QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data 13

Sampling and Sampling Methods

The element of the Research Methodology discusses how the subjects or respondents of the study
are selected and how an appropriate sampling method is chosen. In this part of the research, the
subjects/respondents are introduced to the readers through their basic profiles. Subjects can be
individuals or groups to which interventions or processes are applied, in some studies, the subjects
are the respondents themselves but in other research, the subjects are not necessarily the
respondents. The participants or respondents are individuals or group of people that serve as the
sources of information during data collection.
The population is composed of persons or objects that possess some common
characteristics that are of interests to the researcher. There are two groups of population: the target
population and the accessible population. The target population consists of the entire group of
people or objects to which the findings of the study generally apply. Meanwhile, the accessible
population is the specific study population. For example, in a study about the common
difficulties encountered by senior high school students in the technical-vocational track in their on
the job-training in Region III, all senior high school students enrolled in the technical-vocational
track in Region III are the target population while the senior high school students who are enrolled
within the school or district and even those who are in the division are the target population.
A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a population.
It is very impractical for the researcher to get data from the entire population especially if
it is very large; in this case, a sample is derived. A sample is a subset of the entire population or a
group of individuals that represents the population and serves as the respondents of the study. A
statistic is a numeric characteristic of a sample. A single member of the sample is called an
element.
In the example concerning senior high school student on the technical-vocational track in
Region III, if there is a total of 13,000 students enrolled, 13,000 is called the parameter. Out of the
13,000, only 3,000 senior high school students are enrolled in the division of Pampanga. After
computing statistically, the sample derived is 500 senior high school students. This number, 500,
is called statistics.
Since we are deriving a small subset of sample from a population, it is very important to
select a representative sample from the population of interest for observation and analysis, so that
the inferences derived from the sample can be generalized back to the population (Bhattacherjee,
2012).

Sample Size
It is an important task of the researcher to determine the acceptable sample size. In coming up with
an acceptable number, there are some factors that needs to consider:
Homogeneity of the Population or Degree of Variability
Homogeneity of a population depends on the variability or the differences among the elements.
The degree of variability describes the distribution of attributes or characteristics in the population.

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A population with high degree of variability can be described as heterogenous and a low degree
variability can be described as homogenous. The more heterogeneous a population, the larger the
sample size required to obtain a given level of precision. The more homogeneous a population, the
smaller the sample size required.
Degree of Precision desired by the Researcher
The size of our sample dictates the amount of information we have and therefore, in part,
determines our precision or level of confidence that we have in our sample estimates. An estimate
always has an associated level of uncertainty, which depends upon the underlying variability of
the data as well as the sample size. The more variable the population, the greater the uncertainty
in our estimate. Similarly, the larger the sample size, the more information we have, and so our
uncertainty reduces.
The Use of Formula
In determining an ideal sample size where we can extract reliable data from the population, we can
use formula depending on the available parameters of the said population.
Slovin’s Formula
It is used to compute for sample size. This formula is used when you have limited
information about the characteristics of the population and are using a non-probability
sampling procedure.

where:
n = sample size
N = population size
e=desired margin of error

Example:
The parameter of the population is 8,000 at 2% margin of error or 98% accuracy.

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In this example, the sample size that we need is 1,905 to get a reliable data from the
population of 8,000.

Calmorin’s Formula
This is used when the population is more than 100 and the researcher decides to utilize
scientific sampling (Calmorin & Calmorin, 2008).

where:
𝑆𝑠 = sample size
N = population size
V = standard value (critical value)
Se = Sampling error
p = the largest proportion

Example:
The parameter of the population is 8,000 at 1% margin of error or 99% accuracy.
N = 8,000
Se = .01
V = 2.58 (two-tailed, calculated based on the Z-table)
P = 0.5

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Cochran Formula
This is considered especially appropriate in situations with large populations. A sample of
any given size provides more information about a smaller population than a larger one, so
there’s a ‘correction’ through which the number given by Cochran’s formula can be reduced
if the whole population is relatively small.

where:
𝑛0= sample size
Z = Z-value
P = estimated proportion of the population which has the attribute in question
q = 1–p
e = desired level of precision (margin of error)

Example:
Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large town,and want to find out how
many households serve breakfast in the morning. We don’t have much information on the
subject to begin with, so we’re going to assume that half of the families serve breakfast: this
gives us maximum variability. So p = 0.5. Now let’s say we want 95% confidence, and at
least 5 percent—plus or minus—precision.
p = 0.5
q = 0.5 (1- p)
e = .05
Z = 1.96

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Sampling Procedure
There are two ways of generating samples in a quantitative study – probability and non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling means that each member of the population has a chance of being
selected as a participant of a study, whereas non-probability sampling involves purposely choosing
participants according to some identified variables or criteria.
KINDS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
a. Simple Random Sampling – This is a method of choosing samples in which all the
members of the population are given an equal chance to be selected as respondents. It is an
unbiased way of selection as samples are drawn by chance. There are various ways of
getting the samples through simple random sampling. These include roulette wheel,
fishbowl technique, and the use of the table of random numbers.
These steps observed in the fishbowl technique are as follows:
1. Prepare the sampling frame and the list of the names of all the elements of the
population.
2. Write down all the names of the members of the population on strips of paper (one
name per strip of paper).
3. Place the strips of paper in a bowl or container.
4. Draw sample as desired.
An accurate procedure for random selection of samples is using a table of random numbers.
The table is a list of numbers that have been generated in such a manner that there is no order
or sequencing of numbers. Today, this table can be generated by a computer. These random
numbers can have any number of digits and are dependent on the size of the population.
When using the table of random numbers, take the following steps:
1. Assign a number to each element of the accessible population.
2. Enter the table of random numbers at an arbitrary or random starting point. This can
be done by closing your eyes and using a pen to a point at a number.

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3. Continue in a systematic way up or down, to the left or right or diagonally. The

direction is not important but should be determined before starting the process; this
direction shall continue until the total sample is selected.
4. Continue to select the numbers until the desired sample is reached. When the total
number is bigger than the sample size or has already been drawn, it must be disregarded
and another number must be selected.
b. Stratified random sampling – The population is first divided into different strata then the
sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational qualifications are just some of the criteria
used in dividing the population into strata.
Example:
The researcher will study the common causes and effects of smoking among senior high
school students. Equal representations of respondents are selected from various samples
from public and private schools (first stratum). Then, in the selected public and private
schools, samples are chosen from each grade level (second stratum). Finally, samples are
chosen by gender (third stratum). The sampling process is done in stages starting from the
first stratum up to the last stratum.
c. Cluster sampling – This is used in large-scale studies in which the population is
geographically spread-out. In these cases, sampling procedures may be difficult and time-
consuming.
Example:
A researcher wants to interview 100 senior high school honor students to have enough
representatives of the different public schools within the division. If there are 10 public
schools in the division, each cluster or school must have 10 samples to complete the total
statistics of 100.
d. Systematic sampling – It is a method of selecting every nth element of the population (e.g.
every fifth, eighth, ninth, or eleventh element).

KINDS OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

a. Convenience or accidental sampling - Participants are sampled according to what is
conveniently available. For example, after you have already determined the size of the
sample from your population of elementary pupils, the elementary pupils who are at the
moment present during the research visit will be chosen as respondents.
b. Modal instance sampling - Participants who exhibits the “most common” occurrence are
sampled accordingly. For example, a researcher is interested in the buying preferences of
a “typical teenager.” Thus, only those who constitutes a “typical teenager” are sampled.
c. Expert sampling - Participants who are identified as “experts” or those participants that
can give high-quality information are sampled. For example, teachers who are assessed as
excellent by their students are sampled to come up with a model of good teaching.
d. Quota sampling – Somewhat similar to stratified sampling in which the population is
divided into homogenous strata and then sample elements are selected from each stratum.

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For example, you know that in a given population, there are 60% men and 40% women. In
quota sampling, you will select samples non-randomly until you reach 40% women (4 out
of 10).
e. Purposive sampling – Involves the handpicking of the subjects. This is also called
judgmental sampling. For example, in a study involving diabetic patients, the researcher
uses a list of diabetic patients and chooses the necessary number of respondents.
f. Snowball sampling - Participants identify other potential participants to be included as
samples. For example, students belonging to a study group can recommend members of
the group to be participants on research about intrinsic motivation to study.

Other consideration in Sampling

a. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution
of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990)
b. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve as the
sample size. This is called universal sampling.
c. The following are the acceptable sizes for different types of research (Gay, 1976),
• Descriptive research – 10-20% of the population may be required,
• Correlational research – 30 subjects or respondents
• Comparative research – 15 subjects/group
• Experimental design – 15-30 subjects per group

In formulating the description of respondents of the study, the following elements must be
properly discussed: the total population and its parameters; the sample and its statistics; the
sampling method, with references to support it; an explanation and discussion of the sampling
method; an explanation of how the sampling is done; an enumeration of the qualifying criteria, if
applicable; and the profile of the respondents.

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