STUDY NOTE BOOK

EDUC 70

STUDY
NOTEBOOK
EDUC 70

CASTRO, TRISHA MAE B.

BSED ENGLISH
METACOGNITION AND
METACOGNITIVE
KNOWLEDGE
  Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one’s thinking. More precisely, it refers to the
processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one’s understanding and performance.
Metacognition includes a critical awareness of a) one’s thinking and learning and b) oneself as a
thinker and learner.

 Initially studied for its development in young children (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1985),
researchers soon began to look at how experts display metacognitive thinking and how, then,
these thought processes can be taught to novices to improve their learning (Hatano & Inagaki,
1986). In How People Learn, the National Academy of Sciences’ synthesis of decades of
research on the science of learning, one of the three key findings of this work is the
effectiveness of a “‘metacognitive’ approach to instruction” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,
2000, p. 18).

 Metacognitive practices increase students’ abilities to transfer or adapt their learning to new
contexts and tasks (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 12; Palincsar & Brown, 1984;
Scardamalia et al., 1984; Schoenfeld, 1983, 1985, 1991). They do this by gaining a level of
awareness above the subject matter: they also think about the tasks and contexts of different
learning situations and themselves as learners in these different contexts. When Pintrich (2002)
asserts that “Students who know about the different kinds of strategies for learning, thinking,
and problem solving will be more likely to use them” (p. 222), notice the students must “know
about” these strategies, not just practice them. As Zohar and David (2009) explain, there must
be a “conscious meta-strategic level of H[igher] O[rder] T[hinking]” (p. 179).

There are different types of metacognition. These include:

Metacognitive knowledge – this refers to a student’s awareness of what they do or don’t know about
their cognitive processes. It includes knowing their strengths, weaknesses, and identifying gaps in their
knowledge. This type of metacognition also refers to knowledge of skills that students may use to solve
a problem.

Metacognitive regulation – this refers to the different strategies that students may use to manage their
thoughts and emotions. This includes how well they plan, monitor and evaluate their performance. For
example, identifying that a particular strategy is not giving them the results that they want and deciding
to try a different one is an instance of metacognitive regulation.

Is metacognition the same as “thinking about your thinking”?

“Thinking about your thinking” only describes part of metacognition, in that it describes becoming
more aware of your thought processes. Metacognition takes things a step further as it encompasses the
regulation of these thoughts. At this level of self-awareness, students are able to actively channel their
thoughts and alter their behaviours to enhance attainment.
There is no one set way to improve students’ metacognition. Each student may respond
differently to different strategies. However, we have compiled a few tactics you could introduce
in the classroom to kick-start your students’ metacognitive thinking:

 Identify what does and doesn’t work well – Working alongside students to see what
could be improved and what needs to be sustained will help both groups in setting
targets. It will also help build a positive student-teacher relationship.

 Reflective thinking – Ask them what they would do differently next time if they
experience a setback, failure, or make a mistake. This will help increase their self-
awareness - a key aspect of metacognitive thinking.

 Build on their reflexive thinking – This type of thinking involves becoming aware of
biases and prejudices that sometimes cloud our judgement. Encourage discussions in the
classroom about society and moral dilemmas, and this will enable students to challenge
their own biases and become adaptive thinkers.

Metacognition and self-regulation are considered key competencies for successful learning in a
wide range of domains, including education ( Efklides, 2014 ; Gomes, Golino, & Menezes, 2014
; Panadero, 2017 ; Veenman, 2016 ; Veenman, Wilhelm, & Beishuizen, 2004 ). Furthermore, to
better understand metacognition requires a deeper look at self-regulation, and the literature often
discusses metacognition and self-regulation concurrently (e.g., Efklides, 2008; 2011 ; Hacker,
Dunlosky, & Graesser, 2009 ; Pintrich, 2004 ; Schraw et al., 2006 ; Winne & Nesbit, 2010 ;
Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011 ). This study, therefore, engages metacognition and self-regulation.
This research, accurately, lies within a motivational self-determination perspective, since,
although the relationship of metacognition and self-regulated learning is treated differently, it
typically grounded in a social cognitive perspective (see Efklides, 2014 ; Veenman, van Hout-
Wolters, & Afflerbach, 2006 ; for an overview).

Metacognitive skills/strategies are the “deliberate use of strategies (i.e. procedural knowledge) in
order to control cognition” ( Efklides, 2008 ). Metacognitive regulation refers to “metacognitive
activities that help control one’s thinking or learning” ( Schraw & Moshman, 1995: 354 ).
Regulation of cognition consists of three essential components: planning, monitoring, and
evaluating ( Schraw, 1998 ; Tarricone, 2011 ; Veenman et al., 2006 ).
According to Pintrich (2002):

"Metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge of general strategies that might be used for
different tasks, knowledge of the conditions under which these strategies might be used,
knowledge of the extent to which the strategies are effective, and knowledge of self (Flavell,
1979; Pintrich et al., 2000; Schneider & Pressley, 1997).

For example, learners can know about different strategies for reading a textbook as well as
strategies to monitor and check their comprehension as they read. Learners also activate
relevant knowledge about their own strengths and weaknesses pertaining to the task as well as
their motivation for completing the task. Suppose learners realise they already know a fair
amount about the topic of a chapter in a textbook (which they may perceive as strength), and
that they are interested in this topic (which may enhance their motivation). This realisation
could lead them to change their approach to the task, such as adjusting their reading approach
or rate.

Finally, learners also can activate the relevant situational or conditional knowledge for solving a
problem in a certain context (e.g., in this classroom; on this type of test; in this type of real-life
situation, etc.). They may know, for example, that multiple-choice tests require only recognition
of the correct answers, not actual recall of the information, as required in essay tests. This type
of metacognitive knowledge might influence how they subsequently prepare for an
examination".

By a metacognitive theory we mean a theory of cognition. Metacognitive theories are a subset

of theories of mind in that the class of all theories of mind includes, but is not limited to,
theories of cognition. Theories of mind address mental phenomena such as emotion,
personality, and so forth (Astington, 1993; Flavell, 1992; Moore and Frye, 1991).
Metacognitive theories are those theories of mind that focus on cognitive aspects of the mind.
In theorizing about cognition, individuals create and synthesize metacognitive knowledge. It is
crucial, however, to distinguish (a) the structured knowledge that comprises a theory from (b)
the phenomena the theory is about. All theories are cognitive in that they are structures of
knowledge, but not all theories are about cognition. Metacognitive theories are theories about
cognition. As such, they comprise metacognitive knowledge but they are not necessarily about
such knowledge. Rather, theories about metacognition would constitute meta-metacognitive
knowledge. Such theories represent only a subset of metacognitive theories (see Bunge, 1972;
Byrnes, 1992 for related discussions).
METACOGNITIVE
INSTRUCTION
Principles of Metacognitive

Instruction developing metacognitive thinking among students needs the creativity of the
teacher. Using metacognitive strategies facilitates how learners learn. As studies have
proven, metacognitive teaching practices enhance the learners' capabilities to transfer their
competencies in leaning new tasks in new contexts (Palinscar & Brown, 1984; Schoenfeld, 1991).

Moreover, metacognitive teaching practices make learners aware of their strengths and
weaknesses as they learn. Knowing their strengths give them the confidence to pursue a task.
Knowing their weaknesses lead them to strategize on how to overcome their limited knowledge and
how to source out the needed information for the task.

To effectively develop metacognitive skills among learners,Veenman et al. (2012) recommend three
fundamental principles

Principles for effective metacognitive instruction

Cognizant of these principles, teachers can plan their lessons well to ensure that as the learners
undergo classroom activities, they met cognize their learning. Leading learners to think metacognitive
gradually leads them to become self-regulated learners.

Metacognitive Teaching

 Varied metacognitive strategies to teach learners to undergo metacognitive thinking have been
proven effective. These include the following:
1. Graphic organizers are visual illustrations displaying the relationships
between facts, information, ideas, or concepts. Through the visual displays, learners
are guided in their thinking as they fill in the needed information. One good example is
the KWHLAQ chart, a1Metacognitive instruction should be embedded in the context
of the task at hand in order to allow for connecting task-specific condition knowledge
(the IF-side) to the procedural knowledge of "How" the skill is applied in the context
of the task (the THEN-side of production rules).2Learners should be informed about
the benefit of applying metacognitive skills in order to make them exert the initial
extra cffort.3Instruction and training should be stretched over time, thus allowing for
the formation of production rules and ensuring the smooth and maintained application
of metacognitive skills.

variant of the KWL chart. It is useful during the planning, monitoring, and evaluating phasesof
2. Think aloud helps learners to think aloud about their thinking as they undertake a task. The learners
report their thoughts while they do it. With the help of a more knowledgeable learner, the errors in
thinking and the inadequacy of declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge can be pointed out,
giving the learner increased self-awareness during learning.

3. Journalizing can be used together with think aloud. In a journal, learners write what was in their
mind when they selected an answer and the reasons for their choice. Later, they write about their
realizations where they were wrong and what should have been considered in answering. Finally, they
resolve on what to do the next time a similar situation/problem arises.

4. Error analysis is a "systematic approach for using feedback met cognitively to improve one's future
performance” (Hopeman, 2002). Asking the learners where they are correct and wrong
provides avenues for them to evaluate their thinking. It results in a learner's metacognitive knowledge of
own mistakes and making use of them to improve future performance.

5. Wrapper is an activity that fosters learners' metacognition before, during, and after a class. In a
reading class, before the selection is read, the teacher asks about the theme of the selection based on the
story title. While reading the selection, learners are asked if their assumptions were true. After reading,
the learners are asked what made them comprehended not comprehend the story.

6. Peer mentoring is a proven metacognitive strategy as many learners learn best when studying
with peers who are more informed and skilled than them. Novice learners, by observing their
more skilled peers, can learn from the metacognitive strategies of their peer mentors. The use of
cooperative learning strategies is helpful toward this goal.

EXPERIENCE

 Teaching metacognitive thinking strategies to learners is a must if teachers want them to be self-
regulated learners. Several studies have shown the benefits of metacognitive instruction.
Goh(2008) cites her study (Liu & Goh, 2006) that proved metacognitive knowledge can be
increased through classroom instruction. The work of Goh and Hu (2013) demonstrated a causal
relationship between metacognitive instruction and a statistically significant
improvement in listening performance. In another study, students' use of metacognitive skills
in problem solving-with five main processes that encompass an emerging substantive
theory, namely: understanding the problem through sense making; organizing and
constructing useful information from the problem; planning solution strategies by identifying,
conjecturing, and selecting strategies; executing the plan; checking the process and strategies
undertaken, and reflecting and extending the problem-has facilitated the development of
Filipino students' problem-solving heuristics (Tan& Limjap,2018).
 PAVLOV’S
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning through
association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked
together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. John Watson proposed that the process
of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human
psychology.

If you pair a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that already triggers an
unconditioned response (UR) that neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a
conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response. Everything from speech to
emotional responses was simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the
existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson believed that all individual differences in behaviour were
due to different experiences of learning. He famously said:

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in
and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might
select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his
talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924, p.
104).

How Classical Conditioning Works; there are three stages of classical conditioning. At each stage the
stimuli and responses are given special scientific terms:

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an
organism. In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behaviour /
response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been
taught. In this respect, no new behaviour has been learned yet. For example, a stomach virus (UCS)
would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another example, a perfume (UCS) could create a
response of happiness or desire (UCR). This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a
person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc. The neutral
stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned
stimulus.

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). For
example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS).
Also, perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS). For classical conditioning to be
effective, the conditioned stimulus should occur before the unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it, or
during the same time. Thus, the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned
stimulus. In some cases, conditioning may take place if the NS occurs after the UCS (backward
conditioning), but this normally disappears quite quickly. The most important aspect of the conditioning
stimulus is the it helps the organism predict the coming of the unconditional stimulus.

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create
a new conditioned response (CR).For example, a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume
(UCS) is now found attractive (CR). Also, chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person was sick with
a virus (UCS) now produces a response of nausea (CR).
 Principles of Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus
(NS) is a stimulus that initially does not evoke a
response until it is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus. For example, in
Pavlov’s experiment the bell was the neutral
stimulus, and only produced a response when it
was paired with food.
Unconditioned Stimulus In classical conditioning, the unconditioned
stimulus is a feature of the environment that
causes a natural and automatic unconditioned
response. In Pavlov’s study the unconditioned
stimulus was food.
Unconditioned Response In classical conditioning, an unconditioned
response is an unlearned response that occurs
automatically when the unconditioned stimulus
is presented. Pavlov showed the existence of
the unconditioned response by presenting a dog
with a bowl of food and the measuring its
salivary secretions
Conditioned Stimulus In classical conditioning, the conditioned
stimulus (CS) is a substitute stimulus that
triggers the same response in an organism as an
unconditioned stimulus. Simply put, a
conditioned stimulus makes an organism react
to something because it is associated with
something else. For example, Pavlov’s dog
learned to salivate at the sound of a bell.

Conditioned Response In classical conditioning, the conditioned response

(CR) is the learned response to the previously
neutral stimulus. In Ivan Pavlov's experiments in
classical conditioning, the dog's salivation was the
conditioned response to the sound of a bell.
Acquisition In the initial period of learning, acquisition
describes when an organism learns to connect a
neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
Extinction In psychology, extinction refers to gradual
weakening of a conditioned response by breaking
the association between the conditioned and the
unconditioned stimuli.
For example, when the bell was repeatedly ringed
and no food presented Pavlov’s dog gradually
stopped salivating at the sound of the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery is a is a phenomenon of
Pavlovian conditioning that refers to the return of a
conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a
period of time following extinction. For example,
when Pavlov waited a few days after extinguishing
the conditioned response, and then rang the bell
once more, the dog salivated again.
• Classical conditioning emphasizes the importance of learning from the environment, and supports
nurture over nature. However, it is limiting to describe behaviour solely in terms of either nature or
nurture, and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behaviour. It is more likely that
behaviour is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment). The behaviourist
approach has been used in the treatment of phobias, systematic desensitisation. The individual with the
phobia is taught relaxation techniques and then makes a hierarchy of fear from the least frightening to the
most frightening features of the phobic object. He then is presented with the stimuli in that order and
learns to associate (classical conditioning) the stimuli with a relaxation response. This is counter
conditioning. The process of classical conditioning can probably account for aspects of certain other
mental disorders. For example, in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) sufferers tend to show
classically conditioned responses to stimuli present at the time of the traumatising event (Charney et al.,
1993). But since not everyone exposed to the traumatic event develops PTSD, other factors must be
involved, such as individual differences in people’s appraisal of events as stressors and the recovery
environment, such as family and support groups. There have been many laboratory demonstrations of
human participants acquiring behaviour through the process of classical conditioning. It is relatively easy
to classically condition and extinguishes conditioned responses, such as the eye-blink and galvanic skin
responses.

• However, applying classical conditioning to our understanding of complex human behavior such
as memory, thinking, reasoning or problem-solving has proved more problematic. In normal adults the
conditioning process can apparently be overridden by instructions: simply telling participants that the
unconditioned stimulus will not occur causes an instant loss of the conditioned response, which would
otherwise extinguish only slowly (Davey, 1983). Most participants in an experiment are aware of the
experimenter’s contingencies (the relationship between stimuli and responses) and in the absence of such
awareness often fail to show evidence of conditioning (Brewer, 1974). There are also important
differences between very young children or those with severe learning difficulties and older children and
adults regarding their behavior in a variety of operant conditioning and discrimination learning
experiments. These seem largely attributable to language development (Dugdale & Lowe, 1990). This
suggests that people have rather more efficient, language-based forms of learning at their disposal than
just the laborious formation of associations between a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.
Even behavior therapy, one of the apparently more successful applications of conditioning principles to
human behavior, has given way to cognitive– behavior therapy (Mackintosh, 1995). A strength of
classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific. This is because it's based on empirical evidence
carried out by controlled experiments. For example, Pavlov (1902) showed how classical conditioning
could be used to make a dog salivate to the sound of a bell. Supporters of a reductionist approach say that
it is scientific. Breaking complicated behaviors down to small parts means that they can be scientifically
tested. However, some would argue that the reductionist view lacks validity. Thus, while reductionism is
useful, it can lead to incomplete explanations.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 2

Write a two- Paragraph essay one of the principles of effective metacognitive instruction. Cite a
classroom situation to illustrate your argument.

Good Practice Gives Prompt Feedback, Students might need help in assessing their existing
knowledge and competence having students think about what they know and what they don’t know
helps them focus on their own learning. In class then, provide students frequent opportunities to
perform and to receive constructive feedback on their performance. At various points during the
semester students need opportunities to reflect on what they have learned, what they still need to
know, and how they might assess themselves. Example: Establish a means for feedback. Give prompt
feedback when students ask questions (in class) and let them know when you have received their
work—this is especially helpful when students submit work electronically. Example: Provide an
opportunity for students to reflect on course content through a Web-based discussion forum in which
you offer feedback. At various points during the semester students need opportunities to reflect on
what they have learned, what they still need to know, and how they might assess themselves.
Example: Use the end of the class period for a one-minute paper in which students write responses to
one or two questions related to content covered during the class period. This feedback will inform you
of students’ comprehension which can be used to plan subsequent class periods. Good Practice
Emphasizes Time on Task, Time plus energy equals learning. Learning to use one’s time well is
critical for students and professionals alike. Allocating realistic amounts of time means effective
learning for students and effective teaching for faculty. Example: Establish realistic deadlines, keeping
in mind that many of your students have responsibilities other than your course. Some instructors set
up assignment and exam dates during the first class meeting where you are able to get to know your
students’ needs.
ACTIVITY 1:

1. Why is metacognition important to a teacher and a learner?

Students of all ages and skill levels benefit from having the ability to comprehend and control their own
thoughts. Students can develop into adaptable, imaginative, and self-directed learners via the application
of metacognitive thinking and methods. In particular, metacognition supports students with special
educational challenges in comprehending their assignments, organizing themselves, and controlling their
own learning. In addition to helping students learn more efficiently, the teaching and support of
metacognitive skills in the classroom enhances cognition in all students, regardless of aptitude. It enables
individuals to become more conscious of how they think and adept at selecting the best thinking
techniques for various learning objectives. The basis for the development of self-regulation, a crucial
requirement for autonomous, self-directed learning, is laid by metacognitive knowledge as well.

2. Is prior knowledge essential in developing metacognitive knowledge? Justify your answer?

We are able to determine when to apply specific problem-solving solutions thanks to metacognition.
With the help of metacognition, we may use our past knowledge to solve an issue or come up with
solutions that will help us finish a task. Metacognition grows gradually as more information is gained via
experience. The process of "thinking about thinking," or metacognition, teaches pupils how to apply
their existing knowledge to enhance their learning. By designing interesting and enjoyable activities,
instructors, especially those who work with young children, can aid students in the development of their
metacognitive abilities k to 12. Activities for these kids should combine auditory, visual, tactile, and
associational learning in order to keep them interested. As an illustration, if a first-grade teacher chooses
to read a tale to her students, the text should be vividly illustrated, the language should be appropriate for
the grade level, and the story itself should be engaging. At some point during the narrative, the instructor
should stop and ask the students to guess what will happen. The kids ought to should be able to illustrate
and write their favourite scene at the conclusion of the narrative.

3. Using available tools, read about organization, rehearsal, and elaboration strategies as
learner’s aid to enhance the content of the met memory. With the diverse types of Learners
in the classroom, how would you use these strategies to benefit your learner’s?

Finding inventive ways to teach varied learners seems to be an on-going pursuit for classroom instructors
and other professionals. This umbrella term is used to describe many distinct sorts of pupils depending
on factors such as their financial background, native language, academic prowess, race, or culture. The
word generally refers to a student who, with regard to their education, varies in some manner from the
rest of pupils. The majority of teachers have developed at least one lesson that they were excited to
teach. The children either didn't understand it or refused to engage when they brought it into the
classroom later. This illustrates a teaching principle that should be explained to all novices: an excellent
lesson that is designed to meet state criteria is insufficient. Keeping pupils interested and involved may
be difficult. This is particularly true for kids who have difficulty concentrating, speak English as a
second language, or struggle with learning. Utilize active learning techniques. Organize by student
learning rather than ability; in my experience, doing so has negative effects. The data is clear that,
generally, it holds difficult students where they are and helps nothing to advance kids of the intermediate
ability to higher levels. It can make things a bit easier at the teacher's table. How therefore should we
divide up the students? A further extension of this is to group students who learn in similar ways, such as
visual learners with visual learners, auditory learners with auditory learners, etc. I've discovered that
using mixed-ability groups can promote learning, especially when students get the chance to coach or
teach their peers. Making this change can have a significant impact on small-group instruction.