Heart - shaped like a blunt cone & size of a closed fist (mass of 250-350g)

- extends obliquely for 12-14 cm about 5 inches from the 2nd rib to the 5th intercoastal space
- Enclosed w/n the Mediastinum along w/ the other organs (trachea and other thoracic structures except the lungs)
→ Rests = superior part of the → Lies = anterior to the vertebral → Posterior = sternum
diaphragm column
- Loc: in the thoracic cavity between two pleural cavities that surround the lungs.
→ I Mediastinum – midline partition
→ 4 Pericardial cavity - cavity of the heart
- Main function: Pump blood throughout the body
- Beats approx. 100,000 times daily carrying 8000L of blood.

Pericardium - Covering of the Heart

- A double walled sac consisting of fibrous & serous pericardia.

2 layers:
• 4 Fibrous Pericardium
• + Serous Pericardium
Parietal
~ Viscera

Fibrous Pericardium (superficial area)

- tough dense connective tissue layer primarily protects the heart prevent the overfilling of heart with blood
- Serous Pericardium v deep area v thin, slippery membrane
- 2 lavers that form an enclosed sac around the heart
1. Parietal layer = lines the surface of the fibrous pericardium & is attached to the largest arteries exiting the heart ~
2. Visceral laver (epicardium) = part of the heart wall

Heart Wall = consists of the following:

1. Epicardium - outermost heart wall composed of simple squamous epithelium in an areolar connective tissue (fat is mostly seen)
2. Myocardium - middle layer. composed of mostly cardiac muscle tissues. responsible for the overall contraction of the heart
3. Endocardium - innermost layer. composed of simple squamous epithelium in an areolar connective tissue in the deep area. In contact with the heart
chamber

HEART CHAMBERS AND ASSOCIATED GREAT VESSELS

heart has 4 chambers:

1. Superior Atria (2 = right atrium and left atrium) - receives the blood from the vein
2. Inferior Ventricles (2 = right ventricle and left ventricle) - pump blood away from the heart from the atria

Internal Partitions

i. Interatrial Septum - separates the atrial chambers

ii. Interventricular Septum -separates the ventricular chambers

Grooves on the heart surface = indicate the boundaries of the 4 chambers & carry the blood vessels supplying the myocardium

Coronary Sulcus - separate the atria from the ventricles

ANTERIOR INTERVENTRICULAR

Sulcus - from coronary sulcus to anterior surface of the heart

POSTERIOR INTERVENTRICULAR

Sulcus - from coronary sulcus to posterior surface of the heart

VEINS THAT CARRY BLOOD TO THE HEART

1. Superior Vena Cava- resp for returning the blood from body regions superior to the diaphragm
2. Inferior Vena Cava - responsible for returning the blood from the body regions inferior to the diaphragm
3. Coronary Sinus - collects blood draining from the myocardium
4. Four Pulmonary Veins - carries blood from the lungs and carries the blood towards the left atrium.

ARTERIES THAT CARRY BLOOD AWAY FROM THE HEART & TOWARDS THE BODY:

1. Pulmonary Trunk - arising from the right ventricle and splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries which carries blood into the lungs
2. Aorta - arise from the left ventricle and carries blood into the body (systemic circulation)
3. Pulmonary Arteries - deliver the blood towards the lungs
HEART VALVES

Atrioventricular Valves (AV Valves) - Loc between the right & right ventricle (tricuspid valve) and between the left atrium and left ventricle (bicuspid/mitral valve).

- Prevent backflow into the atria

- Each ventricle contains cone-shaped, muscular pillars called "papillary muscles" and attached to a connective tissue string called "chordae tendinae" –
heart string
- Valves are made up of cusps or flaps of endocardium reinforced by connective tissue

Semilunar Valves - Prevent backflow associated into the ventricles

cardiac skeleton - plate of connective tissue

CORONARY CIRCULATION

2 coronary arteries supply blood to the wall of the heart:

1. Left Coronary Artery = originates on the left side of the aorta v Anterior interventricular artery (left anterior descending artery)
- Anterior interventricular artery - follows the anterior interventricular sulcus and supplies blood to the interventricular septum and anterior
walls of both of the ventricles
- Circumflex artery - Supply the left atrium & posterior walls of the left ventricle
2. Right Coronary Artery = orig on the left side of the aorta

POSTERIOR INTERVENTRICULAR ARTERY

Right marginal artery - serves the myocardium of the lateral right side of the heart.

Posterior interventricular artery = runs to the heart apex and supply the posterior ventricle walls and merges with the anterior interventricular artery

- The cardiac veins drain blood from the cardiac muscle and most of them drain blood into the coronary sinus.
- This sinus has three (3) attributes:
1. Great Cardiac Vein 2. Middle Cardiac Vein 3. Small Cardiac Vein

Functions of Blood

• to deliver oxygen & nutrients to and • defense, distribution of heat, and maintenance of homeostasis.
• remove wastes from body cells
Transportation

→ Nutrients from the foods you eat are absorbed in the digestive tract. Most of these travel in the bloodstream directly to the liver, where they are
processed and released back into the bloodstream for delivery to body cells.
→ Oxygen from the air you breathe diffuses into the blood, which moves from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps it out to the rest of the body.
Moreover, endocrine glands scattered throughout the body release their products, called hormones, into the bloodstream, which carries them to distant
target cells.
→ Blood also picks up cellular wastes and byproducts, and transports them to various organs for removal. For instance, blood moves carbon dioxide to the
lungs for exhalation from the body, and various waste products are transported to the kidneys and liver for excretion from the body in the form of urine
or bile.

Defense

→ Many types of WBCs protect the body from external threats

→ Other WBCs seek out and destroy internal threats, such as cells with mutated DNA that could multiply to become cancerous,
→ When damage to the vessels results in bleeding, blood platelets and certain proteins dissolved in the plasma, the fluid portion of the blood, interact to
block the ruptured areas of the blood vessels involved. This protects the body from further blood loss.

Maintenance of Homeostasis

→ core body temperature would trigger several homeostatic mechanisms, including increased transport of blood from your core to your
→ body periphery, which is typically cooler. As blood passes through the vessels of the skin, heat would be dissipated to the environment, and the blood
returning to your body core would be cooler. In contrast, on a cold day, blood is diverted away from the skin to maintain a warmer body core. In
extreme cases, this may result in frostbite.
→ Blood also helps to maintain the chemical balance of the body. Proteins and other compounds in blood act as buffers, which thereby help to regulate the
pH of body tissues. Blood also helps to regulate the water content of body cells.

Composition of Blood

Hematocrit - measures the percentage of RBCs, clinically known as erythrocytes, in a blood sample.

- It is performed by spinning the blood sample in a specialized centrifuge, a process that causes the heavier elements suspended within the blood
sample to separate from the lightweight, liquid plasma. Because the heaviest elements in blood are the erythrocytes, these settle at the very
bottom of the hematocrit tube.
 Pale - Located above the erythrocytes, thin layer composed of the remaining formed elements of blood. These are the WBCs, clinically known as leukocytes

Platelets - cell fragments also called thrombocytes. This layer is referred to as the buffy coat because of its color; it normally

constitutes less than 1 percent of a blood sample.

blood plasma - Above the buffy coat, normally a pale, straw-colored fluid, which constitutes the remainder of the sample

as packed cell volume (PCV) - volume of erythrocytes after centrifugation

→ normal blood, about 45 % of a sample is erythrocytes. The hematocrit of any one sample can vary significantly, however, about 36–50 %, according
to gender and other factors. Normal hematocrit values for females range from 37 to 47, with a mean value of 41; for males, hematocrit ranges from
42 to 52, with a mean of 47. The percentage of other formed elements, the WBCs and platelets, is extremely small so it is not normally considered
with the hematocrit. So the mean plasma percentage is the percent of blood that is not erythrocytes: for females, it is approximately 59 (or 100
minus 41), and for males, it is approximately 53 (or 100 minus 47).

Composition of Blood

1. vast number of erythrocytes

2. comparatively fewer leukocytes
3. platelets.
4. Plasma- the fluid in which the formed elements are suspended. A sample of blood spun in a centrifuge reveals that plasma is the lightest
component.

Characteristics of Blood

bright red = Blood that has just taken up oxygen in the lungs
hemoglobin is a pigment that changes color, depending upon the
dusky red = blood that has released oxygen in the tissues degree of oxygen saturation.

Blood is viscous and somewhat sticky to the touch. (5x viscosity greater than water)

→ The viscosity of blood has a dramatic impact on blood pressure and flow. The more viscous honey would demonstrate a greater resistance to flow than
the less viscous water. The same principle applies to blood.
→ 38 °C (or 100.4 °F) - normal temperature of blood is slightly higher than normal body temperature
→ The pH of blood averages about 7.4; however, it can range from 7.35 to 7.45 in a healthy person. Blood is therefore somewhat more basic (alkaline) on a
chemical scale than pure water, which has a pH of 7.0. Blood contains numerous buffers that actually help to regulate pH.
→ Blood constitutes approximately 8 percent of adult body weight. Adult males typically average about 5 to 6 liters of blood. Females average 4–5 liters.

Blood Plasma – compo of water: In fact, it is about 92 percent water. Dissolved or suspended within this water is a mixture of substances, most of which are
proteins. There are literally hundreds of substances dissolved or suspended in the plasma, although many of them are found only in very small quantities

Albumin - most abundant plasma protein, accounting for most of the osmotic pressure of plasma antibodies

Immunoglobulins - antigen-specific proteins produced by specialized B lymphocytes that protect the body by binding to foreign objects such as bacteria & viruses

Blood- liquid connective tissue composed of formed elements—erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets—and a fluid extracellular matrix called plasma; component
of the cardiovascular system

buffy coat - thin, pale layer of leukocytes and platelets that separates the erythrocytes from the plasma in a sample of centrifuged blood

fibrinogen - plasma protein produced in the liver and inv in blood clotting

globulins - heterogeneous group of plasma proteins that includes transport proteins, clotting factors, immune proteins, and others

hematocrit - (also, packed cell volume) volume % of erythrocytes in a sample of centrifuged blood

packed cell volume (PCV) - (also, hematocrit) volume percentage of erythrocytes present in a sample of centrifuged blood

plasma - compo mostly of water that circulates the formed elements and dissolved materials throughout the cardiovascular system

platelets - (also, thrombocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that consists of cell fragments broken off from megakaryocytes

red blood cells (RBCs) - (also, erythrocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that transports oxygen

white blood cells (WBCs) - (also, leukocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that provides defense against disease agents and foreign materials

FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

• Excretion • pH regulation
• Regulation of blood volume and blood pressure • Regulation of RBC synthesis
• Regulation of solute concentration in the blood • Regulation of Vitamin D synthesis