A Comparison of Remnants in Noncommutative Bardeen Black

Holes

S. Hamid Mehdipour1, ∗ and M. H. Ahmadi1, †

arXiv:1604.06272v3 [physics.gen-ph] 26 Aug 2016

1
Department of Physics, College of Basic Sciences, Lahijan Branch,
Islamic Azad University, P. O. Box 1616, Lahijan, Iran
(Dated: September 9, 2021)

Abstract
We derive the mass term of the Bardeen metric in the presence of a noncommutative geometry
induced minimal length. In this setup, the proposal of a stable black hole remnant as a candidate
to store information is confirmed. We consider the possibility of having an extremal configuration
with one degenerate event horizon and compare different sizes of black hole remnants. As a result,
once the magnetic charge g of the noncommutative Bardeen solution becomes larger, both the
minimal nonzero mass M0 and the minimal nonzero horizon radius r0 get larger. This means,
subsequently, under the condition of an adequate amount of g, the three parameters g, M0 , and r0
are in a connection with each other linearly. According to our results, a noncommutative Bardeen
black hole is colder than the noncommutative Schwarzschild black hole and its remnant is bigger,
so the minimum required energy for the formation of such a black hole at particle colliders will be
larger. We also find a closely similar result for the Hayward solution.

PACS numbers: 04.70.Dy, 04.50.Kd, 02.40.Gh, 04.20.Dw

Keywords: Regular Black Hole; Hawking Temperature; Noncommutative Geometry; Black Hole Remnant.

∗
Electronic address: [email protected]
†
Electronic address: [email protected]

1
I. INTRODUCTION

The issue of central singularity of a Black Hole (BH) is an open problem in BH physics.
Although it is commonly accepted that only a not yet accessible quantum theory of gravity
would be competent to solve the problem appropriately, several phenomenological scenarios
have been considered in the literature in order to study BHs with regular centers (for a
review, see [1]). In 1968, Bardeen [2] introduced a compact object with an event horizon
and without an intrinsic singularity, namely Bardeen BH; it is the first regular BH model
in general relativity. The Bardeen spacetime is spherically symmetric without violating
the weak energy condition and the inside of the horizon is deSitter-like wherein the matter
has a high pressure. In 2000, Ayón-Beato and Garcı́a [3] reinterpreted the Bardeen model
as the gravitational field of a nonlinear magnetic monopole. A few years later, Hayward
[4] investigated the formation and evaporation of a new kind of the regular solution, i.e.
Hayward BH, in which its static region is Bardeen-like and the dynamic regions are Vaidya-
like. Recently, a family of rotating regular solutions have been obtained by applying the
Newman-Janis algorithm to the Hayward and to the Bardeen spacetimes [5]. Afterwards, a
general class of regular solutions using a general mass term described by a function which
generalizes the Bardeen and Hayward mass terms have been constructed [6]. The regular
BHs have extensively been studied in the recent literature (see for instance, [7–15]).
Besides, the authors of Refs. [16–20] have utilized a spherically symmetric matter distri-
bution leading to no curvature singularity. In fact, they have presented a physically inspired
type of noncommutativity corrections to BH solutions. In this method, the point-like struc-
ture of mass, instead of being totally localized at a point, is described by a smeared structure
√
throughout a region of linear size θ. In other words, the mass density of a static, spher-
ically symmetric, particle-like gravitational source cannot be a delta function distribution,
but will be given by a Gaussian distribution ρθ (r) = M/(4πθ)3/2 exp(−r 2 /4θ). It has been
demonstrated that the modified metric does not allow the BH to decay below the Planckian
relic. The evaporation process ends when the size of the BH reaches a Planck-sized remnant,
explaining the BH released from the curvature singularity at the origin. Here, the regularity
of the metrics emerges from the appearance of a minimal length preparing a natural cut-off
at small scales. The idea of a minimal length is confirmed by many outcomes of various
approaches to quantum gravity [21–25]. This universal cut-off is entered into the energy-

2
momentum tensor of the Einstein equations, and stands for the degree of delocalization of
the matter distribution [26–28].
From the other viewpoint, all the various arguments concerning the so-called Hawking
information loss paradox rely on semi-classical methods and guess about the behavior of
systems in the quantum gravitational regime, but there are substantial struggles over the
success of the arguments. The basis of the information loss problem turns back to Hawking’s
discovery that the theory of quantum fields in a curved spacetime indicates that BHs will emit
thermal radiation at a temperature inversely proportional to their mass [29]. Conservation of
energy points out that the BH will lose mass through this procedure, and if nothing stops the
evaporation of the BH will ultimately cease to exist. This proposition of total evaporation
is necessary for Hawking’s argument, and may be refused by a remnant proposal that we
will be considering in this paper (for reviews on resolving the paradox, see [30–36]). In
other words, Planck scale physics may terminate the Hawking radiation and prohibit the
appearance of a singularity in the center of a BH, i.e. the appearance of a BH remnant; for
example, in a recent result by Paul and Majhi [37], the nature of the cascade of Hawking
emission spectrum in the presence of a back reaction was studied. They observed that
under a physical background, below a particular value of the mass, which is of the Plank
mass order, the Hawking radiation must stop wherein a remnant is formed.
In this work we shall include the influences of inspired noncommutativity to the one of
the most popular models of non-singular BHs, i.e. the Bardeen BH, and analyze the rem-
nants of Noncommutative Bardeen (NB) BHs. Afterwards, we consider the thermodynamic
properties of the NB solution, providing its Hawking temperature. Throughout this paper
natural units are used with the following definitions: ~ = c = G = k = 1.

II. THE NB SOLUTION

In this section we first include the noncommutative effects in the line element of Bardeen
and then analyze the consequences of the resulting metric. Now, let us start from the
Schwarzschild-like class of metrics which describe the spacetimes in the so-called Kerr-Schild
form and in the presence of matter

f (r)
ds2 = ds2M − 2
(kµ dxµ )2 , (1)
r

3
where ds2M is the Minkowski line element expressed in a spherical basis and kµ is a null
vector in Minkowski coordinates. The expression f (r) is found to be

f (r) = 2m(r)r. (2)

According to the Kerr-Schild decomposition, the above equation has a general validity, so
its generic structure is kept and it is not sensitive to different forms of the mass term m(r).
For the Bardeen metric we have
 23
r2

m(r) = M , (3)
r2 + g 2
where g is the magnetic charge of the BH. Now, using the noncommutativity approach
[16–20], the metric describing the noncommutative geometry inspired Bardeen BH is given
by    −1
2 2m(r) 2 2m(r)
ds = 1 − dt − 1 − dr 2 − r 2 dΩ2 , (4)
r r
where m(r) can now be written in terms of the smeared mass distribution Mθ as follows:
 23
r2

m(r) = Mθ , (5)
r2 + g 2
and Mθ can implicity be given in terms of the lower incomplete Gamma function,
Z r
3 r2
 
2 2M
Mθ = ρθ (r)4πr dr = √ γ ; . (6)
0 π 2 4θ
The radiating behavior of such a noncommutative regular BH can now be easily investigated
by plotting the temporal component of the metric, g00 , versus the radius r for an extremal
BH with different values of g (see Fig. (1)). The plot presented in Fig. 1 shows, for several
values of minimal nonzero mass M0 , the possibility of having an extremal configuration with
one degenerate event horizon as the parameter g grows. As this figure shows, the coordinate
noncommutativity leads to the existence of a remnant mass in which the NBBH can shrink
to.
The line element (4) has a coordinate singularity at the event horizon radius, rH , that
can be obtained from the equation g00 (rH ) = 0 as follows
2m(rH )
1− = 0, (7)
rH
with  23
r2

m(rH ) = Mθ (rH ) 2 H 2 . (8)
rH + g

4
 √ √
FIG. 1: The temporal component of the metric, g00 , versus the radius r/ θ for different values of g/ θ. The figure shows
the possibility of having an extremal configuration with one degenerate event horizon at M = M0 (extremal NBBH). This
shows the existence of a minimal nonzero mass (M0 ) that the BH can shrink to. On the right-hand side of the figure, from
√ √ √ √ √ √
top to bottom, the solid lines correspond to the NBBH for g = 1.00 θ, 2.00 θ, 3.00 θ, 4.00 θ, 5.00 θ, and g = 10.00 θ,
respectively. The dashed line refers to the Schwarzschild case so that it corresponds to g = 0.

The analytical solution of Eq. (7) for rH in a closed form is impossible, but it is possible to
solve it to find M, which provides the mass of the NBBH as a function of the horizon radius
rH . This leads to
r
M= 3
 H  , (9)
r2
 2

rH 2 H
2 r2 +g 2 E 2r√Hθ − rH −
√
πθ
e 4θ
H

√ Rx 2
where the Gauss error function E(x) is defined by E(x) ≡ 2/ π 0 e−p dp. The results of the
numerical solution of the mass as a function of the horizon radius are displayed in Fig. 2. As
expected, from the mass equation (9), the noncommutativity indicates a minimal nonzero
mass in order to have an event horizon. So, in the noncommutative case, for M < M0 there
is no event horizon.
For more details, the numerical results for the remnant size of the BH and for different
√
values of g/ θ are presented in Table I which are comparable to Fig. 2. According to Table I,
as g increases both the minimal nonzero mass and the minimal nonzero horizon radius are
enlarged which subsequently lead us to the final result:

g ∝ M0 ∝ r0 . (10)

5
 √ √ √
FIG. 2: The mass of the NBBH, M/ θ, versus the event horizon radius, rH / θ, for different values of g/ θ.
On the right-hand side of the figure, from bottom to top, the solid lines correspond to the NBBH for g =
√ √ √ √ √ √
1.00 θ, 2.00 θ, 3.00 θ, 4.00 θ, 5.00 θ, and g = 10.00 θ, respectively. The dashed line refers to the Schwarzschild
case so that it corresponds to g = 0.

√
This means in the limit g/ σ ≫ 1, the magnetic charge is proportional to the remnant
mass and to the remnant radius.
Here, it should be emphasized that the physical interpretation of the noncommutative
parameter θ is the smallest fundamental cell of an observable area in noncommutative ge-
ometry, in the same way that the Planck constant ~ explains the smallest fundamental cell
√
of an observable phase space in quantum mechanics. The scale of θ is, possibly and most
reasonably, of the order of an inverse characteristic energy of the Planck scale. Most of
the phenomenological examinations of the noncommutativity models have assumed that the
noncommutative energy scale cannot lie far above the TeV regime [38–41]. Given that the
fundamental Planck scale in models with large extra dimensions is as small as a TeV, for solv-
ing the hierarchy problem [42–45], therefore it could be possible to set the noncommutative
effects in a TeV energy scale.
In this process, the minimum value of the NBBH mass increases to a value more than its
value for the noncommutative Schwarzschild one (see Table I). Thus, in the theory of regular
√
BHs, if the parameter g becomes sufficiently large, i.e. g/ θ ≫ 1 with a sufficiently small
√
noncommutative inverse length parameter (1/ θ ∼ 1 TeV), then the noncommutativity
effect can concretely decrease the possible formation and detection of BHs in TeV-scale

6
 √
TABLE I: The minimal nonzero mass of the NBBH (remnant mass, M0 / θ) and also the minimal nonzero horizon radius,
√ √ √ √
r0 / θ, for different values of g/ θ. For a large amount of g/ θ, i.e. g/ θ ≫ 1, there is a linear relationship between the
remnant mass and the remnant radius. As can be seen from the table, the results are comparable to Fig. 2.

NBBH

Magnetic Charge Remnant Mass Remnant Radius

√ √
g=0 M0 ≈ 1.90 θ r0 ≈ 3.02 θ
√ √ √
g = 1.00 θ M0 ≈ 2.19 θ r0 ≈ 3.33 θ
√ √ √
g = 2.00 θ M0 ≈ 2.92 θ r0 ≈ 3.92 θ
√ √ √
g = 3.00 θ M0 ≈ 3.96 θ r0 ≈ 4.67 θ
√ √ √
g = 4.00 θ M0 ≈ 5.20 θ r0 ≈ 5.72 θ
√ √ √
g = 5.00 θ M0 ≈ 6.49 θ r0 ≈ 7.07 θ
√ √ √
g = 10.00 θ M0 ≈ 12.99 θ r0 ≈ 14.14 θ
√ √ √
g = 100.00 θ M0 ≈ 129.90 θ r0 ≈ 141.42 θ
.. .. ..
. . .
√
g≫ θ =⇒ g ∝ M0 ∝ r0

collisions at particle colliders, such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) [67] and the Ultra-
High Energy Cosmic Ray (UHECR). However, if the fundamental Planck scale is of the
order of a few TeV, then the LHC may produce BHs. These BHs may have masses on the
order of TeV. In this sense, on the other hand, the complete decay of BHs is impossible and
the final Planck-sized remnant can be thought of as the order of TeV.
Based on our computations, the total evaporation of the BH is not possible in principle.
Therefore, the idea of a stable BH remnant as a candidate to conserve information has fixed.
Note that, currently there are some proposals about what happens to the information that
falls into a BH. One of the main proposals is that the BH never disappears completely, and
the information is not lost, but would be stored in a stable remnant. A remnant proposal
reflects the fact that the semi-classical approaches used to derive the Hawking effect are
obviously inapplicable when the BH reaches the Planck mass. Possibly, Planckian physics
will propose some way of conserving the information held in the BH.
The remnant proposals are generally divided into two categories. The first is stable

7
remnants and the second is long-lived remnants. If a remnant is stable, then Planck scale
quantum gravitational effects shut down the Hawking radiation, and the BH remnant con-
tinues to exist for all future time. Inasmuch as the BH, and its information, are prohibited
from vanishing totally, the troubling result of Hawking’s argument, i.e. the non-unitary evo-
lution is prevented. For example, in Ref. [46], we have shown that, as a well-known result
of the spacetime noncommutativity, a part of information may be preserved in a stable BH
remnant. On the other hand, the process for long-lived remnants is completely different.
They eventually disappear. In spite of the fact that the semi-classical models imply that
no information can escape in the Hawking radiation, these models will fail in Planckian
processes. This scenario is inspired by this cognition that the physics at the Planck scale
might return the information to the external universe, and once the coherence of the exter-
nal universe is made safe, the remnant could safely disappear. As an example of long-lived
kinds of remnants, one can point to Ref. [47] in which an exact (t − r) dependent case of
a noncommutative Schwarzschild-like metric for a Vaidya solution was calculated. As an
important result of Ref. [47], the idea of a stable BH remnant as a candidate to conserve
information has been failed which means that if we pick up a time-dependent Gaussian dis-
tribution of mass/energy, then it will be possible to find a zero remnant mass, albeit in a
long-time limit.
One of the serious problems with these remnants is the probability of their detection.
Given that the interactions of BH remnants are purely gravitational, the cross-section is
highly small, and a direct observation of these remnants seems impossible. A possible
indirect evidence might be related to the cosmic gravitational wave background. In contrast
to photons, the gravitons radiated during evaporation would be instantly frozen. Since,
the BH evaporation finishes when it reduces to a remnant, hence, the graviton spectrum
should have a cut-off at the Planck mass. In general, such a cut-off is expected to have a
redshift on the order of 1014 GeV. Moreover, we know that the nature of dark matter is
hitherto remained an open problem. There exist many dark matter candidates in which
most of them are non-baryonic weakly interacting massive particles. A candidate which is
not closely connected to particle physics is the relics of primordial BHs [48]. Some specific
inflation models naturally induce a great number of such BHs, e.g. the hybrid inflation
model can generally produce a required abundance of primordial BH remnants for them to
be the main source of the dark matter [49].

8
III. THE NBBH TEMPERATURE

While we do not yet have any credible candidate for a full quantum gravity theory, more
phenomenological procedures have tried to investigate micro BHs. The recent anticipations
imply the conceivable results of LHC experiments, containing the creation of these objects.
The possible experimental production of BHs at particle colliders is one of the most signifi-
cant subfields in extra dimension models. These newly formed miniature BHs first lose their
hairs associated with the multipole and the angular momenta, then classically reach the
stable Schwarzschild solutions, and finally evaporate via Hawking radiation up to promising
Planck-sized remnants. The Hawking temperature is generally subjected to corrections from
many sources, particularly, those related to a BH with the mass of the order of the Planck
mass. Hence, the study of TeV-scale BHs in the UHECR and particle colliders requires a
perfect examination of how temperature corrections affect BH thermodynamics.
In the following, with the above motivation, we would like to find the temperature cor-
rections of the NB solution. When the NBBH radiates, its Hawking temperature can be
calculated to find
√  2
    
1 dg00  M r H 2 r H
TH = = p 5 4rH πθ3 −g E √
4π dr r=rH 3 2 2
4 (πθ) (rH + g ) 2 2 2 θ
2

rH
2 − 4θ 4 2 2 2 2


−rH e rH + 2rH θ + rH g − 4θg . (11)
√
For large BHs, rH / θ ≫ 1, and g = 0, the Gauss error function tends to unity and
the exponential term is reduced to zero. Thus, one recovers the standard result for the
2
temperature of a Schwarzschild BH, i.e. TH = M/(2πrH ) = 1/(4πrH ).
At this stage, the numerical result of the Hawking temperature versus the horizon radius
is presented in Fig. 3. This figure shows that the temperature peak drops with increasing the
parameter g. Therefore, we expect that the NBBHs to be colder than the noncommutative
Schwarzschild BHs. In addition, the size and the mass of the NBBH remnant at the final
stage of the evaporation increase with increasing the magnetic charge. Hence, the remnant
of a NBBH may be big compared to the noncommutative Schwarzschild case.
As an important note, if we had chosen the Hayward solution, as another popular example
of regular BHs, solely the mass term would have altered, however the general properties
would have directed to entirely comparable consequences to those above. Now, let us consider
the metric describing the Noncommutative Hayward (NH) BH, in Schwarzschild coordinates,

9
 √ √
FIG. 3: The temperature TH versus the horizon radius, rH / θ. We have set M = 10.00 θ. On the right-hand side of the
√ √ √
figure, from top to bottom, the solid lines correspond to the NBBH for g = 1.00 θ, g = 2.00 θ, and g = 3.00 θ, respectively.
The dashed line refers to the Schwarzschild case so that it corresponds to g = 0.

which is immediately given by Eq. (4) with this new mass term
r3
 
m(r) = Mθ , (12)
r 3 + g ′3
where g ′ is a positive constant measuring the deviations from the classical Kerr metric. The
lack of responsiveness of the results to the kind of the regular BH can be easily exhibited by
plotting the Hawking temperature as a function of radius for NHBHs (see Fig. 4). Comparing
these results with the results of Fig. 3 shows the close similarity of outcomes in these two
types of regular BHs.
At this point it is worth pointing out that most of the results in the noncommutative
framework are confirmed by the so-called Generalized Uncertainty Principle (GUP) con-
text [50–54]. It is widely accepted that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle should be
reformulated owing to the noncommutative nature of spacetime at the Planck scale. The
application of the GUP to BH thermodynamics has attracted considerable attention in the
literature which leads to significant modifications to the emission process, particularly at
the final stages of the BH evaporation (there is a large body of literature on this subject;
see for example, [55–58]). As a result of GUP effects on this issue, we have shown that
a modification of the de Broglie relation and corresponding commutation relations in the
quantum tunneling framework of the BH evaporation lead to correlations between emitted

10
 √ √
FIG. 4: The temperature TH versus the horizon radius, rH / θ. We have set M = 10.00 θ. On the right-hand side of the
√ √ √
figure, from top to bottom, the solid lines correspond to the NHBH for g ′ = 1.00 θ, g ′ = 2.00 θ and g ′ = 3.00 θ, respectively.
The dashed line refers to the Schwarzschild case so that it corresponds to g ′ = 0.

modes of evaporation [59–61]. In this setup, information leaks out of the BH in the form
of non-thermal GUP correlations and, on the other hand, the inclusion of quantum gravity
effects as the GUP expression can halt the evaporation process, so that a stable BH remnant
is left behind, including a part of the BH information content (see also [46]). In addition,
recently, the authors of Ref. [62] investigated the GUP effect on the thermodynamics of a
Schwarzschild-Tangherlini BH and found that the GUP corrected Hawking temperature is
smaller than the original case; it goes to zero when the mass of the BH reaches a minimal
value, which is supported by the results obtained in the framework of the inspired noncom-
mutativity. Also, the results of their study concerning the possibilities to observe a micro
BH in the LHC have shown that the minimum energy for the production of the BH is larger
than the current energy scales of LHC.
As a final remark, our results are supported by the results obtained in the framework of
gravity’s rainbow [63–65]. Ali and his coworkers [63–65] have argued that since a remnant
depends critically on the structure of the rainbow functions, therefore a remnant is formed
for all black objects in the context of gravity’s rainbow and this is a model-independent phe-
nomenon. Their calculations have shown that the behavior of Hawking’s radiation changes
considerably near the Planck scale in gravity’s rainbow such that black objects do not evap-

11
orate completely and a remnant is left. Moreover, they have found that the mass of their
remnant is greater than the energy scale at which experiments were carried out at the LHC
[66].

IV. SUMMARY

In summary, we have applied the noncommutativity effects to Bardeen BHs. The non-
commutative effects become susceptible when the mass of the BH reaches the order of the
Planck scale, it stops radiating and leads to a BH remnant. It is concluded that, for an
adequately large magnetic charge of a NBBH there is a linear relationship between the rem-
nant mass and the remnant radius that is just the same as appeared in the relation between
the horizon radius and the BH mass for the standard Schwarzschild case. We have found
that the temperature peak of the NBBH decreases as the parameter g increases. Thus, a
NBBH is colder than a noncommutative Schwarzschild BH. In this setup, the final stage of
the evaporation of a noncommutative regular BH is a remnant in which it has an increasing
size with raising its own characteristic parameter. As a consequence, in the theory of non-
commutative regular BHs, the minimum value of energy for the production of such a BH at
the current energy scales of LHC is larger, so the possibility for its detection is less.

Acknowledgments

Financial support by Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University Grant No. 17.20.5.3517
is gratefully acknowledged. The authors thank to C. Bambi for valuable suggestions.

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[67] Note that, a micro BH can be produced at the LHC just under the condition of Ecm > M0 ,
where Ecm is the parton-parton center-of-mass energy which is proportional to the TeV energy

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