American » Petroleum Institute Programs In Learning Operating Techniques The Mechanics of Fluids Unit 2: The Behavior of Gases 1042wB,Program developed for API by: Content Specialist for API: Content Consultants: Chairman, API Committee on Training: Vice Chairman for Teaching Learning: Validation provided through ‘the cooperation of: Howell Training Company 13831 Northwest Freeway, Suite 520 Houston, Texas 77040-5215 E. J. Rollins Atlantic Richfield Company S. B. Snyder Atlantic Richfield Company R. W. Dorman Mobil Oil Corporation D. S. Tuer ‘The Standard Oil Company (Ohio) Imperial Oil Limited ‘Standard Oil Company of California Humble Oil and Refining Company ‘Special Acknowledgement For the general encouragement and support given the PROFIT programed learning series by the API Executive Committee on Training and Developmer H.D. Aggers, Thums Long Beach Company, Chairman, .P. Malott, Continental Oil Company, Chairman; Committee on Vocational Training; Howard Swaim, Continental Oil Company, Chairman, API Subcommittee on Programed Learning, and members of the subcommittee. This text has been validated by the Committee on Training, Division of Refining, American Petroleum Institute, 1969. PLT ff) PROFIT © Program Press 1969 Reprinted June 1996 Duplication or mocification of this copyrighted material, or any part thereof, is ‘violation of Federal Law. Violation of this copyright law may result in severe ‘lvl penaities anc criminal conviction. The Federal Bureau of investigation investigates all allegations of criminal copyright infringement.THE MECHANICS OF FLUIDS Unit 2 The Behavior of Gases Section The Laws of Gus Behavior‘Hydrocarbon processing involves many types of fluids. The Mechanics of Fluids is a programed course in four units on the principles of fiuid handling as applied to refineries and other process industries. In Unit 2, The Behavior of Gases, you will learn how to pre- dict the pressure, temperature, and volume changes that occur in the compression and storing of gases. You will also learn to recognize hazards in gas handling and the precautions used to avoid these hazards.INSTRUCTIONS This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it. Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask. Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank. A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in thousandths of an inch. A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very. differences in size. ‘Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. The drawing of 2 micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED ANVIL: HUB THIMBLE SPINDLE + RATCHET CAP FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the and the. contact the object to be measured. small anvil; spindle‘The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done: Read the frame. ‘Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. ‘Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down. The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the other pages. spindleSECTION 1 THE LAWS OF GAS BEHAVIOR BASIC PRINCIPLES 1. We have learned that all substances are made up of tiny particles called molecules. At absolute zero, or —460°F, molecular motion 2. The motion of molecules depends upon temperature. At very low temperatures, most substances are solid because their molecular motion is (fast/slow). 3. When enough heat or pressure is added, increased mo- lecular motion causes solids to into the liquid phase. 4. When still more heat is added, or when pressure is re- duced enough, molecules leave the liquid surface and become 5. The motion of molecules, then, is greatest when a sub- stance is in the phase. 6. Ina gas: the heat motion of molecules is (great/small) ; the distance between molecules is (great/small). Pressure and Volume 7. Because of the distance between molecules, a gas can be into a smaller volume. 8. A gas is compressed by forcing its closer together. 9. Compression requires energy. Energy is being (added to/removed from) this gas. 1 stops, or ceases slow melt, or change gases, or vapor ‘gaseous, or gas, or vapor great great compressed molecules added to10. 1. 12. 18. 14. 16. 16. 1. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, Gas pressure is caused by the impact of gas molecules with the walls of the container. When 2 gas is compressed, its molecules are forced to occupy 2 smaller . This means that the impact of the gas molecules is con- centrated on a (larger/smaller) area, In other words, foreing a gas to occupy a smaller volume inereases the ________of the gas. If gas is expanded into a larger container, the distance between gas molecules will increase, and the energy of the molecules will be distributed over # larger area. This means that gas pressure will as the gas expands into the larger volume. Expanding 2 gas (increases/decreases) its volume and (increases /decreases) its pressure, Another way of saying this is that as the volume of the gas increases, the pressure of the gas Compression increases the of 2 gas and decreases gas, Gas pressure increases as volume Gas pressure decreases as volume This relationship between gas pressure and gas volume is called an inverse relationship. When one of these two gas variables changes one way, the other variable changes in (the same/the opposite) way. In an inverse relationship, when one variable goes up, the other variable goes (up/down). And when one variable goes down, the other variable goes _ This inverse relationship is the relationship between gas —______ and gas : 2 volume, or space smaller pressure decrease, or drop increases decreases decreases pressure volume decreases inereases the opposite down up pressure; volumeTemperature, Pressure, and Volume 28. When you heat gas molecules, they move faster. ° ° . 920° ° ° 203° “Spee ° ° ° oe oe ° ° ° ‘a . cae Q If the gas is not restricted, it (expands/contracts) when expands it is heated. 24. This means simply that heat causes molecules to move outward. If the gas is free to expand, it will occupy a larger ‘when heat is added. volume, or space 25. A gas trapped in a sealed container is not able to expand. ‘The gas in this cylinder (can/eannot) expand. cannot 26. As the gas in the cylinder is heated, the molecules move faster. ‘They strike each other and the cylinder wall (more/ Jess) often and the pressure in the cylinder (increases/ more decreases) . increases 27. Heating gas in a closed container increases the pressure of the gas.30. 31. 32, 34. 35. ‘The pressure of a gas in an open container cannot be increased, since some of the gas will escape into the surrounding atmosphere. If gas is heated in an open container, the of the gas remains the same, but the gas expands into a larger Suppose gas is in a container that can expand, If the gas is heated and allowed to expand, pressure stays the same, but the of the gas in- creases. If pressure is held constant, heating a gas increases its But, if volume is held constant, heating a gas increases its Combustion gas turbines use the principle of heating gas to expand its volume. The gas turbine first compresses air to increase its Then the air in the turbine is expanded and heated at the same time. ‘The air is heated to expand its maintaining a constant pressure. while This means that the turbine has stored a larger amount of usable energy. Both heating and compression increase the of a gas. If a gas is cooled, its molecules move slower. In a constant volume container, the pressure of a gas when heat is removed. 4 pressure volume volume volume pressure pressure ‘volume energy, or pressure decreases36. But, if the gas is at a constant pressure, its will decrease when heat is removed. 87. In other words, when a gas is at a constant pressure, heat volume and cooling volume. 38. When a gas has a constant volume, heat increases and cooling decreases 39. In each of these cases, suppose you change one gas vari- able and hold one variable constant. What will happen to the third variable? PRESSURE ‘TEMPERATURE VOLUME hold constant —_inerease hold constant —_decrease ee increase hold constant decrease hold constant hold constant —inerease hold constant decrease 40. You can see that pressure and volume are inversely re- lated gas variables. That is, when one of these variables increases, the other variable 41. On the other hand, temperature and volume are directly related gas variables. ‘When temperature changes, gas volume changes in (the same/the opposite) way, if pressure remains the same. 42. Temperature and pressure are also directly related vari- ables. When volume remains the same, gas temperature and pressure change in (the same/the opposite) direction. THE GAS LAWS 48. The relationship between pressure, temperature, and vol- ume is the basis of a set of laws or equations that de- seribe the behavior of gases. Since liquids are not compressible, these laws (apply/ do not apply) to the behavior of liquids. 44. Like a gas, a liquid expands when it is heated. And, heating liquid in a closed container increases the of a liquid, 45. But the volume changes described in the gas laws hold ‘true only for substances in the phase. 5 volume increases; decreases pressure; pressure increases decreases increases decreases decreases increases decreases the same do not apply pressure gas46. And the mathematical relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume expressed in the gas laws are based on an “ideal” or perfect gas in which there are no attractions between molecules. Since molecular attractions are an important factor in liguid behavior, the mathematical relationships expressed in the gas laws (hold/do not hold) true for substances in the liquid phase. Boyle's Law 47. A basic law of gas behavior is based on the reasoning of Charles Boyle that gas pressure is due entirely to the heat motion of molecules. In other words, Boyle reasoned that gas pressure (is/ is not) caused by gas density or weight. 48. Assume that the temperature of this gas remains con- stant, while the volume is exactly halved. The gas molecules should exert exactly as much pressure on the wall of the cylinder. 49. Suppose the gas is air, at atmospheric pressure. ‘The absolute pressure of the atmosphere is approximately PSIA. 50. If gas is compressed into half its original volume, its final pressure should be (half/double) its original pressure. 51. In other words, multiply by the fraction /2) to find the new pressure. 52. Twice atmospheric pressure is PSIA, 58. This is equivalent to a gage pressure of PSIG. In other words, when air at atmospheric pressure is com- pressed to half its original volume, the final pressure should be PSIG. 6 do not hold is not twice 147 double 29.4 14.7 14756. 31. 58. 59, 60. 61. 62. When the temperature of the gas does not change, Boyle’s law gives the final pressure resulting from a change in gas Boyle’s law states that the change in the absolute pres- sure of a gas is inversely proportional to a change in volume. In other words, if the volume is doubled, the absolute pressure is (doubled/halved). If the volume is halved, the absolute pressure is To use Boyle’s law, you must convert all pressure meas- urements to absolute units. Gage pressure can be converted to absolute pressure by adding _____PSI to the pressure shown on the gage. Or, a chart can be used to__ pressure meas- urements into absolute units. In this drawing, the absolute pressure has tripled. This must mean that the volume at A is exactly three times as great as the volume at B, or that the volume at B is exactly __________of the volume at A. ‘Suppose you know how much gas pressure has changed (without any change in temperature), and you want to Imow how much the volume has changed. If the pressure has increased, you must multiply by a fraction (larger/smaller) than 1 to get the new volume. On the other hand, if the pressure has decreased (with- out any change in temperature), the new volume must be larger than the old volume. To find the volume change that accompanies a decrease in pressure, you must multiply by a fraction that is than 1. volume halved doubled 147 convert, or change one-third, or ¥% smaller larger, or more63. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. n. 72. 7B. 74. A volume of 20,000 CF of gas is compressed into 10,000 CF. The ratio of the new pressure to the old pressure (in absolute units) would be _______ to 1. To find the new pressure, multiply the old pressure (in absolute units) by the fraction @/2, If the gas pressure was originally 20 PSIA (or 5.3 PSIG), the new pressure will be PSIA. This is equivalent to a gage pressure of PSIG. 200 CF of gas at 30 PSIG is expanded into a 400 CF container. Pressure will (increase/decrease). To find the new pressure, multiply by the fraction (00 /400, '700/ 200° The old pressure was PSIA. The new pressure is_______ PSIA. This is equivalent to a gage pressure of. PSIG. In calculating pressure and volume changes in gases, it is necessary to: convert all pressure measurements into units; and to multiply by the appropriate If 1,600,000 CF of gas is compressed to 700,000 CF, you would multiply the old (absolute) pressure by. to find the new pressure. But if the 700,000 CF were being expanded into 1,600,000 CF, you would multiply by the fraction to find the new pressure. When a gas is being compressed, the ratio of the new pres- sure to the old is always a fraction that is. than 1 leo 40 25.3 decrease 200 400 447 22.85 absolute ratio, or fraction more, or greater75. But expanding a gas always decreases its pressure (if temperature does not change). ‘Therefore, the ratio of the new pressure to the old is always than 1 when a gas is being expanded. 76. Suppose you know the pressure change and want to find the new volume. If the pressure has increased, the new volume must be than the old, and the fraction to use must be (larger/smaller) than 1. ‘77. But if the pressure has decreased (assuming no change in temperature), the new volume must be than the old and the fraction to use must be than 1, Charles’ Law ‘78, When the temperature of a gas increases, the molecules move faster. If this happens in a constant volume container, the of the gas increases. 79, Suppose the gas is in a balloon or other elastic container. 1 CUBIC FooT 2 CUBIC FEET As temperature increases, the of the gas increases. less. smaller, or less smaller larger, or greater larger, or more pressure volume80. A telescopic gas holder is a constant pressure container. TELESCOPING SECTIONS We ea [oo He | iid As temperature changes, the telescopic gas holder main- tains a constant pressure by allowing changes in gas 81. If a hot sun heats the gas in a telescopic holder, the inereases while the pressure remains the same. 82. If a cold rain or snow falls on the telescopic gas holder, ‘the volume of the gas will 88. Changes in gas volume or pressure are proportional to changes in absolute temperature. If the temperature of gas increases while the volume re- mains the same, the absolute pressure of the gas increases in the same ratio as the absolute of the gas. 84. Suppose the absolute temperature of gas in a constant volume container is doubled. ‘The absolute doubled. of the gas will also be 85. Suppose gas temperature decreases and the volume re- mains the same. ‘The absolute pressure will in the same ratio as the decrease in absolute temperature. 86. A gas in a closed container is heated from 400°R to 800°R. Its final pressure will be (half/double) its original pres- sure. 87. To find the new pressure, multiply the old (absolute) pressure by the ratio Qo? 10 volume volume decrease temperature Pressure decrease double88. 89, 90. 91. 92. 93. 94, 95. ‘Now assume the gas is in a telescopic gas holder. ‘As the temperature of the gas increases, the of gas in the holder increases. Since the gas holder offers no resistance to expansion, pressure inside the holder (increases/remains the same) as the volume increases. If the temperature increases while the pressure remains the same, the volume of the gas will in the same ratio as its absolute temperature increases. In other words, if the absolute temperature is doubled, the volume of the gas is_________, if pressure re- ‘mains the same. This law is known as Charles’ law, after the scientist who discovered it. Charles’ law states that the volume or the absolute pres- sure of a gas varies in a direct proportion to the change in absolute If the absolute temperature of a gas is halved, Charles’ law states that either: the volume will be remains the same; or, that while the pressure the pressure will be » While the volume remains the same. According to Charles’ law, if this cube were completely elastic, we could double the volume of the cube by heat alone. - ‘To double the volume of the cube, we would need to the absolute temperature of the gas in the cube, Assuming a rigid cube that cannot expand, doubling the absolute temperature will the absolute pressure of the gas in the cube, uw volume remains the same increase doubled temperature halved halved double double96. | A helium balloon containing 400 cubic feet of gas is heated from 400°R to 800°R. of If the pressure does not change, the the gas in the balloon will increase. 97. To find the new volume, multiply 400 cubie feet by the fraction 98. The final volume of the gas in the balloon is cubic feet. 100,000 CF of gas in a constant pressure telescopic holder is heated from 500°R to 600°R. ‘The new volume will be 100,000 CF times 100. This fraction is greater than 1 because the increase in temperature acts to___________the volume, when Pressure remains the same. 101. If a pressurized cylinder of gas is heated from 510°R to 630°R while the volume remains the same, the new pres- sure will be the old pressure in absolute units times the fraction 102. Suppose you know the pressure change and you want to find the temperature change (at a constant volume). If gas pressure changes without a change in volume, this change must be caused by a change in 103. | Gas at a constant volume rises from 20 PSIA to 80 PSIA. The old temperature was 430° ‘The new temperature must be 430°R times the fraction '104. The fraction to use is greater than 1 because a rise in pres- sure with a constant volume must mean an in gas temperature, 105. If the pressure had fallen without a change in volume, this would mean that the had fallen, 106. To calculate the new temperature resulting from a de- crease in pressure (at a constant volume), multiply the ratio of the absolute pressure change by the old tem- perature. This will give the new absolute 12 volume 800 92 q00 8 FT 800 increase 630 | 63. ry 8 SF temperature 30 08 20 seat 2: inerease temperature temperature107. 108. 109, The 110. 111 112. 118. 14. ‘You can convert temperature in °F to absolute units by adding ________* to the Fahrenheit reading. 60°F is equivalent to Or, 600°R is equivalent to General Law Boyle's law and Charles’ law combine to give the general law of gas behavior. With reference to the volume of a gas, this law states that: gas volume changes in a direct ratio to changes in ab- solute ____; and gas volume changes in an inverse ratio to changes in absolute This law can be expressed by an equation. In other words, if you multiply the original pressure and volume of a gas and divide by its , you have a constant number. ‘Then any new changes in pressure, volume or temperature, when multiplied and divided in the equation 2Y, must come out to the same constant number. Since the product or total value of this fraction must always be the same for a given gas, you can find the exact amount of in one of these variables, if you know the other two variables. The value of the constant number HY is sometimes called the gas constant R. It is different for different gases. In other words, the value of R is a (variable/property) of gases. This means that you must always compare the same gas or mixture of gases to calculate the PVT changes. ‘The gas laws state that for any gas or mixture of gases, the value of the equation EY will always be (different/ the same). 18 460 520 140 temperature pressure temperature change Property the samePROBLEMS IN GAS MEASUREMENT 115. This cube is filled with gas at atmospheric pressure and existing temperature. ‘The volume of the gas in the cube is one cubic foot 116. If 1000 of these one foot cubes contained gas, the total volume of the gas would be cubic feet. 1000 117. One cubic foot is abbreviated 1 CF. 1000 CF is abbre- viated 1 MCF. ‘M is an abbreviation for____ thousand, or 1000 118. MIM is one thousand times one thousand, or one million. 1 MMCF of gas is one ____ cubic feet of gas. million 119. MM is also written M%, or M. a MAGE: gas fe onesie reenact recientes million cubic feet 120, Write the abbreviations for these gas measurement units. NUMBER ABBREVIATION 500 cubic feet cuguauinaa 500 CF 7,000 cubic feet 7 MCF 80,000,000 cubic feet. = 80 MMCF, or 80 MCF, or 80 MCF 121. The actual quantity or amount of gas in any container depends on the pressure and the temperature of the gas. As temperature increases, the quantity of gas per cubic foot See decreases 122. As pressure increases, the quantity of gas per cubic foot : increases 4123. 124, 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 181. 132, 138. 184. For standard measurements, gas volume must be speci- fied at a standard pressure and In the American petroleum industry, the standard pres- sure for gas measurement is 0 PSIG, or 14.7 PSIA. ‘The standard temperature for volume measurement in the petroleum industry is ______°F, or 520°R. A standard cubic foot of gas is abbreviated 1 SCF. 1 SCF of gas means one cubic foot of gas measured under conditions of 60°F and 14.7 PSIA. ‘One thousand standard cubic feet is abbreviated 1 MSCF. One million standard cubic feet is abbreviated 1 ‘The letter S indicates a gas measurement assuming conditions of pressure and temperature. It is not often possible to measure or meter gas at stan- dard conditions of pressure and temperature. Gas is usually measured or metered under (standard/ actual) conditions. One thousand actual cubie feet is abbreviated 1 MCF. This actual measurement figure should be followed by a specification of the _____ and at which the gas was measured. ‘Suppose gas is metered at 10 MCF, actual (0 PSIG; 100°F). To convert this actual measure to standard units, you need to correct for the difference in (pressure/tempera- ture). ‘The standard temperature for gas measurement in abso- lute temperature units is oR. With 10 MCF of gas metered at 100°F, the actual abso- Jute temperature is ‘Since the gas was metered at higher than standard tem- perature, the standard volume will be than the metered volume. Multiply by the ratio (280 0/0) to find the new volume. 520/560 temperature 60 standard MMSCF, or M'SCF, or MSCF standard actual pressure; temperature temperature 520 560 less 520 560185. The metered volume of the gas was 10 MCF. 52, 10,000 i : 9285.7 ‘The standard volume of the metered gas is SCF, or _____ SCF. 186. This cylinder holds ten cubic feet of gas at high pressure. Its contents may be expressed as (10 SCF/10 CF). 187. If the contents of this cylinder were expressed in SCF, the volume would be (more/less) than 10. 188. Gas has to be measured under actual conditions, but the ‘measured volume is always converted to conditions for accounting purposes. 189. For recording gas quantity under different conditions, the operator needs to understand the meaning of these abbreviations. CF means SCF means M means MM hegns Se eee ee M? means sae MSCF means 10 MSCF means 10 140. Standard conditions for gas measurement are__°F. and______PSIA. 141. Actual conditions are measurements of gas volume at the existing and 16 9285.7 93 10 CF more standard cubie feet standard cubic feet one thousand one million one million one million standard cubic feet million standard cubic feet 60 14.7 temperature; pressure142, 143, 144. 145. 146. uz. 148, 149. 150. 151. 152. 158. 154, One of the most frequent uses of the gas laws is in changing actual or observed gas measurement units to conditions. To find SCF we use the same method we used to find new volumes. Standard conditions become the (new/old) values, One standard cubic foot (SCF) contains 1 cubic foot at °F and____PSIA. A 1000 cubic foot tank contains methane at 80°F and 0 PSIG. ‘There (is/is not) 1 MSCF of methane in the tank. The new volume will be (more/less) than 1 MSCF. 80°F is Standard temperature is 520°R. ‘To find the standard volume, use the fraction The actual volume is 1000 cubic feet. 26 1000 _ ele The standard volume is ________ SCF. A storage cylinder holds 10 CF of gas at 200 PSIG and 60°F. ‘The cylinder holds (more/less) than 10 SCF of gas. 200 PSIG is_____ PSIA. Standard pressure is______ PSIA. es! 7 Use the fraction Gr7/gypq) to find the standard ‘volume. ‘The actual volume is 10 CF. 247 10 _ Tar * P= Mer The cylinder contains _____ SCF of gas. 7 standard new 60; 14.7 is not less 540 eres: B40" °° 27 963, more 214.7 146.1155. 156. 187. 158. 159, 160. 161. 162, 163. 164. A refinery buys gas that is metered at 45°F, and 0 PSIG. The refinery pays for the gas in a price per SCF. Over a certain period of time, the refinery buys gas metered at 1 MCF actual. How many SCF did the refinery buy? The temperature ratio in absolute units is: ‘Multiply this times the metered volume. The refinery bought ________ SCF of gas. So far we have been discussing problems in which only one gas variable changes. But under actual gas measurement conditions, both the and the______are usually dif- ferent from standard conditions. ‘Suppose you have 1 MCF of methane at 80°F and 10 PSIG. Standard conditions are___*F and PSIG (or 14.7 PSIA). Absolute actual temperature is Absolute standard temperature is Actual temperature is (more/less) than standard tem- perature, This means that the standard volume of the gas would be ____than the actual volume, if temperature were the only variable. ‘ ; 540/520 The temperature correction ratio, then, is (257/355) The measured pressure of the gas is 10 PSIG, or PSIA. 18 520, 104 505” 101 1,029,703 pressure; temperature more less 320 540 24.7166. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. qm. 172. 173. 174. 176. 176. 177. Standard absolute pressure is PSIA. ‘The effect of this deviation from standard pressure would be to___the standard volume of the gas. The pressure correction factor is Now we have two correction factors for the gas measure- ment. ‘The temperature correction factor is __ than 1. ‘The pressure correction factor is _______ than 1. Multiplying out, we get 1000 520 24.7 “YT * 340 * Ta7 The standard volume of the gas in the cylinder is SCF, or MSCF, = 1618, Does it make any difference which ratio is multiplied out first? (yes/no) Calculations involving two gas variables can be done in any sequence. ‘The important thing is to use the appropriate for the changes to be calculated. In converting actual measurements to standard measure- ments, use: a temperature correction factor of more than 1 if the gas is metered at_________ than 60°F; a temperature correction factor of less than 1 if the measured temperature is ________ than 60°F. ‘The fact that heat increases gas volume means that a higher temperature indicates (more/less) SCF. And a measured temperature below 60°F means a stan- dard gas volume that is__________ than the meas- ured volume. On the other hand, pressures above 0 PSIG or 14.7 PSIA mean an SCF that is__________ than the metered volume. A cubic foot of gas at vacuum pressure contains than 1 SCF. 19 14.7 increase 24.7 less more, or greater 1618; 1.6 no ratio, or fraction less more, or greater less more, or greater more, or greater less178. In converting actual measurement to standard measure- ment, the pressure correction factor should be: more than 1 if the gas is _______ atmospheric above pressure; less than 1 if the gas is atmospheric below pressure. 179. In gas measurement conversion problems, first think of the way the difference in variables affects gas volume. Will the standard volume be __or ‘more, or increased ; less, or because of this pressure or temperature difference? decreased 180. Then calculate the appropriate ratios, first converting the measured values to units. absolute 181. Finally, multiply the measured or metered volume by these correction factors to find the _______ volume. new, or standard 182. Let’s take one more gas measurement problem. 20 MCF of gas is metered at 25 PSIG and 100°F. What is the standard volume of the gas? ‘The temperature correction factor is: 520 | 18 eo OT ig 183. The pressure correction factor is: 184. Correct the 20 MCF for temperature. CF. 18,5714 20185. Now correct the volume for pressure. SCF. 186. The standard volume of 20 MCF of gas metered at 25 PSIG and 100°F is SCF, or MSCF. PROBLEMS IN GAS HANDLING 187. In practical situations, it may be necessary to solve for any of the three gas variables. For example, if you are storing gas in a cylinder with a certain pressure rating, you need to know how much gas you can store at a safe : 188. In a telescopic gas holder, the volume of the gas changes with changes in temperature. ‘You may need to know the actual______of gas in a container. 189. A compressor operates with a certain quantity of gas. ‘You may need to vary the flow rate into a to compensate for changes in temperature and pressure. 190. | 10 MCF of gas is in a constant pressure (telescop- ing) gas holder at 50°F. Temperature increases to 10°F. What is the new volume of the gas? In this problem, ____does not change, the 191. The temperature change will act to volume of the gas. 192. The absolute temperature ratio to use in correcting for volume is: 21 50,155.4 50,155.45 50.2 pressure volume compressor pressure increase 560, 85 mo % BT193. 194. 197. 198. 199. ‘The original volume was 10 MCF. 3 x 10900 - ro9804 ‘The new volume is MCF. Suppose a telescopic gas holder held 1 MCF of gas at 40°F and 6 PSIG. Now the temperature is 60°F and the pressure gage reads 10 PSIG. What is the actual volume of gas in the holder in MCF? The increase in pressure indicates a_i actual volume. The increase in temperature indicates an in actual volume. . The temperature correction factor is: ‘The pressure correction factor is: ‘The original volume was 1 M:CF. 520. 20.7 _ 41,000,000 x Foy x 502 = 972,000 The new volume of the gas in the container is approxi- mately. ‘MCF. 1 M°CF of gas at 6 PSIG and 50°F is compressed to 800 MCF. At the same time, the gas is cooled to 40°F. What is the new pressure of the gas? ‘The temperature correction factor is: 10.98, or 11 decrease increase 520. 26 B00" °F 25 5 iS g 500200. The volume change acts to (increase/decrease) pressure. 201. Therefore, the volume correction factor for pressure in- 202. The original pressure was 6 PSIG, or 20.7 PSIA. 7 x 300, 10 207 x Fx B= ‘The new pressure is 25.4 PSIA, or ______PSIG. 203. | An air cylinder with a volume of 1 MCF has a pressure of 50 PSIG at 60°F. What is the gage pressure at 70°F? ‘The temperature correction factor is: 204. Gas_________ does not change. 205. Therefore, the new pressure will be 50 PSIG, or PSIA times the ______corree- tion factor. 206. The new absolute pressure is: PSIA. 207. The pressure gage will read: PSIG. 23 increase 520 volume 64.7; temperature B12208. 209. 210. 2u1. 212. 218. 20 MCF of air at standard conditions is compressed to 10 MCF, actual and heated to 100°F. What is the new pressure? ‘The old pressure was______ PSA. ‘The volume ratio is. ‘The old temperature was___°R. ‘The temperature ratio is ‘The new pressure is: PSsIA, PSIG. or A gas metered at 10 MCF at 60°F and 25 PSIG. ‘The temperature of the gas is increased to 100°F and the pressure is reduced to 5 PSIG. What is the volume of the gas? ‘The temperature correction factor is: 214. The pressure correction factor is 147 520 560 4, 14 520° 13 317 17.0 560 4 Bay * is 3 sl Now turn the page, tum the book over, ond go on.215. The new volume is: cr, or about MCF. 216. Sometimes temperature is measured in °C. 0°K is ~278°C, To convert °C to °K, add 7 217. | A refinery gas is stored in a steel cylinder at 100 PSIG at 15°C. The cylinder is brought into a lab where the temperature is 25°C. What will be the gage pressure at the cylinder? 15°C is ___°K; 25°C is °K. 218. Since temperature has increased, the temperature correc- tion factor to use in solving for pressure is the ratio 219. Original pressure was 100 PSIG, or PSIA. 220. The pressure gage at the heated cylinder will read PSIG. 221, | A container of acetylene at 250 PSIG and 80°F is vented to an evacuated, equal-sized container, and Pressure equalizes across the two. The temperature of the gas drops to 50°F. What is the pressure in the two tanks? Since the two containers are of equal size, the ratio of the new volume to the old volume must be to 222. Pressure will because of the volume change. 223. Therefore, the volume correction factor is 25 21,702.5, 217 2738 288; 298 298 288 14.7 104 2 1 decrease 7 2224. For a temperature drop from 80°F to 50°F, the tempera- ture correction factor to find pressure is: 225. The original pressure was 250 PSIG, or 264.7 PSIA. 2647, 510, 1 ae 540 2 The pressure equalizes at 124.9 PSIA, or PSIG. 124.9 226. | A compressor intake is maintained at 100 SCF per minute. Suction temperature rises from 60°F to 80°F. How should the rate be adjusted to maintain a flow of 100 SCF/min. into the compressor? ‘Since temperature has increased, the operator will need to (inerease/decrease) the rate to maintain 100 SCF/min. 227, The temperature correction factor is: 228. If the gas were at standard conditions, the rate should be 100 CF/min. At this higher intake temperature, the rate should b CF/min., actual. REVIEW 229, There are two basic laws of gas behavior. The first law states that absolute gas pressure varies in- versely with changes in gas 230. The second law states that absolute temperature varies directly with changes in _____ and . 231, The general gas law states that for any given gas or mix- ture, the relationship EY is always © constant number. ‘You can solve any PVT problem in gas handling by using ‘the ________ of the old values to the new values, 26 510 540 110.2 increase 540 520 108.8 volume volume; pressure ratio232. For the purposes of calculation, the temperature and pres- sure measurements used in the gas laws must always be units of pressure and ‘temperature. 288. One of the primary applications of the gas law is in con- verting actual gas measurements into units of volume measures. 234, But the gas laws can also be used to predict pressure, temperature, and volume in gas handling situations. absolute; absolute standard changesSection 2 Gas HandlingSECTION 2 GAS HANDLING REAL AND IDEAL GASES 1. The gas laws describe an “ideal” or perfect gas. An ordinary gas is a real gas, All gases are actually ______gases. 2. Some of the behavior of real gases is not accounted for in the gas laws. For example, the gas laws assume that gas molecules (are/are not) attracted to each other. 3. However, there are attractions between gas molecules. ‘These attractions are stronger in (high density/low den- sity) gases. In gas handling, there will sometimes be differences be- tween the calculated PVT changes and the real changes. These differences will be greater when very (high/low) density gases are being handled. 5. The deviation of gases from the gas laws is also greater at extremely high pressures and temperatures. The gas laws are of most use in predicting the behavior of (high/low) density gases at (high/moderate) pres- sures and temperatures. 6. Some gas charts distinguish between real and ideal gases. A gas marked ideal is one that will follow the without great deviation. 7. If the deviation from the gas laws is great enough to be significant, the gas is marked : Compression and Expansion 8. One distinction between real gases and the ideal gas defined in the gas laws is important in many refinery operations. ‘The gas laws do not assume that a gas expends work, or uses energy, in expanding. But a gas does expend____in expanding. 9. This use of gas energy means (an increase/a decrease) in pressure or temperature. 28 real are not high density high low; moderate gas laws real energy, or work a decrease10. i. 12. 13. 4. 16. 16. Ir. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. In moving gas from one container to another, the energy loss is usually slight. But in the design and operation of compressors and in the behavior of flowing gases, the expenditure of by gases is an important factor. A compressor expends work or energy on the gas. ‘Mechanical energy is required to the gas. As gas molecules are forced closer together, they exert more_____on everything they touch. But, as the compressor moves the molecules, it also in- creases the speed of molecular motion. Compressing a gas causes its molecules to move (faster/ slower). The speed of molecules is a direct cause of heat, or temperature. So when a gas is compressed, its as well as its pressure increases. ‘You would expect a higher temperature at a compressor’s (suction/discharge) ‘The temperature change and the pressure change both result from the expended on the gas through the compressor. ‘The compression ratio is an index of the work done by compressor. This ratio is directly proportional to the increase in the gas. ‘The greater the pressure increase or compression ratio, the_________ the temperature inerease. For safe operation, compressed gases should not be allowed to get too hot. Usually, the final temperature is kept low by —__ the gas before and after it goes through the compressor. Most compressors have intercoolers or aftercoolers to prevent excessive rises in If the compressed gas cannot be cooled to within safe limits, it may be necessary to____ the com- pression ratio in order to reduce the final temperature. Now think of steam in a turbine, In a steam turbine, the ____of steam is used to do work. 29 work, or energy compress pressure faster temperature discharge work, or energy pressure greater cooling temperature reduee, or decrease, or lower pressure, or energy28. As the steam expands in the turbine, the energy of the steam (increases /decreases) . 24. And, as energy is expended, the molecules move (faster/ slower), and the temperature of the steam (increases / decreases/remains the same). 25. Compressing a gas ______its temperature. 26. Except for hydrogen, most gases show a in temperature when they are allowed to expand. 27. The cooling effect of expansion may cause a gas to drop below its dew point. At its dew point, a gas is beginning to 28. Steam under pressure may ____if it is allowed to expand into a larger volume. Volume Effects of Phase Change 29. Another distinction between real and ideal gases is that by definition an “ideal” gas is always a gas. ‘The gas laws do not allow for changes of gases into the phase. 30. The gas laws, then, do not apply to a gas that is at or below its boiling point. In applying the gas laws to gas handling problems, you should be sure that the gas is well above its___ temperature and pressure. 81. For example, in the gas laws, gas volume is related to gas temperature. ‘This would mean logically that at 0° absolute, a gas would have (some/no) volume. 82. This is true only in the sense that all real gases condense before they reach a temperature of absolute 0°. As a liquid, a substance (is/is not) compressible and it (has/does not have) a fixed volume. 88, However, the volume of a substance is much greater in the (liquid/gas) phase. 84. Condensation is accompanied by a volume. in 85. Evaporation means an_________in volume. 30 decreases slower decreases increases decrease condense condense liquid boiling point no is not has gas decrease, or reduction increase36. This vessel had been steamed and someone forgot to vent it. CONDENSATE. As the vessel cools, the steam begins to 87. The condensate takes up __________space than the vapor did. 88. Pressure in the vessel 39. The vessel is in danger of : COLLAPSE RUPTURE (rupture/collapse) 40. If a layer of condensate is allowed to collect at the bottom of a tank, the water may flash to vapor when hot oil is added. Pressure in the vessel (increases/decreases), and there sie caeeregiene See eceeeeceee cease 41. Unlike most oil mixtures, water evaporates or condenses at a single temperature and pressure. This means that the total quantity of ________in a vessel can convert quickly to steam or condensate. 42, Water can enter towers with the feed. If the water flashes to vapor, tower pressure can get dangerously (high/low). 48. In changes from the liquid to the gaseous phase, either volume ____ or pressure 31 condense less decreases, or drops collapse inereases rupture water, or H.0 high increases; increases44, 45. 46. 41. GAS 48. 49. 50. BL. 52. 53. 54, 55. Condensation either the pressure or vol- ume of a fluid. Ice has a greater volume than an equal quantity of water. When water freezes, volume. ‘The expansion of freezing liquids may piping or vessels. For safety, all traces of steam or water should be re- moved from hydrocarbon storage vessels and lines. And in handling gases at pressures and temperatures near their boiling range, precautions should be taken against the pressure and volume effects of sudden change. HANDLING PRECAUTIONS Air is a mixture of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases. The gas in the air that supports life is ‘The normal percentage of oxygen in the air is ___%. Oxygen is necessary for life; it is also necessary for combustion. A fuel cannot without a supply of oxygen. ‘This triangle is called the fire triangle. 2 IGNITION \ It represents the three elements that must be present before can occur. ‘These elements are: a source of. : a source of ___; and a source of If any one of these elements is missing, combustion (can/ cannot) occur. A fuel cannot ignite unless it is mixed with A mixture of gasoline vapor and air must be ignited before it will : 32 decreases, or lowers increases rupture, or burst phase oxygen 21 burn combustion, or burning, or fire oxygen fuel ignition cannot oxygen burn87. 58. 59. 60. 61. The 62, 68. 64. Check all of the possible sources of ignition in this list, a lighted match a furnace —— lightning an internal combustion engine an explosion-proof electrical switch sparks of static electricity a welding torch ‘Most liguids will not burn. Liquip ; : VAPOR When a match is touched to liquid gasoline, the does not burn. But a mateh touched to the above the liguid will cause burning. The liquid gasoline contains no oxygen. But in the space above the liquid, the gasoline vapor is mixed with It is this mixture of and that can burn, Potential hazards in refinery operations are flammable mixtures of with air. Flammable Range Not all vapor-air mixtures are flammable. When a car is flooded, it will not. In a flooded car, the vapor-air mixture is too rich for ignition. That is, there is too much_________for the pro- portion of. in the engine, Suppose a mixture is too lean for ignition. This means there is not enough for the proportion of __________in the mixture. 33 a lighted match a furnace lightning an internal combustion engine sparks of static electricity a welding torch gasoline, or liquid vapor oxygen, or air vapor, or gasoline; oxygen, or air vapors, or fuel ignite, or start vapor, or fuel oxygen, or air vapor, or fuel oxygen65. 67. 68. 68. 70. 6. 11. A vapor-oxygen mixture will not ignite if it is too or if it is too : Every gas has a specific flammable range, within which it will ignite. ‘This flammable range indicates the proportion of fuel to___that will ignite. Below the lower limit, there is not enough fuel for com- bustion, and so the mixture is too _____ to ignite. Above the upper limit, there is too much fuel so the mix- ture is too________to ignite. Fuels will burn if the vapor-air concentration is within the___________of the fuel. For example, the flammable range of gasoline vapor is about 1% to 7% gasoline to air. If the mixture contains less than 1% gasoline vapor, it is too________ to ignite, ‘The mixture is too rich to ignite if it contains than 7% gasoline vapor. ‘Suppose there is a gasoline spill. A concentration of 1% gasoline vapor in air (is/is not) a flammable mixture. The flammable range of acetylene is 2% to 81% vapor to air. Acetylene has a (wider/narrower) flammable range than gasoline. Some fluids are volatile. These are fluids with high vapor pressures. ‘They vaporize at relatively (high/low) temperatures or high pressures. Heavy oils have low vapor pressures. ‘They are usually classified as (volatile/nonvolatile) fluids, Normally, volatile liquids are considered more hazardous than nonvolatile liquids. This is because the _______ liquids can vaporize more easily and become part of a flammable mixture. However, even nonvolatile liquids can release enough vapor to develop a flammable mixture. The flash point of a nonvolatile fluid is the temperature at which it releases enough to develop a flammable mixture. 34 rich; lean oxygen, or air lean rich flammable range Jean more is wider low nonvolatile volatile vapor79, 80. 81. 82. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. Flash points are measured at atmospheric pressure. At atmospheric pressure, a heavy fuel releases enough vapor to ignite when it is at or above its Increasing the pressure increases the flash point. ‘The flash point temperature will be lower if the fuel is in a (pressurized/vacuum) container. The best way to avoid fire hazards is to prevent mixtures from developing. Gases and volatile liquids are usually stored in pressur- ized cylinders or storage spheres. ‘The cylinders and spheres maintain pressure on the fluid and seal out High pressure on volatile liquids also helps to prevent the liquid from —__. Fluids in closed storage vessels and pipelines are hazard- ous only when_____develop, or when enough air enters the container to form a mixture. Combustion in closed vessels causes explosions or deto- nations. The fire causes a great and sudden increase in pressure in the vessel, and this can____the vessel. ‘To prevent explosions, _____ should be kept out of closed hydrocarbon vessels and pipelines. The lower limit of concentration of hydrocarbon vapor needed to create a flammable mixture is generally (low/ high). Normally, increasing the pressure will widen the flam- mable range of a hydrocarbon. If air has entered a closed vessel, lowering the pressure will (increase/decrease) the chances of an explosion. A decrease in pressure reduces the density of the flam- mable mixture and thus (increases/decreases) the pos- sible force of the explosion. If there is any chance that a mixture may become ex- plosive, operation will be made safer by (decreasing/ increasing) pressure. During depressuring, an explosive mixture should not be allowed to contact a source of _________such as a flare. 35 flash point vacuum, flammable air, or oxygen vaporizing leaks flammable rupture, or burst air, or oxygen low decrease decreases decreasing ignition91. This storage tank for jet fuel has a “floating” roof. 92. 98. ay A ee 3 ee = > oon ( oe ‘The floating roof __________ the space above the jet fuel. ‘This prevents flammable _____-air mixtures from developing above the liquid. A floating roof on a storage tank is a precaution to avoid the development of ________ mixtures. Detecting Flammable Mixtures 94, 96. 97. Some gases have color; some gases have odor. ‘Some hydrocarbon gases have neither _____nor Natural gas, which contains mostly methane and ethane, has a distinctive odor, but this odor is not actually caused by the methane and ethane. Small quantities of a sulfur compound give its distinctive odor. Refined methane and ethane do not contain these impur- ities; therefore, they (have/do not have) odor. Hydrogen sulfide (HS) occurring in natural gas is use- ful in detecting gas leaks, but it is also hazardous. A very small quantity of can deaden the sense of smell. 36 eliminates, or displaces vapor flammable color odor natural do not have hydrogen sulfide, or HS, or natural gas,98. The danger is in continuing to breathe the without smelling it. 99. Oxygen is necessary for burning. It is also necessary to support human 100. In all gas handling, and especially in handling leaks, it is important to avoid closed spaces. Any gas can dilute the concentration of in the air and so cause asphyxiation. 101. In handling gas leaks, it is important for the operator to stay in a well_____area. 102. This would indicate that the best gas detector (is/is not) the human nose. 108. Using your nose to detect gas leaks is hazardous. And the sense of smell (is/is not) a reliable indicator of the presence of flammable mixtures. 104, Gas leaks can often be detected by sound. Escaping ______ makes a hissing sound. 105. The best detection of flammable mixtures is by gas de- tectors. This drawing shows an MSA detector for the presence of flammable mixtures of _________in air, based on the flammable range of methane. 37 natural gas, or HS. life, or breathing oxygen ventilated, or aired is not is not hydrocarbons106. The dial shows the percentage of flammability of the mixture. If the dial reads 50, this means that the concentration of hydrocarbon vapor in air is__________-way to the lowest limit of an explosive mixture. 107. The percentage read from the dial is the percentage of the (upper/lower) explosive limit, 108. There are several variations of the MSA detector. For example, in purging tanks, the hydrocarbon vapor concentration may need to be measured before the vapor is mixed with air. ‘The basic MSA instrument requires the presence of both hydrocarbon vapor and for measurement. 109. An air dilution valve may be used with the MSA instru- ment to admit air separately into the instrument. ‘This adaptation is used for detecting the concentration of hydrocarbon vapors in situations where the vapor is not yet mixed with : 110. Steam is often used for purging. AIR-IN-STEAM ANALYZER analyzer. This analyzer is called an air-1 111. The analyzer measures the amount of light (noncondens- ible) gases in 38 1, or half lower air steam steam112, The analyzer condenses the steam and leaves the light hydrocarbon gases in vapor form. ‘The amount of vacuum after the steam is condensed in- dicates the proportion of light hydrocarbon ‘trapped in the steam. 118. For this analyzer, hydrocarbons lighter than those in the Cy range are considered noncondensibles. ‘These light hydrocarbons in steam can be detected with the ine analyzer. 114, This drawing shows a device for detecting heavier hydro- carbons in steam. COPPER COOLING COIL ICE WATER BATH In this detector, both the hydrocarbons and the steam are into the liquid phase. 115. The proportion of liquid hydrocarbon to_____ can then be measured. 116. This condensation coil can be portable. It would be used when the vapors to be measured have (more/less) than six hydrocarbon atoms per molecule. 117. For example, heptane (C-Hys) vapors in steam would be detected by: an air-in-steam analyzer. ‘a condensation coil, 118. For detecting butane (C,Hs) vapors in steam, you would use: an air-in-steam analyzer. a condensation coil. 39 gases, or vapors air; steam condensed, or cooled water more a condensation coil an air-in-steam analyzer119. Let’s review some gas handling principles and precau- tions. The flammable mixtures. detector is used for the detection of 120. The MSA detector is used to detect the presence of hydro- carbon gases in 121. A special adaptation of the MSA detector is required when the vapor (is/is not) mixed with air. 122. Other detectors and analyzers can be used to help pre- vent flammable mixtures from forming. ‘The air-in-steam analyzer can be used to detect (light/ heavy) hydrocarbon gases in 128. A condensation device is used for detecting the presence of (heavy/light) hydrocarbon vapors in 124. The best way to prevent flammable mixtures from de- veloping is to keep _____ away from hydrocarbon vapors. 125. If a flammable mixture develops, it is important to keep flares, sparks, and other sources of away from the mixture. 126. If a flammable mixture develops in a closed vessel, you should (inerease/decrease) the pressure in the vessel. Vapor Dispersal 127. In an open area, gases that are lighter than air will eventually _________into the atmosphere. 128. In partially open vessels or tanks with roofs, flammable mixtures of light vapors with air are likely to aecumu- late near the of the vessel. 129. If the vapor is heavier than air, flammable mixtures ac- cumulate near the _____ level. 130. Once a fammable mixture develops in an open or partially open container, the hazard can be reduced by dispersing the vapors. The object in dispersing the vapors is to get the hydro- carbon concentration (above/below) its flammable range. 181. If the gas is lighter than air, vapor dispersal can be accomplished by natural forces. ‘The operator must make sure that there is a clear for the gas to rise into the atmosphere. 40 MSA air is not light; steam heavy; steam air, or oxygen ignition decrease roof, or top ground, or bottom below path, or space, or area182. This tank roof is equipped with a gas vent. GAS INTO VENT TRAP — The roof (is/is not) clear of flammable mixtures. 183. In purging or clearing a tank of light vapors, care should be taken to make sure there are no traps at high points in the tank. For safety, vents should be located as a tank roof as possible. on 134, Traps for flammable mixtures involving heavier-than-air vapors are likely to develop in__________ points, such as trenches or fire banks. 135. When the vapor is heavier than air, flammable mixtures are usually dispersed with hoses. ‘The water from the hose a wide area. the vapor over 136. In all dispersal of flammable mixtures, the MSA detector should be used. ‘The detector helps to make sure that the gas is well- 187, And the MSA detector can help to assure that at all points the dispersed mixture is too to ignite. REVIEW AND SUMMARY 138. Gases have many uses in refineries. Steam and compressed air are both used as sources of 139, Steam is used also as a source of 140. Propane and other gases are used in systems, AL is not high low disperses, or spreads dispersed, or scattered lean pressure, or power, or energy heat refrigeration, or cooling141. 142. 143. 144, 145. 146. 148. 149, 150. 151. 182, ‘The major use of petroleum product is as a source of ‘The basic principles of the gas laws can be applied to many practical situations. Suppose pressure in a fixed-volume storage sphere is dangerously high. ‘The best way to reduce the pressure is to: vent the gas to the atmosphere. cool the sphere. Venting the gas to the atmosphere would be of product and would present a possible to safety. ‘When pressure is too high, you can use the gas laws to calculate the exact amount of temperature decrease that would be needed to bring the within the rating of the sphere. ‘Suppose the sphere would require more cooling than is available. ‘You could__ the gas into another vessel. ‘The gas laws could also be used to find the —__ of gas that would need to be released in order to bring the pressure within limits. One problem with the gas laws is that they do not take into account the point at which a gas changes into the liquid phase. In gas handling, it is important to know the of the gas being handled. Sudden condensation can cause a vessel to collapse. Sudden evaporation can cause a vessel to Fire hazards in processing and handling can be prevented by keeping ______ mixtures from forming. This can be done best by keeping hydrocarbon vapors well protected from . An MSA detector can be used to locate flammable mix- tures of hydrocarbon and : Any gas can dilute the oxygen content of air below 14%. For personnel safety, gases should always be handled in well_____ areas. THE END 42 fuel, or energy cool the sphere loss, or waste hazard, or danger pressure vent, or release volume, or amount boiling point, or vapor pressure rupture or burst flammable oxygen, or air ventilated, or airedSection 1 The Laws of Gas Behavior THE MECHANICS OF FLUIDS UNIT 2: THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES Basic Principles Pressure and Volume . ‘Temperature, Pressure, and Volume The Gas Laws ..... ee Boyle's Law .. Charles’ Law The General Law Problems in Gas Measurement . Problems in Gas Handling Review... : Section 2 Gas Handling . Real and Ideal Gases . Compression and Expansion... . Volume Effects of Phase Change . Gas Handling Precautions .. ‘The Flammable Range . Detecting Flammable Mixtures Vapor Dispersal . 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