UNIT-1

Analog Electronics
Analog electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with a continuously variable signal.
It’s widely used in radio and audio equipment along with other applications where signals
are derived from analog sensors before being converted into digital signals for subsequent
storage and processing.

1.1 Diode
A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in
one direction.

Symbol
A PN junction is the simplest form of the semiconductor diode. In ideal conditions, this PN
junction behaves as a short circuit when it is forward biased and as an open circuit when it
is in the reverse biased. The name diode is derived from “di–ode” which means a device
that has two electrodes.

The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and
the cathode, which is the negative terminal, is represented with K. To know the anode and
cathode of a practical diode, a fine line is drawn on the diode which means cathode, while
the other end represents anode.

Formation of a Diode
If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to
form a junction, as shown in the figure below.
 A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material
has electrons as the majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend
to go to n-side, whereas few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.

As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with
each other to neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where
the positive and negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as
shown in the figure.

The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the
formation of a narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now
free from movable charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and
maintain a region of space between them without any charge carriers.

As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called
as Barrier junction. This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes
both the regions. There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions,
across the junction called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes
and electrons through the junction.

Biasing of a Diode
When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased
conditions with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse
biased condition.

1. Forward Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode
to the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward
biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more forward biased
and helps in more conduction. A diode conducts well in forward biased condition.
Working under Forward Biased
When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it cancels the potential barrier
and permits the flow of current is called as forward bias. When anode and cathode are
connected to positive and negative terminals respectively, the holes in P-type and
electrons in N-type tend to move across the junction, breaking the barrier. There exists a
free flow of current with this, almost eliminating the barrier.

With the repulsive force provided by positive terminal to holes and by negative
terminal to electrons, the recombination takes place in the junction. The supply voltage
should be such high that it forces the movement of electrons and holes through the barrier
and to cross it to provide forward current.
Forward Current is the current produced by the diode when operating in forward
biased condition and it is indicated by If.

2. Reverse Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and cathode
to the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be Reverse
biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more reverse biased
and helps in minimizing and preventing the conduction. A diode cannot conduct in reverse
biased condition.
Working under Reverse Biased
When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it increases the potential barrier
and restricts the flow of current is called as Reverse bias. When anode and cathode are
connected to negative and positive terminals respectively, the electrons are attracted
towards the positive terminal and holes are attracted towards the negative terminal.
Hence both will be away from the potential barrier increasing the junction resistance and
preventing any electron to cross the junction.
The following figure explains this. The graph of conduction when no field is applied
and when some external field is applied are also drawn.

With the increasing reverse bias, the junction has few minority carriers to cross the
junction. This current is normally negligible. This reverse current is almost constant when
the temperature is constant. But when this reverse voltage increases further, then a point
called reverse breakdown occurs, where an avalanche of current flows through the
junction. This high reverse current damages the device.
Reverse current is the current produced by the diode when operating in reverse
biased condition and it is indicated by Ir. Hence a diode provides high resistance path in
reverse biased condition and doesn’t conduct, where it provides a low resistance path in
forward biased condition and conducts. Thus we can conclude that a diode is a one-way
device which conducts in forward bias and acts as an insulator in reverse bias. This
behavior makes it work as a rectifier, which converts AC to DC.
Peak Inverse Voltage
Peak Inverse Voltage is shortly called as PIV. It states the maximum voltage applied in
reverse bias. The Peak Inverse Voltage can be defined as “The maximum reverse voltage
that a diode can withstand without being destroyed”. Hence, this voltage is considered
during reverse biased condition. It denotes how a diode can be safely operated in reverse
bias.

V - I Characteristics of a Diode
A Practical circuit arrangement for a PN junction diode is as shown in the following figure.
An ammeter is connected in series and voltmeter in parallel, while the supply is controlled
through a variable resistor.

During the operation, when the diode is in forward biased condition, at some particular
voltage, the potential barrier gets eliminated. Such a voltage is called as Cut-off
Voltage or Knee Voltage. If the forward voltage exceeds beyond the limit, the forward
current rises up exponentially and if this is done further, the device is damaged due to
overheating.
The following graph shows the state of diode conduction in forward and reverse
biased conditions.
 During the reverse bias, current produced through minority carriers exist known as
“Reverse current”. As the reverse voltage increases, this reverse current increases and it
suddenly breaks down at a point, resulting in the permanent destruction of the junction.

Creating a Load Line from a Diode I–V Curve

In the diode circuit shown above, we know that the diode’s voltage cannot be higher than
the supply voltage VS. We also know that the diode current cannot be higher than VS/REQ,
because the circuit’s current is limited to this value by the resistors; the diode can further
resist current flow and therefore create a value lower than VS/REQ, but it cannot increase
current above the level established by the resistors.

Thus, we have a constraint for both the voltage dropped across the diode and the
current flowing through the diode. All of the points lying on a straight line between these
two constraints represent possible combinations of current and voltage that are possible
within the limiting context of the linear elements in the circuit.

A graph showing the intersection of the load line and the diode’s I–V curve

This straight line is what we call the load line.

Only one of these points corresponds to a combination of current and voltage that is
possible given the electrical behavior of the diode, which is described by the “diode
equation.” We find that one point by marking the intersection of the load line and the
diode’s I–V curve, as shown below. The point of intersection corresponds to the
circuit’s operating point.
1.2 Applications of Diode (Rectifiers, Clipper & Clamper)

Rectifiers
The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits. These circuits are
used to describe the conversion of a.c signals to d.c in power supplies. Diode rectifier gives
an alternating voltage which pulsates in accordance with time. The filter smoothes the
pulsation in the voltage and to produce d.c voltage, a regulator is used which removes the
ripples.
There are two primary methods of diode rectification:
 Half Wave Rectifier
 Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier

In half-wave rectification, only one crystal diode is used. It is connected in the circuit as
shown below.

Circuit Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier

The AC supply to be rectified is generally given through a transformer. The

transformer is used to step down or step up the main supply voltage as per the
requirement. It also isolates the rectifier from power lines and thus reduces the risk of
electric shock.

Operation of Half Wave Rectifier

When AC supply is switched ON the alternating voltage (Vin) shown in the figure below
appears across the terminal AB at the secondary winding.
 During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive with respect to B and the crystal
diode is forward biased. Therefore, it conducts and current flows through the load resistor
RL. This current varies in magnitude as shown in the wave diagram shown below.

Thus, a positive half cycle of the output voltage (Vout = iRL) appears across the load
resistor RL shown in the figure below.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅𝐿
Peak Inverse Voltage
During the negative half-cycle when the diode is reverse biased the maximum value
of the voltage coming across the diode is called the peak inverse voltage. As the current
flows through the load resistor RL, only in one direction, i.e., from M to L. Hence, a DC
output is obtained across RL, which is pulsating in nature.

Disadvantages of the Half Wave Rectifier

The disadvantages of the half-wave rectifier are as follows:
 The output is low because the AC supply delivers power only half of the time.
 The output contains more alternating component (ripples). Therefore, it needs a heavy
filter circuit to smooth out the output.

Full Wave Rectifier

In Full Wave Rectification, when the AC supply is applied at the input, during both the half-
cycles (i.e., positive as well as negative) current flows through the load in the same
direction. This can be achieved by using two crystal diodes. The two diodes conduct the
current alternately.
 To obtain the same direction of flow of current in the load resistors R L during
positive as well as the negative half cycle of input, the two circuits are used. They are
named as follows:-
 Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

The Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier employs a transformer with the secondary winding
AB tapped at the centre point C. It converts the AC input voltage into DC voltage. The two
diode D1, and D2 are connected in the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram below.

Each diode uses a one-half cycle of the input AC voltage. The diode D1 utilizes the AC
voltage appearing across the upper half (AC) of the secondary winding for rectification. The
diode D2 uses the lower half (CB) of the secondary winding.

Operation of the Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

When AC supply is switched ON the alternating voltage, Vin appears across the terminals AB
of the secondary winding of the transformer. During the positive half cycle of the secondary
voltage, end A becomes positive, and end B becomes negative. Thus, the diode
D1 becomes forward biased, and diode D2 becomes reverse biased.
The two diodes do not conduct simultaneously. Therefore, when the diode
D1 conducts, the diode D2 does not conduct and vice versa.
When the Diode D1 is conducting, the current (i) flows through the diode D1 load
resistor RL (from M to L) and the upper half of the secondary winding as shown in the
circuit diagram marked by the red color arrowheads. During the negative half-cycle, the
end B becomes positive, and end A becomes negative. This makes the diode D2 forward
biased, and diode D1 reverse biased.
When the diode D2 conducts while the diode D1 does not. The current (i) flows
through the diode D2 load resistor RL (from M to L) and the lower half of the secondary
winding as shown by the red dotted arrows.
 The current flowing through the load resistor R L is in the same direction (i.e., from
M to L) during both the positive as well as the negative half cycle of the input. Hence, the DC
output voltage (Vout = i RL) is obtained across the load resistor.
The wave diagram of the input voltage, the current flowing through the load, and the
output voltage developed across the load is shown in the figure below:

Peak Inverse Voltage of Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

The circuit diagram given below shows the instant when the secondary voltage attains its
maximum positive value.

At this instant, Vm developed in the upper half of the secondary winding of the transformer
will forward bias the diode D1. This diode conducts, and the current flows through RL,
developing Vm voltage across it.
The diode D2 at this instant is reverse biased, and the voltage was coming across it is
the sum of the maximum value of voltage developed by the lower half of the secondary
winding and the voltage developed across the load. Hence, the peak inverse voltage across
the diode D2 is 2Vm.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

 The main advantage is that the output and efficiency are high because an AC supply
delivers power during both half cycles.

The Disadvantages of the Center tapped full wave rectifier are as follows:-
 Each diode utilizes only one-half of the voltage developed in the transformer secondary,
and thus the DC output obtained is small.
 It is difficult to locate the center on the secondary for the tapping.
 The diode used must be capable of bearing high peak inverse voltage. Because the peak
inverse voltage coming across each diode is twice the maximum voltage across the half of
the secondary winding.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

In Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, an ordinary transformer is used in place of a center-tapped

transformer. The circuit forms a bridge connecting the four diodes D 1, D2, D3, and D4. The
circuit diagram of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier is shown below.

The AC supply which is to be rectified is applied diagonally to the opposite ends of the
bridge. Whereas, the load resistor RL is connected across the remaining two diagonals of
the opposite ends of the bridge.
Operation of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
When an AC supply is switched ON, the alternating voltage V in appears across the terminals
AB of the secondary winding of the transformer which needs rectification. During the
positive half cycle of the secondary voltage, end A becomes positive, and end B becomes
negative as shown in the figure below.
The diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and the diodes D2 and D4 are reversed biased.
Therefore, diode D1 and D3 conduct, and diode D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current (i)
flows through diode D1, load resistor RL (from M to L), diode D3, and the transformer
secondary. The waveform of the full-wave bridge rectifier is shown below.

During the negative half-cycle, end A becomes negative and end B positive as shown in the
figure below:

From the above diagram, it is seen that the diode D2 and D4 are under forward bias and the
diodes D1 and D3 are reverse bias. Therefore, diode D2 and D4 conduct while diodes D1 and
D3 do not conduct. Thus, current (i) flows through the diode D 2, load resistor RL (from M to
L), diode D4, and the transformer secondary.
 The current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction (M to L) during
both the half cycles. Hence, a DC output voltage Vout is obtained across the load resistor.

Peak Inverse Voltage of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

When the secondary voltage attains its maximum positive value and the terminal A is
positive, and B is negative as shown in the circuit diagram below.

At this instant diode, D1 and D3 are forward biased and conducts current. Therefore,
terminal M attains the same voltage as that A’ or A, whereas the terminal L attains the same
voltage as that of B’ or B. Hence the diode D2 and D4 are reversed biased and the peak
inverse voltage across both of them is Vm.
Therefore,

Advantages of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

 The center tap transformer is eliminated.
 The output is double that of the center-tapped full-wave rectifier for the same secondary
voltage.
 The peak inverse voltage across each diode is one-half of the center tap circuit of the diode.

Disadvantages of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

 It needs four diodes.
 The circuit is not suitable when a small voltage is required to be rectified. It is because, in
this case, the two diodes are connected in series and offer double voltage drop due to their
internal resistance.

Key Differences between Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier

1. The significant key difference between half wave and full wave rectifier is efficiency.
Half wave rectifier is a low-efficiency rectifier while the full wave is a high-
 efficiency rectifier. Thus, it is always better to use full wave when we are working on
the highly efficient application.
2. The centre tapping also differs in half wave and full wave rectifier. Half wave rectifier
does not require centre tapping of the secondary winding of transformer while full
wave requires centre tapping of the secondary winding of the transformer.
3. The requirement of components varies in Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier. Full
wave requires more electronic components as compared to half wave. Thus, full
wave rectifier is costly as compared to half wave. Full wave requires double the
number of diodes.
4. The losses due to saturation of DC core in half wave and full wave rectifiers also
create the significant difference. The half wave possesses DC saturation of core, but
this problem can be overcome in the full wave circuit.
5. The full wave circuitry does not possess DC saturation of transformer core because
the current in the secondary winding flows in two halves of the secondary winding of
the transformer and in opposite directions.
Clipper & Clamper