Module 5 GE 8 – Ethics

Universal Values: Concepts, Perspectives,

and Practices
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After this module, the students are expected to:
1. Identify universal values.
2. Explain why universal values are necessary for human survival.

DISCUSSION
HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER IS DEVELOPED?
A value is a universal value if it has the same value or worth for all, or
almost all, people. Spheres of human value encompass morality, aesthetic
preference, human traits, human endeavor, and social order. Whether universal value
exist is an unproven conjecture of moral philosophy and cultural anthropology,
though it is clear that certain values are found across a great diversity of human
cultures, such as primary attributes of physical attractiveness (e.g youthfulness,
symmetry) whereas other attributes (e.g slenderness) are subject to aesthetic
relativism as governed by cultural norms. This objection is not limited to
aesthetics. Relativism concerning morals is known as moral relativism, a
philosophical stance opposed to the existence of universal moral values.
Moral character or character is an evaluation of an individual’s stable moral
qualities. The concept of character can imply a variety of attributes including
the existence or lack of virtues such as empathy, courage, fortitude, honesty and
loyalty, or of good behaviors or habits. Moral character primarily refers to the
assemblage of qualities of moral behaviors to which a social group adheres can be
said to unite and define it culturally as distinct from others. Psychologist
Lawrence Pervin defines moral character as “a disposition to express behavior in
consistent patterns of functions across a range of situations”.
The word “character” is derived from the ancient Greek word “character”, is
referring to a mark impressed upon a coin. Later it came to mean a point by which
one thing was told apart from others. There are two approaches when dealing with
moral conduct. It is a test of proper behavior and determining what is right and
wrong. Applied ethics involves specific and controversial issues along with a moral
choice, and tend to involve situations where people are either for or against the
issue.
Module 5 GE 8 – Ethics

THE SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of
a psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget.
Kohlberg began to work on this topic while a psychology graduate student at the
University of Chicago in 1958 and expanded upon the theory throughout his life.
The six (6) stages of moral development are grouped into three levels of
morality: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.

PRE-CONVENTIONAL
This level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although
adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the
morality of an action by its direct consequence. The pre-conventional level
consists of the first and second stages of moral development and is solely concerned
with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with pre-conventional morality has
not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or
wrong but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions
may bring.
Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct
consequences of their actions on themselves. For example, an action is perceived
as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. “The last time I did that I
got spanked, so I will not do it again.” The worse the punishment for the act is,
the more “bad” the act is perceived to be. This could give rise to the inference
that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is
“egocentric”, lacking recognition that others’ point of view are different from
one’s own. there is “deference to superior power or prestige”.
Stage two (self-interest driven) expresses the “what’s in it for me” position,
in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in
their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one’s
reputation or relationships to groups of people. Stage two reasoning shows a limited
interest in the needs of others, but only to point where it might further the
individual’s own interest. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “You scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours”
mentality. The lack of a societal perspective in the pre-conventional level is
quite different from the social contract (stage five), as all actions at this stage
have the purpose of serving the individual’s own needs or interests. For the stage
two theorist, the world’s perspective is often seen as morally relative.

CONVENTIONAL
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and
adults. To reason in a conventional way is to judge the morality of action by
comparing them to society’s views and expectations. The conventional level consists
of the third and fourth stages of moral development. Conventional morality is
characterized by an acceptance of society’s conventions concerning right or wrong.
At this level and individual obeys rules and follows society’s norms even when
there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness
is seldom questioned.
Module 5 GE 8 – Ethics

Stage three (good intentions as determined by social consensus), the self

enters society by conforming to social standards. Individuals are receptive to
approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society’s views. They try to be
a “good boy” or “good girl” to live up to these expectations, having learned that
being regarded as good benefits the self. Stage three reasoning may judge the
morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person’s
relationship, which now begin to include things like respect, gratitude, and the
“golden rule”. “I want to be liked and thought well of; apparently, not being
naughty makes people like me.” Conforming to the rules for one’s social role is
not yet fully understood. The intentions of actors play a more significant role in
reasoning at this stage; one may feel more forgiving if one thinks that “they mean
well”.
Stage four (authority and social obedience driven), it is important to obey
laws, dictums, and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining
a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. A central idea or ideals often
prescribe what is right and wrong. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone
would- thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. When
someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant
factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones. Most
active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.

POST-CONVENTIONAL
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked
by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and
that the individual’s own perspective may take precedence over society’s view;
individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-
conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles- principles that
typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. People
who exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable
mechanisms- ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human
rights. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question.
Because, post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a
situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six can be
confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.
Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different
opinions, rights and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as
unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather
than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed
when necessary to meet “the greatest good for the greatest number of people”. This
is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic
government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based on
abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only in as
far as they are grounded om justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it
an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social
contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not reached
hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an absolute way,
Module 5 GE 8 – Ethics

as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. This involves an individual imagining what

they would do in another’s shoes, if they believed what that other person imagines
to be true. The resulting consensus is the action taken. In this way action is
never a means but always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right,
and not because it avoids punishment, is in their best interest, expected, legal
or previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he
found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.
Tuoro College Researcher Arthur P. Sullivan helped support the accuracy pf
Kohlebrg’s first five stages through data analysis, but could not provide
statistical evidence for the existence of Kohlberg’s sixth stage. Therefore, it is
difficult to define/recognize as a concrete stage in moral development.