Composition of the Atmosphere

Atmosphere: envelope of air surrounding the

earth and bound to the earth by the earth’s
gravitational attraction.

Extends from the surface into space with

decreasing density with height. No real top.
 The atmosphere is really very
shallow compared to the size of
the planet
• Just a thin veneer
• ¾ of the
atmosphere by
mass is in the
lowest 33,000 ft,
roughly 10 km
 Atmospheric Constituents
• Gases
CO2: a greenhouse gas (very effective absorber and emitter in the
infrared).
O3: good in stratosphere (protects from UV), bad near the surface
(corrosive to lungs and more)
SO2: emitted by volcanoes. Atmospheric particles and acid rain
NO2: produced by combustion. Acid rain and smog.
 Variable gases
• Water vapor (~0 to 4%). Critically important!
– Clouds and precipitation
– Important way to move energy around
– Major greenhouse gas!
• Methane (CH4): major greenhouse gas
 Non-Gas Constituents
• Hydrometeors -rain clouds, hail
• Particulates and aerosols
– Aerosol is a liquid or solid dispersed in a gas, usually
air
• Particulates can be
– Inorganic- soil, smoke, dirt, sea salt, volcanic dust,
surface acid aerosol
– Organic- seeds, spores, pollen, bacteria
 Why are particles in the air
important?
• Act as condensation and freezing nuclei!
– Water likes to condense on or freeze on to
particles
• Can absorb or scatter radiation
• Reduce visibility
• Can scatter solar radiation to space: cool planet
• Can impact human health.
– Can irritate lungs, initiate asthma, heart disease
The Origin of the Earth’s
Atmosphere

Still Many Uncertainties ….

 About 4.5 billion
years ago, Earth
formed out of
nebula of gases and
dust that were to
become the solar
system

Small objects--called
planetoids-- accreted or
combined together to build
larger objects…such as planets
 The First Atmosphere
• The early atmosphere would have been similar to the
Sun--mainly hydrogen and helium, but this
atmosphere was lost quickly for at least two reasons:
– (1) The gravity of the modest size earth was not strong
enough to prevent such light gases from escaping to space.
Particularly since the early earth was hot!
– (2) It appears that around 30 million years after the earth’s
formation, it was struck by a large object…the size of
Mars. The result: the origin of the moon and loss of
earth’s early H, He atmosphere.
Formation of Moon from the
Debris of the Collision
 Earth as Hell
• The surface of the earth during this period
was extremely hot with numerous volcanoes
• The earth was under near constant
bombardment by objects of varying sizes
• Slowly, the earth started to cool down and
the second atmosphere began to form.
 Earth’s Second Atmosphere
• A new atmosphere was established by the
outgasing of volcanoes…the mixture of gases was
probably similar to those of today’s volcanoes:
• H20 vapor (roughly 80%)
• CO2 (roughly 10%)
• N2 (few percent)
• Small amounts of CO, HCL, HS (Hydrogen
Sulfide), SO2, CH4 (Methane), Ammonia (NH3),
and other trace gases.
 Earth’s Second Atmosphere
• Virtually no oxygen in that second atmosphere.
• Thus, no ozone layer, so ultraviolet radiation
flooded the earth’s surface.
• With a huge influx of water vapor and the cooling
of the planet, clouds and earth’s oceans formed.
• At that time the sun was about 30% weaker than
today…why didn’t the earth freeze over?
• The apparent reason: so much CO2 so there was a
very strong greenhouse effect.
 The Rise of Oxygen and the Third
Atmosphere
• In the first two billion years of the planet’s evolution,
the atmosphere acquired a small amount of oxygen,
probably by the splitting of water (H20) molecules by
solar radiation.
• The evidence of this oxygen is suggested by minor
rust in some early rocks.
• The oxygen also led to the establishment of an ozone
layer that reduced UV radiation at the surface.
• With the rise of photosynthetic bacteria
(cyanobacteria) and early plants, oxygen levels began
to rise rapidly as did indications of rust in rocks
• Between 2.5 billion years ago to about 500 bya, 02
rose to near current levels.
 The Third Atmosphere
• While O2 was increasing, CO2 decreased
due to several reasons:
• (1) In photosynthesis CO2 is used to
produce organic matter, some of which is
lost to the system (e.g., drops to the bottom
of the ocean or is buried)
• (2) chemical weathering, which removes
CO2
 Chemical Weathering
• H20 + CO2 --> H2CO3 carbonic acid
• CaSiO3 + H2CO3 --> CaCO3 + SiO2 + H20
Silicate Rock Carbonate

• At first this happened without life, but the process

was sped up tremendously by living organisms
• Marine organisms would incorporate carbonate
into their shells, which would fall to the ocean
bottom when they died---thus, removing them
from the system for a long time.
• The bottom line…CO2 was being removed from
the system.
 More Changes
• Sulfur compounds were taken out of the
atmosphere as acid rain and were deposited
on the ground as sulfates.
• N2 gas increased slowly but progressively
since it was relatively inert.
• Current composition of the atmosphere was
established approximately a billion years
ago.
 A Problem
• With lower CO2 levels the earth became more
susceptable to ice ages when solar radiation
decreases due to orbital variations,
• It appears that around 750-550 million years ago
the earth cooled down and became nearly entirely
glaciated.
• Note: one can get into a feedback with snow
reflecting solar radiation, producing cooler
temperatures and more snow, leading to less
radiation, etc.
 How Did We Get UnFrozen?
• Volcanoes were still putting CO2 into the
atmosphere
• Weathering was greatly reduced…since
little liquid water.
• So CO2 increased until the greenhouse
effect was so large the earth warmed up.
• Once warming started it would have
happened very rapidly.
 The Last 500 million Years
• The climate has not been constant, with
warm periods interrupted by ice ages.
• Much of the variability forced by changing
solar radiation due to periodic changes in
the earth’s orbital characteristics and tilt
(Milankovitch cycles) and major volcanic
eruptions (putting out massive CO2 that
caused warming.
 More Snowball Earths?
• Less chance now
• Sun is getting progressively stronger
• Human’s can now stop it (increasing
greenhouse gases)
The Earth has had regular
glaciations and melt
backs…Why?
Atmospheres of Other Planets
Mercury

No Atmosphere
 96% CO2
Sulfuric acid clouds
Surface temp: 900F
(470 C)
Surface pressure:
90 times greater than
earty

Venus
Venus
Beneath
The
Clouds
From
Radar
Earth
 Surface Pressure: ~6 hPa
Mostly (~96%)CO2, small
amounts of H20 vapor
CO2 and H20 polar ice
Lots of dust
Average T: -80F but warmer
near equator in summer
(70F)

Mars
Water once flowed
on the surface
Martian
Clouds
Atmosphere
Mainly
hydrogen
(90%)
and helium

Jupiter

No solid surface
Jupiter’s atmosphere has jets and storms (e.g. red spot)
 75 H2 and 25% HE

Saturn
Neptune

Both Gas Giants (H2 and He)

Uranus
Structure of the Atmosphere
Earth’s Atmosphere Is a Thin Veneer
Earth’s radius is about 6400 km
(3840 miles)

Nearly all of the atmosphere is

contained in the layer from the
surface to 100 km. Habitable
atmosphere only the first 5 km.

So the habitable atmosphere is

only 5/6400 km….00078 ….or
1/1280th of the distance to the
earth’s center. Much thinner than
the peel on an orange.
The Vertical Structure of the
Atmosphere
• The Earth’s atmosphere is made of distinct
layers
• Complex variation of temperature with height
• Main layers to know:
– Troposphere
– Stratosphere
– Mesosphere
– Thermosphere
 Troposphere
• Surface to roughly 10 km (~1000 hPa to ~ 250 hPa)
• ~3/4 of mass of atmosphere in this layer
• Most weather occurs in this layer
• Temperature generally decreases with height in this
layer (by ~6.5C per km, 3.6 F per 1000 ft)
• The top of troposphere is called the tropopause.
Midlatitude jet stream tends to be strongest near the
tropopause.
• Above the tropopause is the stratosphere.
stratosphere

troposphere
 Stratosphere
• 10-50 km above the surface
• Temperature constant or
INCREASING with height
• Stable (not a lot of vertical
mixing) and dry
• Only occasionally get
overshooting tops from
convection pushing into this
layer
 Why constant temperature and
warm with height in stratosphere?
• Absorption of solar radiation by the
stratospheric ozone layer
 Stratospheric Ozone Layer
• Maximum ozone (O3) between 20 and 30 km.
• Protects the surface from harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiation
• Ozone is produced photochemically
A photochemical reaction is a chemical
reaction in which radiation affects the
chemical composition of a substance.

• Simplified photochemical reaction for

ozone
UV +O2 O +O
O2 + O + M O3 + M
O3 + UV O2 + O
• M is some catalyst molecule. This
reaction produces heat at UV is
absorbed . Warms stratosphere.
 Ozone Destruction
• Later is the class we will talk about the destruction of
the ozone layer
• Problems caused by chemicals such as
chloroflurocarbons (e.g., Freon, refrigerants)
• Produced the ozone hole.
• Now being repaired by restrictions on chemical
releases, but some new issues.
 Stratosphere
• Jet aircraft frequently enter the stratosphere,
particularly during winter
• Air becomes drier and sometimes have
ozone in cabin
• Can see the difference…getting above the
clouds
• Stratosphere ends at the stratopause, ~ 1hPa,
50 km
 Mesosphere (50-80 km)
• A second region of
temperature decline with
height
• Why? Getting away from
ozone heating
• Noctilucent Clouds-ice
coated meteor dust
Noctilucent
Clouds
 Mesosphere
• Ends at mesopause (~80
km ~.01 hPa), the coldest
place in the atmosphere
~-90C)
 Thermosphere
• 80-140km
• Region of warming with
height
• Warming produced by
absorption of shortest
wavelength ultraviolet
components in upper
troposphere by 02, ), N, N2
• Aurora in this layer