Examining the Personal–Professional Distinction

Ethics Codes and the Difficulty of Drawing a Boundary

Randolph B. Pipes, Jaymee E. Holstein, and Maria G. Aguirre

Auburn University

The Ethics Code of the American Psychological Associa- cases, depending on time and relevant variables in the case)
tion (APA) applies to the professional role behaviors of former clients; and multiple relationships with clients,
members and not to their personal behavior. This article when the multiple relationship is likely to lead to impair-
discusses some of the difficulties inherent in drawing dis-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

ment of the psychologist or harm to the client. Addition-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

tinctions between the personal and the professional. Con- ally, in their work-related behavior, psychologists are ob-
sideration is given to the importance of clarifying public ligated to behave in ways that are consistent with other
statements. Four ethics codes other than the APA Ethics standards of the APA Ethics Code. Examples include the
Code are examined for how they treat the personal–pro- obligation to protect research participants, to keep certain
fessional distinction. A number of questions are posed to kinds of information confidential, to evaluate students in
assist in determining the tilt a behavior takes. A concluding ways consistent with program requirements, to use appro-
recommendation suggests that APA Ethical Standards be priate assessment instruments, and to present psychological
applied only to professional role behaviors, whereas aspi- information accurately when teaching. Thus, individuals
rational principles might be applied to personal behavior. who join the APA voluntarily agree to constrain their
Keywords: ethics, ethical standards, ethical principles, per- behavior in a variety of ways within their profes-
sonal behavior and ethics, psychology and ethics sional role.2
Consistent with the above comments, one of the issues

T he idea that professional associations have the right

to regulate and discipline their members and con-
strain their behavior has a long history, extending
back at least into the Middle Ages. For example, in 14th-
century England, craft and parish guilds were asked to
that arises when discussing whether any particular behavior
on the part of the psychologist is or is not prohibited by the
APA Ethics Code is whether the behavior under consider-
ation does or does not fall within the boundaries of the
professional role of the psychologist. The Introduction and
ensure that their members did not commit fraud, foment Applicability section of the 2002 APA Ethics Code states
unrest, and so forth. If a member misbehaved, it was the the following:
obligation of the guild to bring the member’s behavior back
into line with acceptable norms and statutes (C. Bertolet, The Ethics Code applies only to psychologists’ activities that are
personal communication, November 4, 2003). part of their scientific, educational, or professional roles as psy-
Professional associations such as the American Psy- chologists. . . . These activities shall be distinguished from the
chological Association (APA) have a vested interest in the
behavior of their members for a number of reasons, includ-
Randolph B. Pipes, Jaymee E. Holstein, and Maria G. Aguirre, Depart-
ing the reputation of the association, the overall image of ment of Counselor Education, Counseling Psychology, and School Psy-
the profession, the desire to enhance the education and chology, Auburn University.
competency of members, and the aspiration to protect the An earlier version of this article was presented at the 112th Annual
students, clients, supervisees, organizations, and research Convention of the American Psychological Association, Honolulu, Ha-
waii, August 2004. We thank Philip Lewis, Anne Penney, and Caroline
participants with whom members work. When individuals Burke for their helpful comments on previous drafts as well as Gary
enter a profession, a question arises as to what behaviors, if Schoener for his helpful comments at the APA convention program. The
any, they agree to modify or give up as a result of becom- order of the last two authors was determined randomly.
ing a member of the profession. For example, in psychol- Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ran-
dolph B. Pipes, Department of Counselor Education, Counseling Psychol-
ogy, the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of ogy, and School Psychology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.
Conduct” (hereafter referred to as the Ethics Code or the E-mail: [email protected]
Code) of the APA (2002) prohibits members (hereafter
referred to as psychologists) from engaging in certain types 1
The Ethics Code consists of four parts: Introduction and Applica-
of relationships with clients, former clients, students, re- bility, Preamble, General Principles, and Ethical Standards. The Ethical
search participants, employees, and others with whom they Standards (but not the other portions of the Code) are enforceable, and
members are disciplined when found to have violated them.
work.1 Examples include exploitative relationships with 2
In this article, the terms professional role and professional encom-
clients, employees, research participants, and students; sex- pass the full range of activities performed by psychologists—scientific,
ual relationships with supervisees and clients or (in some educational, and so forth.

May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist 325

Copyright 2005 by the American Psychological Association 0003-066X/05/$12.00
Vol. 60, No. 4, 325–334 DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.4.325
 personal and the professional? Does it make sense to talk
about such a boundary? The relationship between the in-
dividual and the group (often society) was of interest to the
Greek Hellenic philosophers and extends through the Age
of Enlightenment with political philosophers such as
Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. Discussion of related issues
continues through the present era, framed in a variety of
ways including (but certainly not limited to) individualism
versus collectivism (e.g., Oyserman, Coon, & Kem-
melmeier, 2002; Sampson, 2000), the self (definitions and
threats to identity in the postmodern era; e.g., Gergen,
1991; Smith, 1994), and broad sociological discourses on
individualism and civic life in the United States (Bellah,
Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 1985; Putnam,
2000).
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

This distinction between the personal and the profes-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

sional (and the related distinction between the private and

the public) is rooted deeply in cultural values. Particularly
in United States culture (to the extent one can talk about
one U.S. culture), there is enduring emphasis on one’s right
Randolph B. to a personal life little constrained by other individuals,
Pipes
organizations, or government. Justice William O. Douglas
expressed a part of this philosophy when he said, “The
right to be let alone is indeed the beginning of all freedom.”
purely private conduct of psychologists, which is not within the Similarly, one of the popular mantras of the 1960s was “do
purview of the Ethics Code. (p. 1061) your own thing,” a paean to individuality and to one’s right
Thus, in contrast to the constraints (accepted volun- to live a life unfettered by the expectations or control of
tarily as a result of membership) imposed by the APA others. In the legal arena, even such fundamental rights as
Ethics Code on psychologists when they are acting within freedom of the press may be substantially limited when a
their role as psychologists, no such constraints are imposed newspaper criticizes a person deemed to be a private indi-
or mandated by the Ethics Code when psychologists func- vidual as opposed to a public figure (for related case law,
tion outside their roles as psychologists. Within the con- see Franklin Prescriptions, Inc. v. New York Times Co.,
straints of their own moral standards, social custom, the 2003). In general, numerous amendments to the United
law, and any relevant organizational rules (e.g., those dic- States Constitution, including but not limited to the Bill of
tated by an employer or other professional association), Rights, stand as a bulwark against capricious government
psychologists may, when their professional role is not activity and in general help protect minority viewpoints,
operative, engage in exploitative relationships and sexual however unpopular or out of fashion. Even psychologists
and multiple relationships of their choosing. They may, advocating what many other psychologists might call
with impunity from the Code, demean individuals of a “snake oil” treatments may find protection under the First
particular gender or a particular religion with whom they Amendment (Kennedy, Mercer, Mohr, & Huffine, 2002).
interact only on a personal basis. It appears that in those Within the profession of psychology, the frequency with
municipalities that do not make it illegal to do so, a psy- which psychologists invoke the broad, culturally con-
chologist may own an apartment building and refuse to rent structed ethical principle of autonomy and the related con-
to individuals who are, for example, gay. Outside their cept of informed consent is further evidence of the influ-
roles as psychologists, they may (subject to the constraints ence, value, and expression of free choice for the individual
just listed) break confidences, be verbally abusive to their whenever possible. In turn, in their purely private lives,
romantic partners, lie to their friends, evaluate others un- psychologists could be expected to steadfastly guard their
fairly, and generally act like a louse.3 To summarize, other own free choices and freedom of expression.
than the exception footnoted, odious behavior outside the
psychologist’s professional role is not subject to the current
3
Ethics Code. It is important to note that the APA Ethics Members of APA may be expelled from the association after being
convicted of a felony, even if the felony is unrelated to their role as a
Code does little to define personal behavior or to explain psychologist. That is to say, personal behaviors can fall within reach of the
the distinction between personal behavior and professional association’s discipline, even though they are not directly actionable under
behavior. the Ethical Standards. Felony convictions allow but do not require the
association to discipline members. One reason the APA Ethics Code does
Genesis of the Boundary not include legal violations as a specific standard is that there has been a
consensus that an illegal act such as civil disobedience should not auto-
How has there come to be, expressed in so many ways, matically subject the APA member to sanctions (C. Fisher, personal
including the APA Ethics Code, a boundary between the communication, November 5, 2003).

326 May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist

 teach a class effectively or who had insufficient energy to
supervise research assistants properly. The difficulty in
defining and understanding impairment (e.g., trying to de-
cide when individuals need education or therapy vs. when
they might need or deserve more punitive sanctions) is
symptomatic of the entanglement between the personal and
the professional. The professional may also impact the
personal. Deep feelings of pride in one’s professional ac-
complishments may help ameliorate old feelings of inse-
curity, or a poor performance rating at work may accelerate
conflict with a significant other. (Literature analyzing how
work and family interact includes discussion of work–
family conflict and family–work conflict. For a discussion
of spillover and other constructs related to the work–family
interface, see, e.g., Edwards & Rothbard, 2000.)
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In the academic arena, an example of the personal

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

impacting the professional can be found from time to time

when a university department meets to discuss job candi-
dates who have interviewed for a position. In such cases,
votes for particular candidates are often influenced by
Jaymee E. logic, departmental needs, and candidate qualifications.
Holstein Votes may also be influenced by personal chemistry be-
tween the candidate and faculty members. Having one’s
vote influenced by a strong feeling of affinity is profes-
sional in the sense that a decent working relationship be-
In addition to the political and constitutional roots that tween colleagues is highly desirable, but it is also personal
helped develop the construct of the personal–professional in that such feelings can be based on many intangibles that
boundary, the philosophical and psychological notion of may or may not be work related. The votes of faculty
the autonomous self, existing apart from the group, also members may also be influenced by how strongly their
helps underpin the distinction. In this view, individuals are close friends in the department feel about a particular
capable of functionally separating themselves and their candidate. It is rational and professional to consider the
behavior from the groups (including professions) in which opinions of those faculty members one respects, but we
they are embedded. Both what the individual is capable of would venture to guess that most faculty members have at
doing in terms of separation as well as the individual’s some time had their votes in departmental meetings influ-
responsibility to the group becomes of interest. Further- enced by feelings that go beyond professional consider-
more, role theory, which has a long history in the social ations. Similarly, to what extent should members of Insti-
sciences (e.g., Getzels & Guba, 1954), assumes that indi- tutional Review Boards be influenced by personal feelings
viduals can carry out multiple, although sometimes con- when making judgments about the safeguards needed in a
flicting, roles. Thus, the construct of roles allows one set of research project?
obligations or activities to be defined and then contrasted Second, we know that many behaviors are quite easy
with a different set of obligations or activities. Taken to categorize. Space does not permit a long list of examples
together, the idea of the autonomous self and the idea of here, but presumably most psychologists agree that voting
roles, when combined with the political, philosophical, and for political candidates, for example, is a personal act (not
constitutional issues, allow us to talk about the boundary to say that it has no professional ramifications!). Similarly,
between the personal and the professional. there is likely near unanimity in the belief that psycholo-
What Do We Know About the gists’ behavior with their students and clients should be
Boundary? regulated to a certain extent by professional norms and
codes.
Before raising additional questions about the boundary Third, there are some behaviors that seem to be both
between the personal and the professional, we briefly ar- personal and professional. An example might be the writ-
ticulate some of what we know about this distinction. First, ing of an overly enthusiastic letter of reference for a col-
we know that there is often a reciprocal and causal rela- league. For some such behaviors, psychologists will never
tionship between elements within each of the two arenas. In have complete agreement about whether the behavior is
that sense, there really is no debate about whether there is personal or professional (or whether it really is both),
commingling of the areas. For example, consider the issue although the APA Ethics Committee and the Director of the
of impairment. In many cases, though not all, impairment is APA Ethics Office must in fact make a judgment about this
almost by definition a debilitating intrusion of personal issue when deciding whether the APA Code does or does
variables into the professional realm. An example would be not apply to a behavior when there has been an allegation
a psychologist with clinical depression who was unable to of unethical conduct.

May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist 327

 professional behavior of psychologists in terms of the ap-
plicability of the Code. The Introduction section of this
Code states, “These work-related activities can be distin-
guished from the purely private conduct of a psychologist,
which ordinarily [italics added] is not within the purview
of the Ethics Code” (APA, 1992, p. 1598).
Fisher and Younggren (1997) noted that the issue of
whether particularly egregious behavior outside one’s role
as a psychologist should fall under the purview of the Code
was a subject for discussion in future revisions of the Code
(for a discussion of changes reflected in the 2002 APA
Code, see Fisher, 2003; Knapp & VandeCreek, 2003a,
2003b). In fact, the limitation of the Code’s applicability to
professional (as opposed to personal) behavior actually
appears to have been strengthened in the new (2002) Ethics
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Code. As noted above, the 2002 APA Code says, “These

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activities shall be distinguished from the purely private

conduct of psychologists, which is not [italics added]
within the purview of the Ethics Code” (p. 1061). Despite
the clear statement about the purview of the Code, Section
Maria G. 2.06 (Personal Problems and Conflicts) suggests that psy-
Aguirre chologists’ personal behaviors might be at least partially at
issue when considering whether the Code has been vio-
lated. Standard 3.06 (Conflict of Interest) also brings into
Fourth, whether specific ethical codes do or do not focus the potential intermingling of personal activity and
apply, it is important to behave ethically in the gray area— professional obligations. The distinction between the per-
the area that contains behaviors that seem at once to be both sonal and the professional is made difficult when the Code
personal and professional. both places personal behavior off the table for consider-
Fifth, we know that when professional roles collide ation yet recognizes that personal problems, which may at
with personal behavior, controversy often ensues. Recent times be evidenced primarily in nonwork-related activities,
examples highlighting the complex interplay between per- are likely correlates of poor performance in the work set-
sonal behavior and professional or job-related behavior ting. The distinction between the personal and the profes-
include a report on the American Anthropological Associ- sional has been implicitly criticized by Payton (1994), who
ation’s moving a meeting in response to picket lines noted the following:
(Glenn, 2004), a controversy about the contents of a pro-
fessor’s Web log (Smallwood, 2003), a university football The distinction [between personal and professional behavior]
coach being fired for gambling (Jacobson, 2004), a private provokes rethinking of my role. Until now, I have always con-
company requiring that employees be tested for smoking sidered myself a psychologist regardless of my job title. Social
(Peters, 2005), and the United States Military Academy’s acquaintances view me as such. Are there any psychologists who
evaluating the spirituality of cadets (Zupan, 2004). These have not been greeted with a “Oh, you can read my mind,” when
examples demonstrate how easily the personal and the introduced as a psychologist? The new code [i.e., the 1992 Code]
professional become intertwined and, as just noted, the frees me to leave my professional identity at the office at the close
of business. (p. 319)
controversy that can follow. Furthermore, these diverse
examples show that as psychologists struggle to clarify Of particular note in Payton’s position is the emphasis on
what is and what is not appropriately defined as behavior in the perception of others. From this standpoint, such per-
the professional realm, they echo disputes in the broader ception is an important criterion in determining whether
culture about the personal–professional boundary. To un- psychologists can in fact, in Payton’s words, “leave . . .
derstand how contentious an issue can become when it [their] professional identity at the office at the close of
involves the merging of the personal and the professional, business” (p. 319).
one need look no further than the controversy (especially In their book on the 1992 Code, Canter, Bennett,
prior to the adoption of the 1992 APA Ethics Code) about Jones, and Nagy (1994) gave the example (still relevant for
whether (or when or under what circumstances) psycholo- the 2002 Code) of the psychologist who sits on a library
gists should be free to have sexual relationships with board and makes statements about the effects of certain
former clients. kinds of books on children. Is such behavior subject to the
What Is Personal? What Is Ethics Code? On the one hand, the psychologist may argue
that she volunteered to be on the board as a private citizen
Professional? and that as a member of the board she is entitled to express
The 1992 APA Ethics Code was apparently the first APA opinions about children’s books. On the other hand, an
Code to draw a distinction between the personal and the observer might argue that the individuals who made the

328 May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist

 board appointment were likely aware that the individual be solved by a statement; nonetheless, in our view, a
was, in fact, a psychologist. Such an observer might also standard outlining one’s obligation to clarify roles would
argue that it is a matter of common sense to link the make a reasonable addition to the Ethics Code. Perhaps it
appointment, the role the psychologist plays as a uni- would be helpful to point out here that one of the purposes
versity professor with, for example, a specialty in child of the APA Code is to set forth enforceable standards, but
psychology, and the opinions being expressed by the another purpose is to educate psychologists. By outlining a
psychologist. standard in the area of public statements, the Code would
Psychologists who substantially quote psychological be alerting psychologists to the importance of being clear
literature and freely comment on it in public are arguably about one’s role (speaking as a professional vs. speaking
engaging in activity that is a part of their “scientific, edu- personally).
cational, or professional roles as psychologists,” even if Consider two more examples that draw further atten-
they do not specifically identify themselves as psycholo- tion to the issue of the personal and the professional:
gists (APA, 2002, p. 1061). It is interesting to note that the
Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (Canadian Psy- One night, while drinking with friends at a bar, Dr. Rodriguez, a
chological Association, 2000), the Principles of Medical clinical psychologist, sees two of his long-term clients sitting just
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Ethics with Annotations Especially Applicable to Psy- a few feet away. Even though he knows his clients are there, he
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

chiatry (American Psychiatric Association, 2001), and becomes very intoxicated, to the point of slurred speech. Is his
the ethics code of the American Counseling Association behavior subject to the Ethics Code? Would it make any differ-
ence if one of his clients had a problem with alcohol abuse or if
(1995) each contain a section that is quite applicable
Dr. Rodriguez ran the local alcohol treatment facility? What if the
here. Each of these codes notes that professionals have same incident was repeated a number of times?
an affirmative duty to indicate when they are speaking as
a matter of personal opinion as opposed to speaking as Dr. Green, a psychologist who is a statistician, is a player–
experts. manager for a softball team and she has invited her doctoral
This distinction between speaking as a matter of per- student, Lois, to play on the team with her. On the ball field, and
sonal expression versus speaking as a representative of a in front of the other players, Dr. Green repeatedly belittles her
profession or an institution is addressed by the American student’s athletic skills. She also frequently makes substitutions in
Association of University Professors (1940) Statement of a way that limits Lois’s playing time. In the role of doctoral
Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure: advisor, Dr. Green is supportive and fair. Is Dr. Green’s behavior
on the softball field subject to the Code?
College and university teachers are citizens, members of a learned
profession, and officers of an educational institution. When they Explicit guidance concerning such behavior is not in the
speak or write as citizens, they should be free from institutional Code, although Standard 3.04 (APA, 2002) does admonish
censorship or discipline, but their special position in the commu- psychologists to avoid harming students and others with
nity imposes special obligations. As scholars and educational
officers, they should remember that the public may judge their whom they work. It is unlikely that any ethics code will be
profession and their institution by their utterances. Hence they able to answer clearly questions about all of the many
should at all times be accurate, should exercise appropriate re- complicated situations that could conceivably arise in dis-
straint, should show respect for the opinions of others, and should tinguishing between the personal and the professional.
make every effort to indicate that they are not speaking for the Nonetheless, later in this article, we turn to the problem
institution. (Section: Academic Freedom [c]) of determining the tilt (toward the personal or toward the
Even though the APA Ethics Code does not contain a professional) a behavior takes as a function of several
standard requiring that psychologists clarify statements that variables, including some raised by the examples just
might be ambiguous along the dimension of speaking pri- cited.
vately versus speaking as a professional, such a standard Perhaps as much as any area of psychology, feminist
could indeed help prevent misunderstanding. Obviously, theory and practice (e.g., Worell & Johnson, 1997) raises
claims by psychologists that they are acting as private the question of the personal versus the professional life of
citizens, in the face of clear and convincing evidence that the psychologist. One of the mantras of feminist psychol-
they were functioning within a professional role, are ogy has been the belief that “the personal is political.”
fraudulent. Indeed, the preamble to the Feminist Therapy Code of
Although the purpose of this article is not to suggest Ethics (Feminist Therapy Institute, 2000; see additional
new APA ethical standards, we do believe that in making comments below concerning this code) includes this very
future revisions of the APA Ethics Code, psychologists statement. In turn, political issues (e.g., social justice)
should consider slightly altering current standards in the are seen as part and parcel of the psychological enter-
area of public statements, so as to provide additional guid- prise. One need only pick up any of several books on
ance to psychologists seeking to make clear that they are feminist ethics (e.g., Brabeck, 2000; Rave & Larsen,
speaking for themselves in a given arena. In turn, such a 1995) to see that personal values and personal identity
standard, when applied to a particular situation, would are inextricably interwoven with the idea of professional
directly address the question of the distinction between the values and ethics.
personal and the professional. Not all difficulties in distin- Another example highlighting the ambiguous relation-
guishing between personal and professional behavior can ship between the personal and the professional, especially

May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist 329

 from a feminist perspective,4 is that of hate speech. Discussions about virtue ethics, character and fitness
Vasquez and de las Fuentes (2000) have discussed the issue requirements for duty, the importance of self-reflection,
of hate speech and the issues involved in balancing the and the challenges of impairment suggest that psycholo-
need for autonomy and feminist ethics. They concluded gists really do in fact want it both ways. We are committed
that faculty and student speech codes were needed (and to honoring a separate personal life, yet in our hearts, we
also discussed a number of relevant court cases). As they really believe that the personal and the professional are
pointed out, freedom of speech is by no means absolute. At often inseparable.
the same time, however, courts have been rather reluctant
to endorse speech codes, often finding them too broadly Other Ethics Codes
drawn. Although the issue of hate speech on campus is not
the same as, for example, hate speech in one’s personal life, The question of the personal versus the professional is
nonetheless, the issue is raised as to the interaction between addressed either directly or indirectly in ethics codes other
one’s personal life and one’s professional life. If a therapist than that of the APA. Earlier we discussed the issue of how
sees a large caseload of clients who identify their ethnicity various codes address the problem of when are profession-
as African American, should the profession merely say in als speaking for themselves and when are they speaking as
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

essence, “we have nothing to say” if the therapist writes a member of the profession.
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letters to the editor that are racist? Is such (perhaps) per- The psychiatric ethics code (American Psychiatric
sonal behavior outside the scope of the APA Ethics Code? Association, 2001) does make clear that there is a distinc-
The confusion between the personal and the profes- tion between the private and the professional and, simul-
sional is also indirectly addressed by those writers (e.g., taneously, implicitly acknowledges that these two roles can
Kitchener, 1996, 1999, 2000; Meara, Schmidt, & Day, become intertwined. One section of this code (2 [1.0])
1996) who advocate virtue ethics as an alternative or ad- states, “The requirement that the physician conduct him-
dendum to principle ethics. Virtue ethics, with its emphasis self/herself with propriety in his or her profession and in all
on, among other things, character, suggests that the kind of the actions of his or her life [italics added] is especially
person someone is (in some total sense) drives what the important in the case of the psychiatrist.” On the one hand,
person does and how the person thinks in the professional this section of the psychiatric code appears to imply that
as well as in the personal realm. Hence, individuals who psychiatrists must (by constraint of the code?) conduct their
advocate for virtue ethics as an effective tool in thinking personal life with propriety. On the other hand, the psychi-
about ethical dilemmas, although not necessarily ruling out atric ethics code is not clear on what personal behavior
the distinction between the personal and the professional, might be specifically constrained by the American Psychi-
certainly add complexity to psychologists’ thinking. atric Association.
The question of character and fitness for duty has been It appears that the codes for psychiatrists and coun-
raised directly in the literature by Johnson and Campbell selors are silent on whether professionals can in their
(2002, 2004) who suggested that training programs and personal lives discriminate against others on the basis of
licensure boards should give more attention to these two culture, religion, sexual orientation, and so forth. (Natu-
issues. In their view, there should be more screening along rally, certain forms of discrimination are illegal regardless
character dimensions (e.g., integrity, prudence, and caring) of whether one is acting within a professional role.) It is
and fitness (e.g., personality adjustment, psychological interesting that the Canadian Psychological Association
health, and use of substances). Although their articles fo- (2000) code says (Principle I.2) that psychologists would
cused on screening, as opposed to discipline, the implica- “Not engage publicly (e.g., in public statements, presenta-
tion is clear that variables outside one’s immediate perfor-
tions, research reports, or with clients) in degrading com-
mance of duties can and should be considered if there is a
ments about others, including demeaning jokes based on
rational link between a deficiency and one’s fitness or
such characteristics as culture, nationality, ethnicity, color,
capacity to practice psychology. Likewise, training pro-
race, religion, sex, gender, or sexual orientation.” Note that
grams often seek out students who possess the ability to be
self-reflective. For example, in their predoctoral internship the Canadian Psychological Association code seems to
materials, the Ball State University Counseling Center imply that one should not make degrading public state-
(2004) states the following: ments, and this prohibition does not seem limited to clients
or others with whom psychologists work.
An important component of our training program is the intersec- Section V(A) of the Feminist Therapy Code of Ethics
tion between the personal and professional. . . . We believe that (Feminist Therapy Institute, 2000) states: “A feminist ther-
effectiveness in all aspects of professional functioning is related apist seeks multiple avenues for impacting change, includ-
to one’s ability to reflect on oneself, one’s interpersonal and ing public education and advocacy within professional
personal dynamics and the history from which these dynamics organizations, lobbying for legislative actions, and other
emerge. Thus, professional functioning can be either enhanced or
hindered by one’s development, or lack thereof, in these essential
areas. (¶ 16) 4
It is inaccurate to speak of a single feminist position on, for
example, ethics or hate speech. As Enns (1993) has pointed out, there are
From this perspective, a personal skill, self-reflection, is several schools of feminist thought, not to mention individual variation
implicitly a professional skill. among feminists.

330 May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist

 appropriate activities.”5 When feminist psychologists send broadly, and more important, thinking about this boundary
e-mails to a legislator (without identifying themselves as challenges psychologists to be reflective about the bridge
psychologists), imploring the elected official to vote for a between the personal and the professional. In this sense, the
proposal to make the tax structure more equitable, this is emphasis is not on “What am I free to do in my personal
both a personal act and a professional one through the life that is unregulated by the Code?” but rather “What are
feminist lens. Thus, as noted above, from certain feminist those enduring values that cut across my professional life
perspectives, it can be difficult to separate the personal and my personal life?” Let us be clear that we take seri-
from the professional because one’s identity as a psychol- ously the right of psychologists to lead personal lives free
ogist is irrevocably bound up with one’s personal of oversight from APA. There is something very wrong,
commitments. however, if psychologists drink to intoxication in front of
The Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (Ca- clients who abuse alcohol and their first thought is “Can I
nadian Psychological Association, 2000), like our own be disciplined under the APA Ethics Code?” Using a less
APA Ethics Code, explicitly states that it applies only to extreme example, we know a psychologist who typically
activities that one engages in as a psychologist. However, avoids going to a particular coffee shop because a psycho-
the Canadian Psychological Association ethics code goes therapy client frequents the shop and, in the view of the
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

on to say the following: psychologist, there are transference issues that might make
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

such visits problematic. No one doubts that the psycholo-

Personal behavior becomes a concern of the discipline only if it is
of such a nature that it undermines public trust in the discipline as gist has a right to go to the coffee shop. It is scarcely
a whole or if it raises questions about the psychologist’s ability to plausible that the Code would constrain behavior in such a
carry out appropriately his or her responsibilities as a psycholo- circumstance. The psychologist’s perspective is that this
gist. (Section: Relationship of Code to Personal Behavior) intersection between the personal (“I would like to visit this
coffee shop”) and the professional (“My client frequents
Thus, it appears that under certain conditions, the the shop and my professional judgment leads me to think
Canadian Code of Ethics might be applicable to personal that my going might interfere with therapy at this junc-
behavior. Relatedly, it makes the following statement: “In ture”) calls for sacrificing personal choice.6 The personal
some cases, resolution [of an ethical dilemma] might be a value of freedom to go to a particular coffee shop is ordered
matter of personal conscience” (Canadian Psychological and graded, in part, as an outgrowth of a professional value.
Association, 2000, Section: When Principles Conflict). The We believe that psychologists frequently make such
code goes on to say that decision-making processes involv- choices. In such circumstances, values as psychologists are
ing personal conscience must bear public scrutiny. Despite fused with more personal values. Such fusion strengthens
this fact, and although common sense would tell us that all psychologists’ identities, contributes to a feeling of whole-
ethical decisions are at least partially informed by our own ness, and brings satisfaction as they pursue in their after-
conscience or moral standards, the fact that the ethics code work lives the same values they uphold during the work-
of the Canadian Psychological Association explicitly day.
brings into its formal structure a role for personal con-
science within the professional arena at least indirectly What Might Impact the Tilt a Behavior Takes
suggests that one’s personal life and one’s professional life Toward Either the Personal or the
must at times be intertwined. Philosophically, this position Professional?
is consistent with the discussion above describing feminist Despite our comments above about the importance of fo-
ethics. cusing on the appropriate integration of the personal and
Interrogating the Boundary the professional, we understand that psychologists at times
may want more clarity about whether a behavior tilts to-
We now pose three questions, and make related comments, ward the professional or toward the personal. We empha-
which we believe help interrogate this boundary between size that when a behavior is ambiguous enough to be near
the personal and the professional. Space does not permit a the personal–professional boundary, we seek to know the
detailed discussion of these items. What follows is not tilt the behavior is taking rather than aiming for a catego-
meant to provide definitive answers but rather is to be rization. Our overall bias is to help sensitize psychologists
thought of as a set of beginning heuristics as we think about to situations in which the welfare of clients, students,
this boundary. research participants, or even the public at large might be at
risk. Whether such welfare is at risk is by no means the sole
Why Is It Important to Think About This
determinant of whether a behavior is to be considered
Boundary?
professional. At the same time, we believe that psycholo-
Perhaps one answer that comes to mind when this question gists should proceed with great caution when the behavior
is asked can be found in the APA Ethics Code (and dis-
cussed above), namely, that one will not be charged with an 5
Ethics Code violation (or at least will not be found guilty of Copyright 2000 by the Feminist Therapy Institute, Inc., 912 Five
Islands Road, Georgetown, ME 04548.
one) if the behavior in question is deemed personal. So, 6
We leave aside the questions of whether the psychologist’s judg-
psychologists have a vested interest in this boundary and ment is correct or not and whether the psychologist is actually avoiding
obviously so does the APA Ethics Committee. More the coffee shop because of countertransference issues or out of self-care.

May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist 331

 under consideration is somewhat personal but poses signif- role of self-deception in moral failures. If self-deception is
icant risk of harming or seriously confusing those with such a danger, then surely a portion of the antidote is
whom they work. Such behavior that is repeated or done in self-reflection and self-knowledge.
a highly public manner bears special scrutiny. Third, lifelong personal development of the psychol-
Drawing on the contents of the ethics codes discussed ogist is crucial. Personal problems and conflicts (see APA,
above, the examples cited, and on heuristic guides pub- 2002, Standard 2.06) are recognized as ongoing threats to
lished on multiple relationships (e.g., Anderson & Kitch- effective professionalism. Impairment continues to chal-
ener, 1998; Gottlieb, 1993), we suggest a series of ques- lenge psychologists both at the practical and at the concep-
tions that might be asked to help determine whether an tual level. Personal development of psychologists seems
action is tilting toward the professional: (a) Does the be- like a reasonable tool in the profession’s struggles with
havior, on its face, seem at least partially professional? (b) impairment.
Is there a high probability that students, research partici-
pants, or clients will be directly, significantly, and nega-
Summary and Recommendations
tively affected? (c) Is the action under discussion linked to We have outlined a number of issues that both help create,
a role played by psychologists? (d) Has a client, student, or and that emanate from, the tensions between a professional
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

research participant expressed confusion about whether the code of ethics and the personal behavior of an association’s
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

behavior is personal or professional? (e) Is there a high members. A code of ethics is a consensus document and it
probability that the action will be viewed or discovered by is unlikely, given the great diversity of culture in the United
research participants, students, or clients currently receiv- States, that there can be standards for personal behavior
ing services? (f) Does the action threaten the credibility of about which psychologists will all agree. Even attempting
the psychologist or the field of psychology? (g) Given the to ban something as odious as personal hate speech often
opportunity, did the psychologist fail to clarify that the raises constitutional issues and serious disagreement
action was a personal one? (h) Was the behavior repeated, among stakeholders. Furthermore, there will always be
especially if the answer to one of the first four questions some disagreement about the boundary between profes-
was yes? sional and personal behavior. For these boundary areas,
Although not listed as one of the guiding questions, context and detail are extremely important. For example,
we would also note that if the behavior seems likely to what might constitute personal behavior in a large urban
violate the spirit or letter of either the Ethical Standards, the setting might constitute professional behavior in a small
Ethical Principles, or any APA guidelines, obviously this community. In part reflecting the tradition in the United
should be a signal to engage in further thoughtful analysis, States of an emphasis on personal freedom, and the con-
even if all other indicators suggest that the behavior is comitant difficulty of achieving even rough consensus
personal. It is important to emphasize that answers to these about applying ethical standards to private behavior, we are
questions, as noted above, do not provide an automatic generally supportive of the idea that APA Ethical Standards
categorization. Rather, they provide a framework to help should apply only to professional role behavior.
think about the degree to which a behavior might be slip- We have suggested a number of ways in which indi-
ping into the professional realm. viduals and the field should approach this dilemma. We
have suggested one specific possibility for an addition to
What Are the Implications of a Fuzzy our Ethics Code—namely that of considering a standard
Boundary? that more directly addresses one’s affirmative duty to clar-
We briefly highlight three implications. First, issues of ify when one is speaking for one’s personal self and when
character (see discussion above) must surely count in se- one is speaking as a professional. Such a standard can be
lecting and training future psychologists. If psychologists found in the ethics codes of the Canadian Psychological
cannot always distinguish between the personal and the Association, the American Counseling Association, and the
professional, and assuming that there is a reciprocal rela- American Psychiatric Association. Furthermore, we have
tionship between elements of the two domains, then how proposed that psychologists examine the tilt of their behav-
psychologists select students for graduate school becomes ior when they find themselves in the gray area. We have
critical. They must select individuals whose character in- emphasized the need for self-reflection and personal devel-
cludes qualities such as truthfulness, personal responsibil- opment. Additionally, we have recommended that training
ity, and integrity. Such character helps ensure ethical be- programs use selection procedures that take into consider-
havior whether one is operating in the personal or in the ation character traits, and we have suggested that programs
professional realm or somewhere in between. should emphasize the importance of aspirational principles.
Second, training in ethics in graduate school should Finally, we would like to propose an idea that would
emphasize not just obeying the standards in the Ethics make no change in the standards to which psychologists are
Code but should encourage behavior that is consistent with held but that would make clear the investment psycholo-
broader aspirational principles. Furthermore, because the gists have in ethical behavior beyond the borders of their
personal and the professional do so often become inter- professional lives. We propose that the APA consider
twined, a stance of self-reflection and self-knowledge amending the Introduction and Applicability portion of the
should be modeled and fostered in graduate programs. Ethics Code so that the General Principles, which are
Among others, Kant (e.g., see Potter, 2002) emphasized the aspirational (not enforceable), can be explicitly discussed

332 May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist

 as applying to all areas of a member’s life, not just to their Canadian Psychological Association. (2000). Canadian code of ethics for
professional role behaviors. Our proposal is founded on psychologists (3rd ed.). Retrieved April 18, 2004, from http://www
.cpa.ca/ethics2000.html
two fundamental assumptions: (a) It is often difficult to Canter, M. B., Bennett, B. E., Jones, S. E., & Nagy, T. F. (1994). Ethics
distinguish between what is personal and what is profes- for psychologists: A commentary on the APA ethics code. Washington,
sional. Especially in these gray areas, it would be reassur- DC: American Psychological Association.
ing to know that at least some portion of the Code ad- Douglas, W. O. (n.d.). Justice William O. Douglas quotes. Retrieved
April 12, 2004, from http://quotes.liberty-tree.ca/quotes.nsf/
dressed the behavior even if that portion were not QuotesByCatPerson!ReadForm&RestrictToCategory⫽Justice⫹William
enforceable. (b) There are some broad aspirational values ⫹O.⫹Douglas
about which psychologists can attain rough consensus as Edwards, J. R., & Rothbard, N. P. (2000). Mechanisms linking work and
applying to their personal behavior. family: Clarifying the relationship between work and family constructs.
Under APA’s current Ethics Code, once a behavior Academy of Management Review, 25, 178 –199.
Enns, C. Z. (1993). Twenty years of feminist counseling and therapy:
has been defined as personal rather than professional, the From naming biases to implementing multifaceted practice. The Coun-
entire Ethics Code falls silent. However, APA already has seling Psychologist, 21, 3– 87.
in place a mechanism for potentially disciplining members Feminist Therapy Institute. (2000). Feminist therapy code of ethics
whose personal behavior leads to a felony conviction. (Rev. ed.). Retrieved March 25, 2005, from http://www
.feministtherapyinstitute.org/ethics.htm
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Therefore, the issue is not really whether APA is in the Fisher, C. B. (2003). Decoding the ethics code: A practical guide for
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

business of making judgments about personal behavior, psychologists. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
because under certain circumstances, it certainly does make Fisher, C. B., & Younggren, J. N. (1997). The value and utility of the 1992
such judgments. We are deeply sympathetic with the argu- ethics code. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 28,
ment, rooted in this country’s historical emphasis on the 582–592.
Franklin Prescriptions, Inc. v. New York Times Co., 267 F. Supp. 2d 425
right to be let alone, that professional codes of ethics (E.D. Pa. 2003).
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time, one of the strengths and attractive features of the porary life. New York: Basic Books.
APA Code is that it does draw a distinction between what Getzels, J. W., & Guba, E. G. (1954). Role, role conflict, effectiveness.
American Sociological Review, 19, 164 –175.
is enforceable and what is aspirational. This does not mean Glenn, D. (2004, November 5). Anthropologists move meeting to avoid
that everyone in APA completely agrees with these aspi- picket lines. The Chronicle of Higher Education, p. A18.
rational principles; but for the most part, these principles Gottlieb, M. C. (1993). Avoiding exploitive dual relationships: A deci-
are written in a way that makes them palatable to most sion-making model. Psychotherapy, 30, 41– 48.
psychologists. They are undergirded by values of such Jacobson, J. (2004, November 5). NCAA penalizes University of Wash-
ington for football coach’s gambling. The Chronicle of Higher Educa-
obvious appeal (e.g., justice, integrity, respect for people’s tion, p. A35.
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Johnson, W. B., & Campbell, C. D. (2004). Character and fitness require-
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Correction to Ossorio and Duster (2005)

In the article “Race and Genetics: Controversies in Biomedical, Behavioral, and Forensic Sciences,” by Pilar Ossorio and Troy Duster
(American Psychologist, 2005, Vol. 60, No. 1, pp. 115–128), Table 1 contains several errors due to an editorial mistake. In the Population
and Incarceration columns, the data for Blacks and Whites were transposed. In addition, decimal points were omitted from the data in
the Rate (%) of Incarceration per Population columns. The correct version of Table 1 appears below:

Table 1
Incarceration Rates by Race
Rate (%) of incarceration per
Populationa Incarcerationb population Approximate
ratio (Black
Year Total White Black Total White Black Total White Black to White)

1933 125,579 112,815 12,764 137,997 102,118 31,739 0.11 0.09 0.25 2.5:1
1950 151,684 135,814 15,870 178,065 115,742 60,542 0.12 0.09 0.38 4:1
1960 180,671 160,023 19,006 226,065 138,070 83,747 0.13 0.09 0.44 5:1
1970 204,879 179,491 22,787 198,831 115,322 81,520 0.10 0.06 0.36 6:1
1989 248,240 208,961 30,660 712,563 343,550 334,952 0.29 0.16 1.09 7:1
1995 263,168 218,149 33,095 1,126,287 454,961 546,005 0.43 0.21 1.65 8:1
a
Total population of the United States by ethnicity (in thousands). Data are from U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (1975, 1976, 1997).
b
Total number of prison population by ethnicity. Data are from U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (1986, Table 3–31; 1997).

334 May–June 2005 ● American Psychologist