maintenance  of  blood  pressure  is  another  example  of  a  negative-feedback 
mechanism.  
● The  menstrual  cycle  and  puberty  of  females  are  controlled  by  the  hormones 
estrogen, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). 
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    15 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

 
Graphical representation of negative feedback mechanisms 
___________________________________________________________________________________________  
 

  Check Your Understanding 


 

A. Identify terms being described by the following statements.   

1. It  is  a  mechanism  that  functions  to  maintain  homeostasis,  in  that  it  responds  to  a 
change by reducing the intensity of that change.  
2. This  refers  to  the  component  of  a  homeostatic  mechanism  that  detects  a  change 
from the environment. 
3. Signals  are  sent  to  this  component  and  it  initiates  an  action  to  bring  conditions 
back to normal. 
4. This structure is where information is sent to in the efferent pathway.  
5. It is known as the normal range which forms the basis for homeostatic stability.  
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    16 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

B. Write true if the statement is correct, write false otherwise.  

1. The hypothalamus controls temperature regulation. 


2. When  the  body  temperature  is  above  the  normal  range,  the  nervous  system 
activates the sweat glands to facilitate sweating. 
3. The intake of water balances the electrolytes in the body by taking in more fluids.  
4. The  change  in  the  water  level  in  the  blood  of  the  human  body  can  be  detected 
through the osmoreceptors.  
5. Blood sugar level refers to the amount of glucose in blood.  
6. Insulin and glucagon are both secreted by the pancreas. 
7. Baroreceptors are found near the heart. 
8. As the heart rate increases, blood pressure decreases.  
9. Estrogen controls the secretion of LH and FSH with the help of the hypothalamus. 
10. The  hypothalamus  produces  follicle-stimulating  hormone,  which  signals  the 
pituitary gland to produce luteinizing hormone.  
 

C. Provide the possible consequence, should the following events take place.    

1. The temperature decreases below the normal range. 


2. The osmoreceptors detected that there is a high amount of fluid in the body.  
3. The body does not convert enough glucose. 
4. The receptors in the blood vessels detected an increase in the blood pressure.  
5. There is a high level of estrogen in the body.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    17 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 

  Challenge Yourself 
 

Answer the following questions.    

1. How  does the negative feedback mechanism function when there is an imbalance in 
the homeostatic state of the body? 
2. How does the body balance the electrolytes? 
3. How does the liver respond when there is a high amount of glucose in the blood? 
4. How does blood pressure affect the tissues in the body? 
5. How does the FSH respond when the hypothalamus produces GnRH? 
 

  Bibliography 
Hoefnagels, Marielle. Biology: The Essentials. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education. 2016. 
 
Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Biology. 11th ed. McGraw-Hill Education. 2014. 
 
“Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance.” Boundless Biology. Lumen Candela. Accessed May  
24, 2020. 
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/osmoregulation-and
-osmotic-balance/. 
 
Reece,  Jane  B,  Martha  R.  Taylor,  Eric  J.  Simon,  Jean  L.  Dickey,  and  Kelly  Hogan.  Biology 
Concepts and Connections. 8th ed. Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd. 2016. 
 
Simon,  Eric  J.,  and  Jane  B.  Reece.  Campbell  Essential  Biology.  5th ed. Pearson Education Inc., 
2013. 
 
Starr,  Cecie,  Christine  A.  Evers,  and  Lisa  Starr.  Biology  Applications  and  Concepts.  8th  ed. 
Cengage Learning Asia, Pte. Ltd. 2012. 
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    18 
 
 
Unit 15: Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms 
 
Starr, Cecie, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr. Biology: Today and Tomorrow. 4th ed. Cengage 
Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., 2014. 
 
“The Menstrual Cycle.” CK-12. Flexbook, 2020.  
https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-biology-advanced-concepts/section/17.82/. 
 
 
 
 

 
 

 
15.2. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    19 
 

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