Organizational Behavior 6th Edition McShane Test Bank 1

Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior 6th Edition
McShane Glinow 0078112648 9780078112645

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Chapter 05
Foundations of Employee Motivation
True / False Questions
1. Motivation is closely related to the concept of employee engagement.
True False
2. The concept of employee engagement is related to motivation, but not to role

clarity.
True False
3. In the context of motivation, drives are also called primary needs.
True False
4. Drives are innate, universal, and are the "prime movers" of behavior because they
generate emotions, which put people in a state of readiness to act on their
environment.
True False
5. Everyone has the same drives, but they develop different intensities of needs in a
particular situation.
True False
6. Needs hierarchy theory explains how people develop perceptions of fairness in

the distribution and exchange of resources.
True False
7. Maslow's needs hierarchy theory incorporates only five basic categories.
True False
8. Maslow's needs hierarchy theory states that people are motivated by only one
need at a time.
True False
9. According to the needs hierarchy theory, the concept of self-actualization

suggests that people are naturally motivated to reach their potential.
True False
10. A person's hierarchy of needs is influenced by his or her values.
True False
11. People with a high need for achievement tend to avoid risks and prefer working in
teams.
True False
12. Successful entrepreneurs tend to have a high need for achievement.
True False
13. People with a high need for affiliation tend to be more effective in jobs that
allocate scarce resources among employees.
True False
14. People with a high need for affiliation tend to be more effective in jobs that require
them to mediate conflicts.
True False
15. According to learned needs theory, people with a high personalized need for
power desire power as a means to help others.
True False
16. According to learned needs theory, companies should hire leaders with a strong
need for personalized power.
True False
17. Four-drive theory states that everyone has the drive to acquire, bond, learn, and
defend.
True False
18. According to four-drive theory, the drive to acquire, bond, and learn are
proactive.
True False
19. According to four-drive theory, social norms, past experience, and personal
values translate emotional signals into goal-directed effort.
True False
20. According to four-drive theory, organizations maximize motivation by focusing

employees on opportunities to fulfill only one of the four drives.
True False
21. Four-drive theory recommends keeping all four drives in balance; that is,
organizations should avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive.
True False
22. Expectancy theory of motivation states that people naturally direct their effort
towards behaviors they believe are most likely to lead to desired outcomes.
True False
23. According to expectancy theory, employee motivation will remain high when the
P-to-O expectancy falls to zero.
True False
24. In expectancy theory, the P-to-O expectancy is the perceived probability that a
specific behavior or performance level will lead to a particular outcome.
True False
25. A way to increase an employee's E-to-P expectancy regarding a specific task is to

increase the person's self-confidence through counseling and coaching.
True False
26. A way to increase a person's P-to-O expectancy is to measure his or her job
performance more accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those with
higher job performance.
True False
27. Expectancy theory identifies emotions as a key component of employee

motivation.
True False
28. The compliments or teasing received from coworkers when an employee wears
safety goggles are referred to as consequences.
True False
29. Antecedents are events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a
particular action will produce specific consequences.
True False
30. Antecedents cause behavior.
True False
31. The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks is variable ratio
schedule.
True False
32. People learn not only by observing others but also by imitating and practicing
those behaviors.
True False
33. Goal setting potentially improves employee performance by increasing motivation

and clarifying role perceptions.
True False
34. Goal setting tends to be more effective when goals are specific rather than
general.
True False
35. Goal setting is more effective when employees can easily complete the goals
assigned to them.
True False
36. Participation in goal formation tends to increase performance when employees

lack commitment to assigned goals.
True False
37. Feedback to employees is most effective when it is frequent, credible, and

general.
True False
38. Feedback can be more frequent when employees perform jobs with short rather
than long cycle time.
True False
39. Multisource feedback is information about an employee's performance, collected

from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and
customers.
True False
40. Multisource feedback tends to provide more complete and accurate information
than feedback from a supervisor alone.
True False
41. To learn about their progress toward goal accomplishment, employees usually
prefer feedback from supervisors and other people.
True False
42. Employees consider feedback from nonsocial sources to be more accurate than
feedback from social sources.
True False
43. When employees want to improve their self-image, they seek out positive
feedback from social sources.
True False
44. Combining goal setting with monetary incentives motivates many employees to
set difficult goals that are hard to achieve.
True False
45. The distributive justice principle states that everyone should receive the same
rewards in life.
True False
46. In the equity theory model, a 'comparison other' is an individual or group of people
against whom the person compares his or her outcome/input ratio.
True False
47. A significant discovery in equity theory research is that people tend to keep one
specific comparison other throughout their working lives.
True False
48. Feelings of inequity occur when employees receive less than others, but not when
they receive more than others.
True False
49. Underreward inequity occurs when an individual's outcome/input ratio is lower

than the outcome/input ratio of a comparison other.
True False
50. Overreward inequity occurs whenever other people receive less money than the
comparison others.
True False
51. Equity theory research has found that employees who feel overrewarded tend to
alter their perceptions of inputs and outcomes rather than attempt to actually
change them.
True False
52. Procedural justice is higher when the decision maker is perceived as unbiased.
True False
53. Distributive justice increases directly with the extent that the decision allows
voice, can be appealed, and has an unbiased decision maker.
True False
54. Feelings of procedural injustice produce anger, which, in turn, generates either
withdrawal or aggression.
True False
Multiple Choice Questions
55. The _____ of human beings are also called primary needs.
A. beliefs
B. values
C. attitudes
D. drives
E. thoughts
56. Which of the following statements is true about the innate drives of people?
A. Drives refer to the secondary needs of individuals.

B. Emotions that energize individuals to act on their environment produce drives.
C. Drives include only the basic physiological essentials of individuals.
D. Drives are the secondary sources of employee motivation.
E. Drives are innate and universal to human beings.
57. _____ are the motivational forces of emotions channeled toward particular goals
to correct deficiencies or imbalances.
A. Needs
B. Thoughts
C. Beliefs
D. Values
E. Strategies
58. Self-concept, social norms, and past experiences help us:
A. have a fixed level of drive-based emotions.

B. fully regulate our decisions and behaviors.
C. minimize cognitive dissonances.
D. make unemotional decisions based on reason and logic.
E. have stronger or weaker needs by amplifying or suppressing emotions.
59. Which of the following does Maslow's needs hierarchy theory include?
A. Domination
B. Frustration-regression
C. Desire to know
D. Aesthetic beauty
E. Self-actualization
60. Which of the following is the highest level of need in Maslow's hierarchy of
needs?
A. Esteem
B. Safety
C. Power
D. Belongingness
61. Which of the following needs is the strongest according to Maslow's needs
hierarchy theory?
A. Need for food

B. Need to socialize
C. Need for self actualization
D. Need to be secure
E. Need for love
62. Which of these theories states that we are motivated by several needs, but the
strongest source is the lowest unsatisfied need?
A. Four-drive theory
B. Needs hierarchy theory
C. Equity theory
D. Distributive justice theory
E. Learned needs theory
63. Which of the following is a major criticism of Maslow's needs hierarchy theory?
A. The safety and physiological needs do not arise due to human drives.
B. The need for love and esteem do not apply for many of the individuals.
C. Physiological needs of a person are often considered a weaker need than the
other needs.
D. People do not progress through the hierarchy as the theory predicts.
E. The theory gives more importance to the satisfied needs than the unsatisfied
needs.
64. Which of the following statements is consistent with the observations of Maslow?
A. Motivation research must look at each need and drive apart from others.
B. A specific human behavior is typically initiated by a solitary need or drive.
C. Higher-order needs are not influenced by personal and social influences.
D. Maslow refocused attention on need gratification instead of need deprivation.
E. Maslow suggested that people are naturally motivated to reach their potential.
65. Which of the following statements was not considered by the needs hierarchy
theory?
A. Everyone is naturally motivated to reach their full potential.

B. Higher-order needs are influenced by personal and social influences.
C. Basic needs are more essential to individuals than their socialization needs.
D. People's physiological needs are stronger than their esteem needs.
E. Needs are strongly influenced by each individual's self-concept.
66. The desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and
expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontations is referred to as the need for:
A. affiliation.
B. power.
C. achievement.
D. safety.
E. existence.
67. According to the four-drive theory, which of the following drives is the foundation
of competition and the basis of our need for esteem?
A. Drive to acquire
B. Drive to dominate
C. Drive to defend
D. Drive to bond
E. Drive to learn
68. In the four-drive theory, the drive ______ is most closely associated with the need
for relative status and recognition.
A. to bond
B. for fairness
C. to achieve goals
D. to acquire
E. for feedback
69. Which drive in the four-drive theory is reactive rather than proactive?
A. Drive to acquire
B. Drive to learn
C. Drive to defend
D. Drive to bond
E. Drive for power
70. The main implication of the four-drive theory of motivation is that:
A. employers should offer employees a choice of rewards and continuously

initiate change in the workplace.
B. employees should be given generic goals with plenty of feedback.
C. employers should motivate employees to achieve challenging goals and give
them egalitarian rewards.
D. employers should select people with the best qualifications for the job.
E. drives/needs-based theories have no relevance for managing people in
organizational settings.
71. Four-drive theory recommends that companies should:
A. encourage employees to fulfill one drive at a time.

B. provide sufficient rewards, learning opportunities, and social interaction at the
same time.
C. only hire people with a strong drive to defend.
D. create a work environment that routinely triggers the employee's drive to
defend.
E. encourage the desire for aesthetic beauty and the desire to know.
72. One of the main implications of four-drive theory is that:
A. employers should offer employees enough opportunity to keep each drive in

balance.
B. employees should be given specific goals with plenty of feedback.
C. employers should give all employees the same employee benefits.
E. needs-based theories have no relevance for managing people in organizational
settings.
73. Which of the following theories of motivation is based on the idea that work effort
is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes?
A. Equity theory
B. ERG theory
C. Goal setting theory
D. Four-drive theory
E. Expectancy theory
74. Expectancy theory helps us to predict an individual's:
A. effort.
B. need for achievement.
C. distributive justice.
D. job satisfaction.
E. rewards.
75. An individual's perceived probability that a particular level of effort will result in a
particular level of performance is referred to as the:
A. E-to-P valance.
B. EP-to-PO outcome.
C. E-to-V expectancy.
D. E-to-P expectancy.
E. EV-to-PE outcome.
76. Which of these is one of the factors in the expectancy theory model?
A. E-to-P expectancy
B. E-to-O expectancy
C. V-to-E expectancy
D. P-to-E expectancy
E. O-to-P expectancy
77. Which of the following does the expectancy theory explain about employees?
A. They have different needs at different times.

B. They can use personal expectations to reduce work-related stress.
C. They can motivate themselves through power.
D. They base their work effort on the performance level they expect.
E. They compare their inputs and outcomes to other people.
78. In expectancy theory, valence refers to the:
A. amount of effort a person puts towards a known goal.

B. individual's perceived probability of performing the task at a particular level.
C. anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels toward an
outcome.
D. individual's perceived probability that his or her performance will lead to
specific outcomes.
E. feelings that result from a comparison of the individual's outcome/input ratio
with the outcome/input ratio of a comparison other.
79. According to expectancy theory, providing counseling and coaching to an

employee who lacks self-confidence is most likely to increase the employee's:
A. V-to-O expectancy.
B. E-to-P expectancy.
C. P-to-E expectancy.
D. O-to-P expectancy.
E. P-to-O expectancy.
80. When people are assigned to jobs for which they are qualified and they receive
coaching to improve their self-confidence, employee motivation improves by:
A. reducing feelings of inequity.

B. increasing outcome valences.
C. satisfying existence needs.
D. increasing P-to-O expectancies.
E. increasing E-to-P expectancies.
81. According to expectancy theory, a skill-development training program would:
A. have no effect on employee motivation.

B. mainly increase the effort-to-performance expectancy.
C. mainly increase the performance-to-outcome expectancy.
D. mainly increase the valence of pay increases and other organizational
outcomes.
E. mainly alter the comparison other.
82. Which of the following is a way to increase employee motivation by improving the
P-to-O expectancies?
A. Measuring employee performance accurately and distributing more valued

rewards.
B. Convincing employees that they will be able to accomplish the task.
C. Selecting employees with the required skills, knowledge, and motivation to
perform jobs.
D. Providing sufficient time and resources to employees to perform the task.
E. Treating everyone equally by giving all of them the same reward.
83. ABC Corp. brought in a performance-based reward system that accurately
identified employees who performed better than others. This practice improves
employee motivation by:
A. increasing employee needs.

B. reducing feelings of inequity.
C. improving E-to-P expectancies.
D. improving P-to-O expectancies.
E. increasing outcome valence.
84. According to expectancy theory, giving more valued rewards to employees with
higher job performance mainly increases motivation by:
A. strengthening the E-to-P expectancies of employees.

B. introducing a negative valence in the organization.
C. weakening the E-to-P expectancies of employees.
D. strengthening both the E-to-P and P-to-O expectancies of employees.
E. strengthening the P-to-O expectancies of employees.
85. Which of the following components are enhanced by individualizing rewards?
A. Performance expectancies
B. E-to-O expectancies
C. Valences of outcomes
D. E-to-P expectancies
E. V-to-E outcomes
86. According to expectancy theory, an unwanted reward has:
A. a high E-to-P expectancy.

B. an inappropriate comparison other.
C. a negative outcome valence.
D. a low P-to-O expectancy.
E. a low need for socialized power.
87. Which of the following is applied by supervisors when they stop criticizing
employees whose substandard performance has improved?
A. Future probability
B. Extinction
C. Positive reinforcement
D. Punishment
E. Negative reinforcement
88. The best reinforcement schedule for motivating employees is a(n) _____.
A. continuous reinforcement schedule

B. variable ratio schedule
C. fixed schedule
D. extinction
E. avoidance of consequence
89. _____ states that much learning and motivation occurs by observing and
modeling others, as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior.
A. Equity theory
B. Expectancy theory
C. Four-drive theory
D. Learned Needs Theory
E. Social cognitive theory
90. Goal setting influences employee behavior and performance mainly by

improving:
A. situational contingencies and learned abilities.

B. aptitudes and learned abilities.
C. motivation and role perceptions.
D. role perceptions and learned abilities.
E. self-confidence and aptitudes.
91. Goal setting is most effective when:
A. the supervisor sets the goals before discussing them with the employee.
B. the goals do not stretch the employee's abilities and motivation.
C. the goal statements are general rather than specific.
D. the intensity of employee effort is minimal.
E. it does not compel people to increase the persistence of their work effort.
92. The optimal level difficulty of a goal:
A. occurs when the goal is challenging but not impossible.

B. is the most challenging goal that the company can possibly imagine.
C. occurs only when employees set their own goal.
D. is the point at which the employees exert minimal effort to achieve a certain
outcome.
E. occurs when the employees work using alternate work arrangements.
93. To increase goal performance, employees should participate in the goal-setting

process:
A. when employees would otherwise lack commitment to those goals.

B. whenever supervisors have any control over setting goals.
C. when employees lack knowledge of what would improve goal quality.
D. when they believe that the supervisors are not capable enough to set the
goals.
E. there are only a few employees in the organization.
94. Effective feedback:
A. is generic in nature and applies to all employees.

B. is provided only through social sources.
C. should not be very frequent as frequency reduces its value.
D. can occur only when employees have weak self-efficacy.
E. should always come from a credible source.
95. Which of the following statements portrays the essence of appreciative
coaching?
A. Managers should provide frequent corrective feedback to employees.

B. Organizations should concentrate on maintaining a participative management
style.
C. Employees should openly discuss their problems with their managers.
D. An organization should strike a balance between punishments and rewards.
E. Managers should concentrate on the strengths of employees rather than their
weaknesses.
96. Which of the following theories suggests that employee motivation is influenced
by what other people contribute to and receive from the organization?
A. Expectancy theory
B. Equity theory
C. Needs-based theory
D. Need theory
E. Goal setting theory
97. The distributive justice rule employs the concept of:
A. motivation.
B. individual needs.
C. equity.
D. goal setting.
E. performance feedback.
98. Outcome/Input ratio and comparison other are elements of:
A. innate drives theory.

B. Maslow's needs hierarchy.
C. equity theory.
D. expectancy theory.
E. goal setting theory.
99. Employees who receive a fixed amount of pay each week and who feel
underrewarded are most likely to:
A. reduce their work effort.

B. increase their work effort.
C. change their comparison other.
D. encourage the comparison other to increase his or her work effort.
E. use a different measure other than comparison other.
100.According to equity theory:
A. all employees of an organization have the same needs over their working
lives.
B. money should never be used to motivate employees.
C. employees must set their own goals and performance standards.
D. the selection of comparison other varies from one person to the next.
E. improving job security and working conditions will improve job satisfaction
and, consequently, employee motivation.
101.Which of the following statements is true about the equity situation?
A. People avoid having a comparison other.

B. People tend to be tolerant of situations where they are under-rewarded.
C. People have a low E-to-P expectancy.
D. People feel more comfortable in situations where they receive proportionately
more than others.
E. People believe that their outcome/input ratio is similar to the outcome/input
ratio of the comparison other.
102.With respect to procedural justice, the "value-expressive" function that "voice"
provides refers to the:
A. feeling employees get when they feel valued at work.

B. way employees feel after voicing their opinions.
C. cathartic benefits of shouting at each other.
D. sense of pride employees derive when they are eloquent during
presentations.
E. the stand-off situation that arises as a consequence of the collective voice of
the employees.
103.When people experience procedural injustice, they tend to:
A. focus on organizational citizenship acts.

B. engage in counterproductive work behaviors.
C. be more likely to comply with higher authorities in the future.
D. change the selection process of comparison others.
E. engage in comparative injustice towards others.
Essay Questions
104.Maslow's needs hierarchy theory was dismissed by experts more than three
decades ago, yet Maslow's writing has had a lasting and valuable effect by
advocating a more holistic, humanistic, and positive approach to human
motivation. Discuss these three approaches and point out how they were applied
in Maslow's needs hierarchy theory.
105.Explain the three "learned" needs of the learned needs theory examined by
McClelland.
106.Briefly describe four-drive theory and explain how drives influence employee
motivation.
107.Your organization wants to improve employee motivation. Employees already

have strong P-to-O expectancies and the outcome valences are quite favorable
for strong performance, but they seem to have a low E-to-P expectancy. Identify
any three strategies that would potentially increase employee motivation by
improving the E-to-P expectancy.
108.Explain the four types of consequences identified by organizational behavior
modification or OB Mod.
109.Describe the three ideas of social cognitive theory that are most relevant to
employee motivation.
110.You supervise two-dozen sales representatives covering every region of the

country from your office at company headquarters. Describe a feedback strategy
that might improve the performance of these employees with respect to
increasing sales to new clients.
111.Briefly explain the various sources of feedback. What are the considerations
when selecting a source?
112.Jack Smith and Sam Clemens are neighbors who work as purchasing managers
in different companies in the petrochemical industry. During one neighborly
discussion, Jack learned that Sam's salary was nearly 15% higher than his even
though their job duties were similar. Jack was upset about Sam's higher salary
although he hid his emotions from Sam (after all, it wasn't Sam's fault that they
received different salary levels). Jack was frustrated not only because Sam
received a significantly higher salary, but also because Jack was certain that he
worked longer hours and was more productive than Sam. According to equity
theory research, what will Jack most likely do to reduce his upset feelings?
Chapter 05 Foundations of Employee Motivation Answer Key
True / False Questions
1. Motivation is closely related to the concept of employee engagement.

(p. 130)
TRUE
Employee engagement is an increasingly popular concept associated with

motivation.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Level of Difficulty: 1 Easy
Topic: Introduction
2. The concept of employee engagement is related to motivation, but not to role

(p. 130) clarity.
FALSE
Employee engagement is often defined as an individual's emotional and

cognitive (rational) motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and
purposive effort to achieve work- related goals. Employee engagement is also
described in terms of self-efficacy—the belief that you have the ability, role
clarity, and resources to get the job done.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Level of Difficulty: 2 Medium
Topic: Employee Engagement
3. In the context of motivation, drives are also called primary needs.
(p. 131,132)
TRUE
Drives, also called primary needs, are defined as hardwired characteristics of

the brain that attempt to keep us in balance by correcting deficiencies.
Furthermore, drives are the "prime movers" of behavior because they
generate emotions, which put people in a state of readiness to act on their
environment.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain the role of human drives and emotions in employee motivation and behavior.
Learning Objective: 05-03 Summarize Maslow's needs hierarchy; McClelland's learned needs theory; and four-drive theory; and
discuss their implications for motivating employees.
Topic: Employee Drives and Needs
4. Drives are innate, universal, and are the "prime movers" of behavior because
(p. 132) they generate emotions, which put people in a state of readiness to act on their
environment.
TRUE
Drives are innate and universal, which means that everyone has them, and
they exist from birth. Furthermore, drives are the "prime movers" of behavior
because they generate emotions, which put people in a state of readiness to
act on their environment.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
5. Everyone has the same drives, but they develop different intensities of needs in
(p. 132) a particular situation.
TRUE
Everyone has the same drives; they are hardwired in us through evolution.
However, people develop different intensities of needs in a particular situation.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Individual Differences in Needs
6. Needs hierarchy theory explains how people develop perceptions of fairness in

(p. 133) the distribution and exchange of resources.
FALSE
Maslow's needs hierarchy theory condenses and integrates the long list of
primary needs (drives) that had been studied previously into a hierarchy of five
basic categories.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory
7. Maslow's needs hierarchy theory incorporates only five basic categories.
(p. 133)
TRUE
Maslow's needs hierarchy theory condenses and integrates the long list of
primary needs (drives) that had been studied previously into a hierarchy of five
basic categories.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
8. Maslow's needs hierarchy theory states that people are motivated by only one
(p. 133) need at a time.
FALSE
According to Maslow, we are motivated simultaneously by several primary

needs, but the strongest source is the lowest unsatisfied need at the time.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
9. According to the needs hierarchy theory, the concept of self-actualization
(p. 134) suggests that people are naturally motivated to reach their potential.
TRUE
Maslow popularized the concept of self-actualization, suggesting that people

are naturally motivated to reach their potential and that organizations and
societies need to be structured to help people continue and develop this
motivation.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
10. A person's hierarchy of needs is influenced by his or her values.

(p. 134)
TRUE
There is increasing evidence that needs hierarchies are unique to each person,
not universal, because needs are strongly influenced by each individual's self-
concept, including personal values and social identity.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
11. People with a high need for achievement tend to avoid risks and prefer working
(p. 134) in teams.
FALSE
People with a strong need for achievement (nAch) want to accomplish

reasonably challenging goals through their own effort. They prefer working
alone rather than in teams, and they choose tasks with a moderate degree of
risk.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Learned Needs Theory
12. Successful entrepreneurs tend to have a high need for achievement.

(p. 134)
TRUE
Successful entrepreneurs tend to have a high need for achievement, possibly

because they establish challenging goals for themselves and thrive on
competition.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
(p. 135) allocate scarce resources among employees.
FALSE
People with a high need for affiliation tend to be less effective at allocating
scarce resources and making other decisions that potentially generate conflict.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
(p. 135) require them to mediate conflicts.
TRUE
People with a high need for affiliation generally work well in coordinating roles
to mediate conflicts and in sales positions where the main task is cultivating
long-term relations.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
15. According to learned needs theory, people with a high personalized need for
(p. 135) power desire power as a means to help others.
FALSE
Individuals, who enjoy their power for its own sake, use it to advance personal
interests, and wear their power as a status symbol, have personalized power.
Others mainly have a high need for socialized power because they desire
power as a means to help others.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
16. According to learned needs theory, companies should hire leaders with a
(p. 135,136)strong need for personalized power.
FALSE
According to learned needs theory, effective leaders should have a high

need for socialized rather than personalized power. They must have a high
degree of altruism and social responsibility and be concerned about the
consequences of their own actions on others.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
17. Four-drive theory states that everyone has the drive to acquire, bond, learn,
(p. 136) and defend.
TRUE
Four-drive theory states that everyone has the drive to acquire, bond, learn,
and defend.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Four-Drive Theory
18. According to four-drive theory, the drive to acquire, bond, and learn are
(p. 137) proactive.
TRUE
A key feature of four-drive theory is that three of the four drives—the drive to
acquire, bond, and learn are proactive—we regularly try to fulfill them. Only the
drive to defend is reactive—it is triggered by threat. Thus, any notion of fulfilling
drives is temporary, at best.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
19. According to four-drive theory, social norms, past experience, and personal
(p. 137) values translate emotional signals into goal-directed effort.
TRUE
Drives produce emotions; our self-concept, social norms, and past experience
translate these emotions into goal-directed needs, and these individual
characteristics also translate needs into decisions and behavior.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Level of Difficulty: 3 Hard
20. According to four-drive theory, organizations maximize motivation by focusing

(p. 138) employees on opportunities to fulfill only one of the four drives.
FALSE
Best workplaces for employee motivation and well-being offer conditions that
help employees fulfill all four drives.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
21. Four-drive theory recommends keeping all four drives in balance; that is,
(p. 138) organizations should avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each
drive.
TRUE
One of the recommendations of the four-drive theory is that fulfillment of the

four drives must be kept in balance; that is, organizations should avoid too
much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
22. Expectancy theory of motivation states that people naturally direct their effort
(p. 139) towards behaviors they believe are most likely to lead to desired outcomes.
TRUE
Expectancy theory states that work effort is directed toward behaviors that
people believe will lead to desired outcomes. In other words, we are motivated
to achieve the goals with the highest expected payoff.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model; including its practical implications.
Topic: Expectancy Theory of Motivation
23. According to expectancy theory, employee motivation will remain high when
(p. 140) the P-to-O expectancy falls to zero.
FALSE
P-to-O expectancy is the perceived probability that a specific behavior or

performance level will lead to a particular outcome. Hence reduced P-to-O
expectancy would lead to reduced motivation.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
24. In expectancy theory, the P-to-O expectancy is the perceived probability that a
(p. 140) specific behavior or performance level will lead to a particular outcome.
TRUE
P-to-O expectancy is the perceived probability that a specific behavior or

performance level will lead to a particular outcome.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
25. A way to increase an employee's E-to-P expectancy regarding a specific task is

(p. 140) to increase the person's self-confidence through counseling and coaching.
TRUE
E-to-P expectancies are influenced by the individual's belief that he or she can
successfully complete the task. Thus, improving self-confidence will improve a
person's E-to-P expectancy.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Topic: Expectancy Theory in Practice
26. A way to increase a person's P-to-O expectancy is to measure his or her job
(p. 141) performance more accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those with
higher job performance.
TRUE
The most obvious ways to improve P-to-O expectancies are to measure

employee performance accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those
with higher job performance.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
27. Expectancy theory identifies emotions as a key component of employee

(p. 141) motivation.
FALSE
A major criticism of expectancy theory is that it ignores the central role of

emotion in employee effort and behavior.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
28. The compliments or teasing received from coworkers when an employee wears
(p. 142) safety goggles are referred to as consequences.
TRUE
Consequences are events following a particular behavior that influence its

future occurrence, such as the compliments or teasing received from
coworkers when an employee wears safety goggles.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Learning Objective: 05-05 Outline organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) and social cognitive theory and explain their
relevance to employee motivation.
Topic: Organizational Behavior Modification
29. Antecedents are events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a
(p. 142) particular action will produce specific consequences.
TRUE
Antecedents are events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a

particular action will produce specific consequences.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
30. Antecedents cause behavior.
(p. 142)
FALSE
Antecedents are events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a

particular action will produce specific consequences. They do not cause
behavior. The computer sound doesn't cause us to open our e-mail. Rather,
the sound (antecedent) is a cue telling us that if we check our e-mail
(behavior), we are certain to find a new message (consequence).
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
31. The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks is variable
(p. 142,143)ratioschedule.
FALSE
The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks is

continuous reinforcement—providing positive reinforcement after every
occurrence of the desired behavior.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
32. People learn not only by observing others but also by imitating and practicing
(p. 144) those behaviors.
TRUE
People learn not only by observing others but also by imitating and practicing
those behaviors. Direct sensory experience helps a person acquire tacit
knowledge and skills, such as the subtle person-machine interaction that is
required while driving a vehicle.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Topic: Social Cognitive Theory
33. Goal setting potentially improves employee performance by increasing

(p. 144) motivation and clarifying role perceptions.
TRUE
Goal setting is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role
perceptions by establishing performance objectives. Goal setting potentially
improves employee performance in two ways: (1) by amplifying the intensity
and persistence of effort and (2) by giving employees clearer role perceptions
so their effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work
performance.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: Goal Setting and Feedback
34. Goal setting tends to be more effective when goals are specific rather than
(p. 144,145)general.
TRUE
Employees put more effort into a task when they work toward goals that state
what needs to be accomplished; how it should be accomplished; and where,
when, and with whom it should be accomplished. Specific goals clarify
performance expectations, so employees can direct their effort more
efficiently and reliably.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
35. Goal setting is more effective when employees can easily complete the goals
(p. 146) assigned to them.
FALSE
Challenging goals (rather than easy ones) cause people to raise the intensity
and persistence of their work effort and to think through information more
actively.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
36. Participation in goal formation tends to increase performance when employees
(p. 146) lack commitment to assigned goals.
TRUE
Goals tend to be more effective when employees are committed to them, not
just compliant. Goal commitment also increases when employees are involved
in goal setting.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
37. Feedback to employees is most effective when it is frequent, credible, and

(p. 146,147)general.
FALSE
Feedback should be frequent, credible, and specific.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Topic: Characteristics of Effective Feedback
38. Feedback can be more frequent when employees perform jobs with short
(p. 147) rather than long cycle time.
TRUE
Feedback is necessarily less frequent in jobs with a long cycle time than in jobs
with a short cycle time.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
39. Multisource feedback is information about an employee's performance,
(p. 148) collected from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors,
and customers.
TRUE
Multisource (360-degree) feedback is a social form of feedback that has been

widely used in organizations. As the name implies, multisource feedback is
information about an employee's performance, collected from a full circle of
people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Topic: Sources of Feedback
40. Multisource feedback tends to provide more complete and accurate information
(p. 148) than feedback from a supervisor alone.
TRUE
Multisource feedback tends to provide more complete and accurate information

than feedback from a supervisor alone. It is particularly useful when the
supervisor is unable to observe the employee's behavior or performance
throughout the year.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
41. To learn about their progress toward goal accomplishment, employees usually
(p. 149) prefer feedback from supervisors and other people.
FALSE
Employees usually prefer nonsocial (sources other than people) feedback

sources to learn about their progress toward goal accomplishment.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
42. Employees consider feedback from nonsocial sources to be more accurate

(p. 149) than feedback from social sources.
TRUE
Information from nonsocial sources, such as computer charts and electronic

gauges, is considered more accurate than information from social sources
(from other people).
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
43. When employees want to improve their self-image, they seek out positive
(p. 149) feedback from social sources.
TRUE
When employees want to improve their self-image they seek out positive
feedback from social sources. It feels better to have coworkers say that you are
performing the job well than to discover this from a computer screen.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
44. Combining goal setting with monetary incentives motivates many employees to
(p. 149) set difficult goals that are hard to achieve.
FALSE
When goal achievement is tied to financial rewards, many employees are

motivated to set easy goals (while making the boss think they are difficult) so
that they have a higher probability of attaining the bonus or pay increase.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Topic: Evaluating Goal Setting and Feedback
45. The distributive justice principle states that everyone should receive the same
(p. 149) rewards in life.
FALSE
Distributive justice refers to perceived fairness in the outcomes we receive

compared to our contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: Organizational Justice
46. In the equity theory model, a 'comparison other' is an individual or group of
(p. 150) people against whom the person compares his or her outcome/input ratio.
TRUE
According to the equity theory, we compare our outcome/input ratio with that of
a comparison other. A comparison other is often someone else in a similar
position, such as a coworker, but it might also be someone or a group of
people in other jobs.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Equity Theory
47. A significant discovery in equity theory research is that people tend to keep one
(p. 150) specific comparison other throughout their working lives.
FALSE
A comparison other is often someone else in a similar position, such as a

coworker, but it might also be someone or a group of people in other jobs.
Some research suggests that employees frequently collect information about
several referents to form a "generalized" comparison other.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
48. Feelings of inequity occur when employees receive less than others, but not
(p. 150,151)when they receive more than others.
FALSE
The comparison of our own outcome/input ratio with the ratio of someone
else results in perceptions of equity, underreward inequity, or overreward
inequity. In the equity condition, people believe that their outcome/input ratio
is similar to the ratio of the comparison other. In the underreward inequity
situation, people believe their outcome/input ratio is lower than the
comparison other's ratio. In the overreward inequity condition, people believe
their ratio of outcomes/inputs is higher than the comparison other's ratio.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
49. Underreward inequity occurs when an individual's outcome/input ratio is lower

(p. 151) than the outcome/input ratio of a comparison other.
TRUE
In the under-reward inequity situation, people believe their outcome/input ratio

is lower than the comparison other's ratio.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
50. Overreward inequity occurs whenever other people receive less money than
(p. 151) the comparison others.
FALSE
Overreward inequity condition arises when people believe their outcome/input

ratio is higher than the comparison other's ratio. The overreward may occur
due to low inputs also.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
51. Equity theory research has found that employees who feel overrewarded tend
(p. 152) to alter their perceptions of inputs and outcomes rather than attempt to actually
change them.
TRUE
A common response to overreward inequity is that the overrewarded employee

changes his or her perceptions to justify the more favorable outcomes.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
52. Procedural justice is higher when the decision maker is perceived as
(p. 153) unbiased.
TRUE
Procedural justice is higher when the decision maker is perceived as unbiased,

relies on complete and accurate information, applies existing policies
consistently, and has listened to all sides of the dispute.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Procedural Justice
53. Distributive justice increases directly with the extent that the decision allows
(p. 153) voice, can be appealed, and has an unbiased decision maker.
FALSE
Procedural justice, and not distributive justice, increases directly with the extent
that the decision allows voice, can be appealed, and has an unbiased decision
maker.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
54. Feelings of procedural injustice produce anger, which, in turn, generates either
(p. 153) withdrawal or aggression.
TRUE
Procedural justice has a strong influence on a person's emotions and

motivation. Employees tend to experience anger toward a source of injustice,
which generates various response behaviors that scholars categorize as either
withdrawal or aggression.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Multiple Choice Questions
55. The _____ of human beings are also called primary needs.
(p. 131)
A. beliefs
B. values
C. attitudes
D. drives
E. thoughts
Our innate drives, which represent a universal and innate brain function that
produces emotions that energize individuals to act on their environment, are
also called primary needs.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
56. Which of the following statements is true about the innate drives of people?
(p. 132)
A. Drives refer to the secondary needs of individuals.

B. Emotions that energize individuals to act on their environment produce
drives.
C. Drives include only the basic physiological essentials of individuals.
D. Drives are the secondary sources of employee motivation.
E. Drives are innate and universal to human beings.
Drives are innate and universal, meaning that we are born with them and
everyone has them.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
57. _____ are the motivational forces of emotions channeled toward particular
(p. 132) goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances.
A. Needs
B. Thoughts
C. Beliefs
D. Values
E. Strategies
Needs are goal-directed forces that people experience. They are the
motivational forces of emotions channeled toward particular goals to correct
deficiencies or imbalances.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
58. Self-concept, social norms, and past experiences help us:
(p. 132)
A. have a fixed level of drive-based emotions.

B. fully regulate our decisions and behaviors.
C. minimize cognitive dissonances.
D. make unemotional decisions based on reason and logic.
E. have stronger or weaker needs by amplifying or suppressing emotions.
Individuals' self-concept (including personality and values), social norms, and

past experience amplify or suppress drive-based emotions, thereby resulting in
stronger or weaker needs.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Individual Differences in Needs
59. Which of the following does Maslow's needs hierarchy theory include?
(p. 133)
A. Domination
B. Frustration-regression
C. Desire to know
D. Aesthetic beauty
Maslow integrated the list of needs into a hierarchy of five basic categories
(from lowest to highest): physiological (need for food, air, water, shelter, etc.),
safety (need for security and stability), belongingness/love (need for interaction
with and affection from others), esteem (need for self-esteem and social
esteem/status), and self-actualization (need for self-fulfillment and the
realization of one's potential).
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
60. Which of the following is the highest level of need in Maslow's hierarchy of
(p. 133) needs?
A. Esteem
B. Safety
C. Power
D. Belongingness
Maslow integrated the list of needs into a hierarchy of five basic categories
(from lowest to highest.) Self-actualization is the top-most need on the list.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
61. Which of the following needs is the strongest according to Maslow's needs
(p. 133) hierarchy theory?
A. Need for food

B. Need to socialize
C. Need for self actualization
D. Need to be secure
E. Need for love
According to Maslow, we are motivated simultaneously by several primary

needs, but the strongest source is the lowest unsatisfied need at the time.
Need for food is the lowest unsatisfied need here.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
62. Which of these theories states that we are motivated by several needs, but the
(p. 133) strongest source is the lowest unsatisfied need?
A. Four-drive theory
B. Needs hierarchy theory
C. Equity theory
D. Distributive justice theory
E. Learned needs theory
Maslow suggested that we are motivated simultaneously by several primary

needs (drives), but the strongest source of motivation is the lowest unsatisfied
need at the time. As the person satisfies a lower-level need, the next higher
need in the hierarchy becomes the primary motivator and remains so even if
never satisfied.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
63. Which of the following is a major criticism of Maslow's needs hierarchy theory?
(p. 133)
A. The safety and physiological needs do not arise due to human drives.
B. The need for love and esteem do not apply for many of the individuals.
C. Physiological needs of a person are often considered a weaker need than
the other needs.
D. People do not progress through the hierarchy as the theory predicts.
E. The theory gives more importance to the satisfied needs than the unsatisfied
needs.
Empirical studies have concluded that people do not progress through the
hierarchy as the theory predicts.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
64. Which of the following statements is consistent with the observations of
(p. 134) Maslow?
A. Motivation research must look at each need and drive apart from others.
B. A specific human behavior is typically initiated by a solitary need or drive.
C. Higher-order needs are not influenced by personal and social influences.
D. Maslow refocused attention on need gratification instead of need
deprivation.
E. Maslow suggested that people are naturally motivated to reach their
potential.
Maslow popularized the term self-actualization, suggesting that people are

naturally motivated to reach their potential.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
65. Which of the following statements was not considered by the needs hierarchy
(p. 134) theory?
A. Everyone is naturally motivated to reach their full potential.

B. Higher-order needs are influenced by personal and social influences.
C. Basic needs are more essential to individuals than their socialization needs.
D. People's physiological needs are stronger than their esteem needs.
E. Needs are strongly influenced by each individual's self-concept.
Maslow's theory ultimately failed to explain human motivation because people

don't fit into a one-size-fits-all needs hierarchy. Typically, needs are strongly
influenced by each individual's self-concept and needs hierarchies are unique
to each person. The needs hierarchy theory did not consider this.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
66. The desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and
(p. 135) expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontations is referred to as the need
for:
A. affiliation.
B. power.
C. achievement.
D. safety.
E. existence.
Need for affiliation (nAff) refers to a desire to seek approval from others,
conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
67. According to the four-drive theory, which of the following drives is the
(p. 136) foundation of competition and the basis of our need for esteem?
A. Drive to acquire
B. Drive to dominate
C. Drive to defend
D. Drive to bond
E. Drive to learn
Drive to acquire is the drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and
personal experiences. The drive to acquire extends beyond basic food and
water; it includes enhancing one's self-concept through relative status and
recognition in society. Thus, it is the foundation of competition and the basis of
our need for esteem.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
68. In the four-drive theory, the drive ______ is most closely associated with the
(p. 136) need for relative status and recognition.
A. to bond
B. for fairness
C. to achieve goals
D. to acquire
E. for feedback
Drive to acquire is the drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and
personal experiences. The drive to acquire extends beyond basic food and
water; it includes enhancing one's self-concept through relative status and
recognition in society.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
69. Which drive in the four-drive theory is reactive rather than proactive?
(p. 136,137)
A. Drive to acquire
B. Drive to learn
C. Drive to defend
D. Drive to bond
E. Drive for power
Only the drive to defend is reactive—it is triggered by threat. The drive to

defend is the drive to protect ourselves physically and socially. Probably the
first drive to develop, it creates a "fight-or-flight" response in the face of
personal danger. The drive to defend goes beyond protecting our physical
selves. It includes defending our relationships, our acquisitions, and our
belief systems. It is reactive rather than proactive.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
70. The main implication of the four-drive theory of motivation is that:
(p. 138,139)
A. employers should offer employees a choice of rewards and continuously

initiate change in the workplace.
B. employees should be given generic goals with plenty of feedback.
C. employers should motivate employees to achieve challenging goals and
give them egalitarian rewards.
E. drives/needs-based theories have no relevance for managing people in
The main recommendation from four-drive theory is that organizations should

ensure that jobs and workplaces provide a balanced opportunity to fulfill the
four drives. There are really two recommendations here. The first is that the
best workplaces for employee motivation and well-being offer conditions that
help employees fulfill all four drives. Employees continually seek fulfillment of
their innate drives, so successful companies provide sufficient rewards,
information about organizational events, social interaction, and so forth for all
employees. The second recommendation is that fulfillment of the four drives
must be kept in balance; that is, organizations should avoid too much or too
little opportunity to fulfill each drive.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
71. Four-drive theory recommends that companies should:
(p. 132,138)
A. encourage employees to fulfill one drive at a time.

B. provide sufficient rewards, learning opportunities, and social interaction at
the same time.
C. only hire people with a strong drive to defend.
D. create a work environment that routinely triggers the employee's drive to
defend.
E. encourage the desire for aesthetic beauty and the desire to know.
Four-drive theory recommends that companies should provide sufficient

rewards, learning opportunities, and social interaction at the same time. It is
based on the idea that the sources of employee needs are hardwired through
evolution.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
72. One of the main implications of four-drive theory is that:
(p. 138)
A. employers should offer employees enough opportunity to keep each drive in

balance.
B. employees should be given specific goals with plenty of feedback.
C. employers should give all employees the same employee benefits.
E. needs-based theories have no relevance for managing people in
Four-drive theory recommendation is that fulfillment of the four drives must be

kept in balance; that is, organizations should avoid too much or too little
opportunity to fulfill each drive.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
73. Which of the following theories of motivation is based on the idea that work
(p. 139) effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired
outcomes?
A. Equity theory
B. ERG theory
C. Goal setting theory
D. Four-drive theory
E. Expectancy theory
The expectance theory states that work effort is directed toward behaviors that
people believe will lead to desired outcomes.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
74. Expectancy theory helps us to predict an individual's:
(p. 139)
A. effort.
B. need for achievement.
C. distributive justice.
D. job satisfaction.
E. rewards.
people believe will lead to desired outcomes. Hence it mainly helps us to
predict an individual's effort.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
75. An individual's perceived probability that a particular level of effort will result in
(p. 139) a particular level of performance is referred to as the:
A. E-to-P valance.
B. EP-to-PO outcome.
C. E-to-V expectancy.
D. E-to-P expectancy.
E. EV-to-PE outcome.
E-to-P expectancy is the individual's perception that his or her effort will result
in a particular level of performance.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
76. Which of these is one of the factors in the expectancy theory model?
(p. 139)
A. E-to-P expectancy
B. E-to-O expectancy
C. V-to-E expectancy
D. P-to-E expectancy
E. O-to-P expectancy
According to the expectancy theory of motivation, an individual's effort level

depends on three factors: effort-to-performance (E-to-P) expectancy,
performance-to-outcome (P-to-O) expectancy, and outcome valences. E-to-P
expectancy is the individual's perception that his or her effort will result in a
particular level of performance.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
77. Which of the following does the expectancy theory explain about employees?
(p. 139)
A. They have different needs at different times.

B. They can use personal expectations to reduce work-related stress.
C. They can motivate themselves through power.
D. They base their work effort on the performance level they expect.
E. They compare their inputs and outcomes to other people.
people believe will lead to desired outcomes. In other words, employees are
motivated to achieve the goals with the highest expected payoff.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
78. In expectancy theory, valence refers to the:
(p. 140)
A. amount of effort a person puts towards a known goal.

B. individual's perceived probability of performing the task at a particular level.
C. anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels toward an
outcome.
D. individual's perceived probability that his or her performance will lead to
specific outcomes.
E. feelings that result from a comparison of the individual's outcome/input ratio
with the outcome/input ratio of a comparison other.
Valence is the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels

toward an outcome.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
79. According to expectancy theory, providing counseling and coaching to an
(p. 140) employee who lacks self-confidence is most likely to increase the employee's:
A. V-to-O expectancy.
B. E-to-P expectancy.
C. P-to-E expectancy.
D. O-to-P expectancy.
E. P-to-O expectancy.
successfully complete the task. Some companies increase this can-do attitude
by assuring employees that they have the necessary competencies, clear role
perceptions, and necessary resources such as counseling and coaching to
reach the desired levels of performance.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
80. When people are assigned to jobs for which they are qualified and they receive
(p. 140) coaching to improve their self-confidence, employee motivation improves by:
A. reducing feelings of inequity.

B. increasing outcome valences.
C. satisfying existence needs.
D. increasing P-to-O expectancies.
E. increasing E-to-P expectancies.
perceptions, and necessary resources such as counseling and coaching to
reach the desired levels of performance.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
81. According to expectancy theory, a skill-development training program would:
(p. 140)
A. have no effect on employee motivation.

B. mainly increase the effort-to-performance expectancy.
C. mainly increase the performance-to-outcome expectancy.
D. mainly increase the valence of pay increases and other organizational
outcomes.
E. mainly alter the comparison other.
successfully complete the task. Some companies increase these expectancies
perceptions, and necessary resources such as counseling, training programs,
and coaching to reach the desired levels of performance.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
82. Which of the following is a way to increase employee motivation by improving
(p. 141) the P-to-O expectancies?
A. Measuring employee performance accurately and distributing more valued

rewards.
B. Convincing employees that they will be able to accomplish the task.
C. Selecting employees with the required skills, knowledge, and motivation to
perform jobs.
D. Providing sufficient time and resources to employees to perform the task.
E. Treating everyone equally by giving all of them the same reward.

AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
83. ABC Corp. brought in a performance-based reward system that accurately
(p. 141) identified employees who performed better than others. This practice improves
employee motivation by:
A. increasing employee needs.

B. reducing feelings of inequity.
C. improving E-to-P expectancies.
D. improving P-to-O expectancies.
E. increasing outcome valence.

with higher job performance. ABC Corp. brought in a performance-based
reward system that accurately identified employees who performed better than
others. Hence this improved employee motivation by improving P-to-O
expectancies.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
84. According to expectancy theory, giving more valued rewards to employees with
(p. 141) higher job performance mainly increases motivation by:
A. strengthening the E-to-P expectancies of employees.

B. introducing a negative valence in the organization.
C. weakening the E-to-P expectancies of employees.
D. strengthening both the E-to-P and P-to-O expectancies of employees.
E. strengthening the P-to-O expectancies of employees.

AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
85. Which of the following components are enhanced by individualizing rewards?

(p. 141)
A. Performance expectancies
B. E-to-O expectancies
C. Valences of outcomes
D. E-to-P expectancies
E. V-to-E outcomes
Organizational leaders need to find ways to individualize rewards or, where

standard rewards are necessary, to identify rewards that do not have a
negative valence for some staff.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
86. According to expectancy theory, an unwanted reward has:
(p. 140,141)
A. a high E-to-P expectancy.

B. an inappropriate comparison other.
C. a negative outcome valence.
D. a low P-to-O expectancy.
E. a low need for socialized power.
Valence is the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual

feels toward an outcome. Outcomes have a positive valence when they are
consistent with our values and satisfy our needs; they have a negative
valence when they oppose our values and inhibit need fulfillment.
Organizational leaders need to find ways to individualize rewards or, where
standard rewards are necessary, to identify rewards that do not have a
negative valence for some staff.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
87. Which of the following is applied by supervisors when they stop criticizing
(p. 142) employees whose substandard performance has improved?
A. Future probability
B. Extinction
C. Positive reinforcement
D. Punishment
E. Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement occurs when the removal or avoidance of a

consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a
specific behavior. Supervisors apply negative reinforcement when they stop
criticizing employees whose substandard performance has improved.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
88. The best reinforcement schedule for motivating employees is a(n) _____.
(p. 143)
A. continuous reinforcement schedule

B. variable ratio schedule
C. fixed schedule
D. extinction
E. avoidance of consequence
The best schedule for motivating employees is a variable ratio schedule in

which employee behavior is reinforced after a variable number of times.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
89. _____ states that much learning and motivation occurs by observing and
(p. 143) modeling others, as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior.
A. Equity theory
B. Expectancy theory
C. Four-drive theory
D. Learned Needs Theory
E. Social cognitive theory
Social cognitive theory states that much learning and motivation occurs by
observing and modeling others, as well as by anticipating the consequences of
our behavior.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
90. Goal setting influences employee behavior and performance mainly by

(p. 144) improving:
A. situational contingencies and learned abilities.

B. aptitudes and learned abilities.
C. motivation and role perceptions.
D. role perceptions and learned abilities.
E. self-confidence and aptitudes.
Goal setting is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role
perceptions by establishing performance objectives.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
91. Goal setting is most effective when:
(p. 144,145,146)
A. the supervisor sets the goals before discussing them with the
employee.
B. the goals do not stretch the employee's abilities and motivation.
C. the goal statements are general rather than specific.
D. the intensity of employee effort is minimal.
E. it does not compel people to increase the persistence of their work
effort.
Goal setting is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their

role perceptions by establishing performance objectives. Goal
commitment also increases when employees are involved in goal setting.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
92. The optimal level difficulty of a goal:

(p. 145)
A. occurs when the goal is challenging but not impossible.

B. is the most challenging goal that the company can possibly imagine.
C. occurs only when employees set their own goal.
D. is the point at which the employees exert minimal effort to achieve a certain
outcome.
E. occurs when the employees work using alternate work arrangements.
Goals should be challenging without being so difficult that employees lose their
motivation to achieve them. Goals should not be impossible.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
93. To increase goal performance, employees should participate in the goal-setting
(p. 146) process:
A. when employees would otherwise lack commitment to those goals.

B. whenever supervisors have any control over setting goals.
C. when employees lack knowledge of what would improve goal quality.
D. when they believe that the supervisors are not capable enough to set the
goals.
E. there are only a few employees in the organization.
Goal participation potentially creates a higher level of goal commitment than is

found when goals are set by the supervisor alone. When employees lack
commitment towards goals, participation can be used. Goals tend to be more
effective when employees are committed to them, and goal commitment
increases when employees are involved in goal setting.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
94. Effective feedback:

(p. 147)
A. is generic in nature and applies to all employees.

B. is provided only through social sources.
C. should not be very frequent as frequency reduces its value.
D. can occur only when employees have weak self-efficacy.
E. should always come from a credible source.
Effective feedback is credible. Employees are more likely to accept feedback

from trustworthy and credible sources.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
95. Which of the following statements portrays the essence of appreciative
(p. 147,148)coaching?
A. Managers should provide frequent corrective feedback to employees.

B. Organizations should concentrate on maintaining a participative
management style.
C. Employees should openly discuss their problems with their managers.
D. An organization should strike a balance between punishments and
rewards.
E. Managers should concentrate on the strengths of employees rather than
their weaknesses.
The essence of appreciative coaching is: maximizing employees' potential by

focusing on their strengths rather than weaknesses. It gives employees
opportunities to develop their strengths rather than requiring them to focus on
areas where they have limited interest or talent.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
96. Which of the following theories suggests that employee motivation is influenced
(p. 150) by what other people contribute to and receive from the organization?
A. Expectancy theory
B. Equity theory
C. Needs-based theory
D. Need theory
E. Goal setting theory
Equity theory states that we compare our outcome/input ratio with that of a
comparison other. The comparison other might be another person or group of
people in other jobs or another organization.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
97. The distributive justice rule employs the concept of:

(p. 150)
A. motivation.
B. individual needs.
C. equity.
D. goal setting.
E. performance feedback.
The equity principle implies that people should be paid in proportion to their
contribution. The equity principle is the most common distributive justice rule in
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
98. Outcome/Input ratio and comparison other are elements of:
(p. 150)
A. innate drives theory.

B. Maslow's needs hierarchy.
C. equity theory.
D. expectancy theory.
E. goal setting theory.
According to equity theory, we compare our outcome/input ratio with that of a

comparison other. A comparison other is often someone else in a similar
position, such as a coworker, but it might also be someone or a group of
people in other jobs.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
99. Employees who receive a fixed amount of pay each week and who feel
(p. 151) underrewarded are most likely to:
A. reduce their work effort.

B. increase their work effort.
C. change their comparison other.
D. encourage the comparison other to increase his or her work effort.
E. use a different measure other than comparison other.
Reducing inputs is one of the common ways in which employees respond to

underrewarded inequity.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
100. According to equity theory:
(p. 150)
A. all employees of an organization have the same needs over their working
lives.
B. money should never be used to motivate employees.
C. employees must set their own goals and performance standards.
D. the selection of comparison other varies from one person to the next.
E. improving job security and working conditions will improve job satisfaction
and, consequently, employee motivation.
According to equity theory, the selection of the comparison other varies from
one person to the next and is not easily identifiable.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
101. Which of the following statements is true about the equity situation?
(p. 150,151)
A. People avoid having a comparison other.

B. People tend to be tolerant of situations where they are under-rewarded.
C. People have a low E-to-P expectancy.
D. People feel more comfortable in situations where they receive
proportionately more than others.
E. People believe that their outcome/input ratio is similar to the
outcome/input ratio of the comparison other.
People develop feelings of equity or inequity by comparing their own

outcome/input ratio with the comparison other's ratio. In the equity condition,
people believe that their outcome/input ratio is similar to the ratio of the
comparison other.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
102. With respect to procedural justice, the "value-expressive" function that "voice"
(p. 153) provides refers to the:
A. feeling employees get when they feel valued at work.

B. way employees feel after voicing their opinions.
C. cathartic benefits of shouting at each other.
D. sense of pride employees derive when they are eloquent during
presentations.
E. the stand-off situation that arises as a consequence of the collective voice of
the employees.
Voice refers to encouraging employees to present their facts and perspectives

on the issue. Voice provides a value-expressive function because employees
tend to feel better after having an opportunity to speak their minds.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
103. When people experience procedural injustice, they tend to:

(p. 153)
A. focus on organizational citizenship acts.

B. engage in counterproductive work behaviors.
C. be more likely to comply with higher authorities in the future.
D. change the selection process of comparison others.
E. engage in comparative injustice towards others.
In case of a procedural injustice, employees engage in these counterproductive

behaviors to educate the decision maker, thereby trying to minimize the
likelihood of future injustices.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Essay Questions
104. Maslow's needs hierarchy theory was dismissed by experts more than three
(p. 134) decades ago, yet Maslow's writing has had a lasting and valuable effect by
advocating a more holistic, humanistic, and positive approach to human

motivation. Discuss these three approaches and point out how they were
applied in Maslow's needs hierarchy theory.
Holistic perspective of motivation: Maslow argued that motivation research

must look at all needs and drives together rather than examining one or two of
them apart from others. The reason is that human behavior is typically initiated
by more than one need or drive at the same time. Maslow's needs hierarchy
theory takes a holistic approach by condensing the long list of needs into a
hierarchy of five basic categories, and describes the effect of these needs on
motivation in terms of each need's relationship to other needs (the lowest level
need is strongest; people move to a higher need when the lower one is fulfilled,
etc.).
Humanistic perspective of motivation: Higher order needs are influenced by
personal and social influences (such as self-concept and social norms), not just
instincts. Previous motivation research had focused almost entirely on
instinctive behavior.
Positive perspective of motivation: Maslow refocused attention on need
gratification rather than only need deprivation. He popularized the term self-
actualization, suggesting that people are naturally motivated to reach their
potential and that organizations and societies need to be structured to help
people continue and develop this motivation. Indeed, Maslow is considered a
pioneer in positive organizational behavior.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
105. Explain the three "learned" needs of the learned needs theory examined by
(p. 134,135)McClelland.
McClelland examined three "learned" needs: achievement, power, and

affiliation.
Need for achievement: People with a strong need for achievement (nAch)
want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own effort.
They prefer working alone rather than in teams, and they choose tasks with a
moderate degree of risk. High-nAch people also desire unambiguous
feedback and recognition for their success. Money is a weak motivator,
except when it provides feedback and recognition. In contrast, employees
with a low nAch perform their work better when money is used as an
incentive.
Need for affiliation: It refers to a desire to seek approval from others, conform
to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation. People
with a strong nAff try to project a favorable image of themselves. They tend
to actively support others and try to smooth out workplace conflicts.
However, they tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources and
making other decisions that potentially generate conflict. People in decision-
making positions must have a relatively low need for affiliation so that their
choices and actions are not biased by a personal need for approval.
Need for power: People with a high need for power (nPow) want to exercise
control over others and are concerned about maintaining their leadership
position. They frequently rely on persuasive communication, make more
suggestions in meetings, and tend to publicly evaluate situations more
frequently. McClelland pointed out that there are two types of nPow.
Individuals who enjoy their power for its own sake, use it to advance personal
interests, and wear their power as a status symbol have personalized power.
Others mainly have a high need for socialized power because they desire
power as a means to help others.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
106. Briefly describe four-drive theory and explain how drives influence employee
(p. 136,137)motivation.
Four-drive theory states that everyone has the drive to acquire, bond, learn,
and defend:
Drive to acquire: This is the drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects
and personal experiences.
Drive to bond: This is the drive to form social relationships and develop
mutual caring commitments with others.
Drive to comprehend: This is the drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and
understand ourselves and the environment around us.
Drive to defend: This drive creates a fight-or-flight response in the face of
personal danger.
Every bit of information we receive is quickly and nonconsciously tagged with

emotional markers that subsequently shape our logical analysis of the
situation. According to four-drive theory, these four drives determine which
emotions are tagged to incoming stimuli. Four-drive theory states that
competing drives (i.e. conflicting emotions) demand our attention, which
causes us to choose a course of action based on our social norms, past
experience, and personal values. In other words, our conscious analysis of
competing demands from the four drives generates needs that energize us to
act in ways acceptable to society and our own moral compass.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
107. Your organization wants to improve employee motivation. Employees already
(p. 140) have strong P-to-O expectancies and the outcome valences are quite favorable
for strong performance, but they seem to have a low E-to-P expectancy.
Identify any three strategies that would potentially increase employee
motivation by improving the E-to-P expectancy.
by ensuring that employees have the necessary competencies, clear role
perceptions, and necessary resources to reach the desired levels of
performance.
The following strategies could be used to improve E-to-P expectancies. (1)
Select people with the required skills and knowledge. (2) Provide required
training and clarify job requirements. (3) Provide sufficient time and resources.
(4) Assign simpler or fewer tasks until employees can master them. (5) Provide
examples of similar employees who have successfully performed the task. (6)
Provide coaching to employees who lack self-confidence.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
108. Explain the four types of consequences identified by organizational behavior
(p. 142) modification or OB Mod.
OB Mod identifies four types of consequences.
Positive reinforcement: This consequence occurs when the introduction of a

consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a
specific behavior.
This occurs, for example, when receiving praise after completing a project.
Punishment: This occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or
future probability of a behavior. Most of us would consider being demoted or
ostracized by our coworkers as forms of punishment.
Negative reinforcement: This consequence is not punishment. Rather, it occurs
when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases or maintains the
frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. Supervisors apply
negative reinforcement when they stop criticizing employees whose
substandard performance has improved.
Extinction: This consequence occurs when the target behavior decreases
because no consequence follows it. For instance, research suggests that
performance tends to decline when managers stop congratulating employees
for their good work.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
109. Describe the three ideas of social cognitive theory that are most relevant to
(p. 144) employee motivation.
Learning behavioral outcomes: People learn the consequences of behavior by

observing or hearing about what happened to other people, not just by directly
experiencing the consequences. Hearing that a coworker was fired for being
rude to a client increases your perception that rude behavior will result in being
fired.
Behavior modeling: People learn not only by observing others but also by
imitating and practicing those behaviors. It also increases self-efficacy,
because people gain more self-confidence after observing others and
performing the task successfully themselves. Self-efficacy particularly improves
when observers identify with the model, such as someone who is similar in
age, experience, gender, or related features.
Self-regulation: An important feature of social cognitive theory is that human
beings set goals and engage in other forms of intentional, purposive action.
They establish their own short- and long-term objectives, choose their own
standards of achievement, work out a plan of action, consider back-up
alternatives, and have the forethought to anticipate the consequences of their
goal-directed behavior. Furthermore, people self-regulate by engaging in self-
reinforcement; that is, they reward and punish themselves for exceeding or
falling short of their self-set standards of excellence.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
110. You supervise two-dozen sales representatives covering every region of the
(p. 146,147)country
from your office at company headquarters. Describe a feedback
strategy that might improve the performance of these employees with respect
to increasing sales to new clients.
To answer this question, we must consider the five characteristics of effective

feedback described in the textbook. In other words, the sales manager must
construct a feedback mechanism that takes into account the degree to which
the feedback is specific, frequent, timely, credible and relevant.
Specific feedback: Feedback is more useful when it includes specific

information rather than subjective and general phrases. Thus, the sales
manager should provide feedback that describes specific information (e.g.
sales volume) for a specific area and time frame.
Sufficiently frequent feedback: Most organizations should provide more
frequent feedback to employees. The best strategy is to have feedback
continuously available and to let employees decide when they want to see it.
Thus, the sales manager should make sales information available whenever
sales employees want this feedback.
Timely feedback: Feedback should be available as soon as possible so that
employees see a clear association between their behavior and its
consequences. Thus, the sales manager should arrange to have sales
information prepared as quickly as possible.
Credible feedback: Feedback has value only when the employee accepts its
content. Employees are more likely to accept feedback from trustworthy and
credible sources. Thus, feedback should come from reputable sources, such
as valid computer printouts and from executives who are respected by sales
employees.
Relevant feedback: Feedback is most effective when it relates to the
individual's behavior rather than broader departmental or organizational
activities. Thus, the sales manager should ensure that each employee's
feedback relates to sales goals for that person and that the information
relates to events under the employee's control.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
111. Briefly explain the various sources of feedback. What are the considerations
(p. 149) when selecting a source?
Employees receive feedback about their behavior and performance from many
sources—equipment gauges, executive dashboards, customer surveys,
feedback from their boss, multisource feedback, and so forth. The preferred
feedback source depends on the purpose of the information. Information from
nonsocial sources, such as computer charts and electronic gauges, is
considered more accurate than information from social sources (from other
people), so employees usually prefer nonsocial feedback sources to learn
about their progress toward goal accomplishment. Negative feedback is also
less damaging to the person's self-esteem when it is received from nonsocial
than social sources. However, when employees want to improve their self-
image, they seek out positive feedback from social sources.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
112. Jack Smith and Sam Clemens are neighbors who work as purchasing
(p. 150,151)managers
in different companies in the petrochemical industry. During one
neighborly discussion, Jack learned that Sam's salary was nearly 15% higher
than his even though their job duties were similar. Jack was upset about
Sam's higher salary although he hid his emotions from Sam (after all, it
wasn't Sam's fault that they received different salary levels). Jack was
frustrated not only because Sam received a significantly higher salary, but
also because Jack was certain that he worked longer hours and was more
productive than Sam. According to equity theory research, what will Jack
most likely do to reduce his upset feelings?
The textbook describes six possible consequences of inequity, but some are
more likely to occur in this case than the others. One likely consequence is
that Jack will try to increase his outcomes, such as by approaching his
superiors for a pay increase or making greater use of company facilities and
resources. Alternatively, Jack might try to reduce his inputs, such as by
working fewer hours and with less motivation towards maintaining high
performance. If neither of these actions sufficiently reduces his feelings of
inequity, Jack might begin looking for a purchasing management job in
another company or consider moving into higher-paying jobs within his
current organization. Jack's feelings of inequity might be reduced by
changing his perceptions, but this is more difficult given the clarity of salary
information. It is also unlikely that Jack would push Sam to work harder or try
to reduce his salary. Finally, it may be difficult for Jack to change his
comparison other since Sam is a neighbor.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
113. Why is it difficult to maintain feelings of equity among employees?
(p. 150-
152)
Maintaining feelings of equity is not an easy task because employees have
different opinions regarding which inputs should be rewarded (e.g. seniority
versus performance) and which outcomes are more valuable than others. We
must also remember that the comparison other is not easy to identify and may,
in fact, represent a distorted interpretation of reality. Lastly, people have
different levels of equity sensitivity, so they react differently to inequitable
situations. At one end of the equity sensitivity continuum are people who are
tolerant of situations where they are underrewarded. At the other end of the
equity sensitivity continuum are people who feel more comfortable when they
receive proportionately more than others. They might accept having the same
outcome/input ratio as others, but they would prefer receiving more than others
performing the same work.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand

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Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior 6th Edition

McShane Glinow 0078112648 9780078112645

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Foundations of Employee Motivation

True / False Questions

1. Motivation is closely related to the concept of employee engagement.

2. The concept of employee engagement is related to motivation, but not to role

3. In the context of motivation, drives are also called primary needs.

6. Needs hierarchy theory explains how people develop perceptions of fairness in

7. Maslow's needs hierarchy theory incorporates only five basic categories.

9. According to the needs hierarchy theory, the concept of self-actualization

10. A person's hierarchy of needs is influenced by his or her values.

12. Successful entrepreneurs tend to have a high need for achievement.

20. According to four-drive theory, organizations maximize motivation by focusing

25. A way to increase an employee's E-to-P expectancy regarding a specific task is to

27. Expectancy theory identifies emotions as a key component of employee

33. Goal setting potentially improves employee performance by increasing motivation

36. Participation in goal formation tends to increase performance when employees

37. Feedback to employees is most effective when it is frequent, credible, and

39. Multisource feedback is information about an employee's performance, collected

49. Underreward inequity occurs when an individual's outcome/input ratio is lower

Multiple Choice Questions

A. Drives refer to the secondary needs of individuals.

A. have a fixed level of drive-based emotions.

A. Need for food

A. Everyone is naturally motivated to reach their full potential.

A. employers should offer employees a choice of rewards and continuously

71. Four-drive theory recommends that companies should:

A. encourage employees to fulfill one drive at a time.

72. One of the main implications of four-drive theory is that:

A. employers should offer employees enough opportunity to keep each drive in

74. Expectancy theory helps us to predict an individual's:

A. They have different needs at different times.

78. In expectancy theory, valence refers to the:

A. amount of effort a person puts towards a known goal.

79. According to expectancy theory, providing counseling and coaching to an

A. reducing feelings of inequity.

81. According to expectancy theory, a skill-development training program would:

A. have no effect on employee motivation.

A. Measuring employee performance accurately and distributing more valued

A. increasing employee needs.

A. strengthening the E-to-P expectancies of employees.

85. Which of the following components are enhanced by individualizing rewards?

86. According to expectancy theory, an unwanted reward has:

A. a high E-to-P expectancy.

A. continuous reinforcement schedule

90. Goal setting influences employee behavior and performance mainly by

A. situational contingencies and learned abilities.

92. The optimal level difficulty of a goal:

A. occurs when the goal is challenging but not impossible.

93. To increase goal performance, employees should participate in the goal-setting

A. when employees would otherwise lack commitment to those goals.

94. Effective feedback:

A. is generic in nature and applies to all employees.

A. Managers should provide frequent corrective feedback to employees.

97. The distributive justice rule employs the concept of:

98. Outcome/Input ratio and comparison other are elements of:

A. innate drives theory.