Solution Manual for Nutrition and You 4th Edition

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CHAPTER
The Basics of Digestion
3

Chapter Overview
Digestion is the chemical or mechanical breaking down of food into smaller units so that it
can be absorbed for use by the body. Digestion and absorption take place in the
gastrointestinal tract, which includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and
large intestine. You begin breaking down food in the mouth by chewing. Once swallowed, a
bolus of food is pushed down the esophagus by peristalsis. The stomach churns and contracts,
mixing food with digestive juices to form chyme. Chyme is gradually released into the small
intestine during digestion. The small intestine is the primary organ for digestion and
absorption. It is covered with thousands of small projections called villi, which increase the
absorptive surface area of the small intestine. By the time food reaches the large intestine, the
majority of the
nutrients have been absorbed. The cells of the large intestine absorb water and electrolytes.
As fluids are absorbed, stool is gradually formed and exits the body through the anus. The
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs for the gastrointestinal tract and are
essential for digestion. Enzymes, hormones, and bile help break down foods and regulate
digestion. Other body systems such as the nervous, circulatory, lymphatic, and excretory
systems also play a role by reminding us to eat, distributing nutrients throughout our bodies,
and excreting waste products.
Digestive disorders can range from mild to severe problems. Disorders of the mouth,
gallbladder, stomach, and intestines can include periodontal disease, dysphagia,
gastroesophageal reflux, peptic ulcers, gallbladder disease, constipation, diarrhea, and
hemorrhoids. More serious intestinal disorders include irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), celiac
disease, Crohn’s disease, and colon cancer.

Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Define digestion and the processes involved in preparing food for absorption.
2. Describe the organs involved in digestion and their primary functions.

18 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 3. Explain the function of enzymes, hormones, and bile in digestion, including their primary
action and their source of origin.
4. Describe the process of absorption.
5. Explain how the circulatory and lymphatic systems transport absorbed nutrients
throughout the body.
6. Describe the role of the nervous system and the endocrine system in keeping your body
nourished.
7. Describe the symptoms and causes of the most common digestive disorders.

Chapter Outline
I. What Is Digestion and Why Is It Important?
1. Through a multistep digestive process, food is softened with moisture and heat, and
then broken down into smaller particles by chewing and exposure to enzymes.
A. Digestion occurs in the GI tract.
1. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and other organs.
2. The main roles of the GI tract are to break down food, absorb nutrients, and prevent
microorganisms or other harmful compounds consumed with food from entering
tissues of the body.
3. The GI tract is long (stretched vertically, about as high as a two-story building) and
lined with cells that have a life span of only three to five days, after which they are
shed into the lumen—the interior of the intestinal tract—and replaced with new,
healthy cells.
B. Digestion is mechanical and chemical.
1. Mechanical digestion involves breaking food down through chewing and grinding, or
moving it through the GI tract with peristalsis.
a. Figure 3.1 illustrates peristalsis.
2. Chemical digestion involves breaking food down with digestive juices and enzymes.
a. Segmentation is a “sloshing” motion that thoroughly mixes food with chemical
secretions in the small intestine.
b. Pendular movement is a constrictive wave that involves both forward and reverse
movements. It enhances nutrient absorption.
i. Chemical breakdown in the small intestine can be interrupted, as shown in the
Nutrition in the Real World feature “Tinkering with Your Body’s Digestive
Process” on page 72.
3. Figure 3.2 reminds us of how organs are built from cells and tissues and how they
work together in various body systems.
Animation: Overview of Digestion and Absorption
Animation: Basic Absorption Mechanisms
Animation: Role of Enzymes
II. What Are the Organs of the GI Tract and Why Are They Important?
1. See Figure 3.3 for an overview of the organs of the GI tract and the role each plays in
digestion.

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 A. Digestion begins in the mouth.
1. Saliva moistens food and helps dissolve small food particles, making them easier to
swallow.
2. Chewing cuts and grinds food into smaller pieces.
a. Saliva contains electrolytes, enzymes, and mucus.
3. The tongue pushes the chewed food to the back of the mouth and through the pharynx.
4. Once swallowed, a bolus of food is pushed down your esophagus by peristalsis.
a. The epiglottis closes off the trachea during swallowing, as shown in Figure 3.4.
b. The esophagus propels food into the stomach.
5. The gastroesophageal sphincter is at the bottom of the esophagus and opens to allow
food into the stomach and then closes to prevent acid from the stomach from flowing
back into the esophagus.
a. Heartburn occurs when hydrochloric acid from the stomach flows back into the
esophagus and irritates the lining.
b. Chronic heartburn and stomach acid reflux are symptoms of gastroesophageal
reflux disease (GERD).
B. The stomach stores, mixes, and prepares food for digestion.
1. The stomach continues mechanical digestion by churning and contracting to mix food
with digestive juices (see Figure 3.5).
a. The stomach secretes gastrin, hydrochloric acid (HCl), enzymes, mucus, and
intrinsic factor.
i. Gastrin stimulates the secretion of HCl, which activates pepsin, a protein-
digesting enzyme.
b. The stomach churns and contracts to mix food with digestive juices, forming
chyme.
i. The HCl secretions in the stomach activate the enzyme pepsin, enhance
absorption of minerals, break down the connective tissue in meat, and destroy
some microorganisms.
c. Foods high in carbohydrate exit the stomach faster.
d. The pyloric sphincter releases chyme into the small intestine at a rate of about
1 tsp every 30 seconds.
C. Most digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine.
1. The small intestine is the primary organ for digestion and absorption in the human
body.
a. The small intestine consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
b. Both chemical and mechanical digestion occur in the small intestine.
c. All macronutrients are broken down; vitamins and minerals are absorbed intact.
d. Thousands of villi and microvilli in the small intestine increase surface area and
mix chyme with intestinal secretions to maximize absorption (see Figure 3.6).
D. The large intestine eliminates waste and absorbs water and some nutrients.
1. Chyme is released through the ileocecal sphincter into the large intestine.
2. As shown in Figure 3.7, the large intestine is formed of three segments: the cecum,
colon, and rectum.
3. The cells of the large intestine absorb water and electrolytes gradually, forming stool.
4. Bacteria in the small intestine play a role in producing some vitamins, including the B
vitamins, biotin, and vitamin K.

20 INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE AND SUPPORT MANUAL FOR NUTRITION & YOU, 4E Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 5. Stool is propelled forward until it reaches the rectum where it is stored until it enters
the anal canal and then exits the body via the anus.
E. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs.
1. The accessory organs—the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas—are essential to the
digestive process (see Figure 3.8).
2. The liver is the largest gland in the body, and survival without it is not possible.
a. The liver produces bile.
b. It helps regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein.
c. It stores several nutrients, and is essential for processing and detoxifying alcohol.
3. The gallbladder stores bile and secretes the bile through the bile duct into the small
intestine.
4. The pancreas produces digestive enzymes and the blood-regulating hormones insulin
and glucagon.
III. How Do Hormones, Enzymes, and Bile Aid Digestion?
1. The complete digestion of chyme requires chemical secretions including enzymes,
hormones, and bile.
2. Table 3.1 summarizes the functions of digestive secretions.
A. Hormones regulate digestion.
1. When food reaches your stomach, gastrin is released to signal the rest of the GI tract
to prepare for digestion.
2. When you haven’t eaten, the hormone ghrelin stimulates hunger.
3. The small intestine secretes secretin, which stimulates the release of bicarbonate ions
to neutralize HCl; and secretes cholecystokinin, which stimulates the release of
digestive enzymes, controls the pace of digestion, and contributes to meal satisfaction.
B. Enzymes drive the process of digestion.
1. Enzymes break apart food particles into small, unbound nutrients for efficient
absorption.
2. The pancreas produces amylase, lipase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase.
C. Bile helps digest fat.
1. Bile consists of water, bile acids (and/or salts), various fats including cholesterol, and
pigments.
2. Bile breaks down large fat globules into smaller fat droplets. Bile can be reused.
D. Table 3.2 summarizes the organs of digestion and their functions.
eLearn: Take a Ride through the GI Tract
IV. How Are Digested Nutrients Absorbed?
A. Digestion is the forerunner to absorption.
1. Once the nutrients have been completely broken down, they are ready to be used by
the cells of the body.
2. To reach the cells they have to leave the GI tract and move to the other parts of the
body; this is accomplished by absorption through the walls of the intestines.
B. Digested nutrients are absorbed by three methods.
1. Passive diffusion is a process in which nutrients are absorbed due to a concentration
gradient.

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 2. In facilitated diffusion, nutrients are absorbed from a high to a low concentration, but
facilitated diffusion requires a specialized protein to carry the nutrients.
3. Active transport requires both a carrier and energy to shuttle nutrients across the cell
membrane.
4. Figure 3.9 shows absorption methods in the small intestine.

22 INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE AND SUPPORT MANUAL FOR NUTRITION & YOU, 4E Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 V. What Happens to Nutrients after They Are Absorbed?
A. The circulatory system distributes nutrients through your blood.
1. The blood is the body’s primary transport system, shuttling oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and waste products throughout the body (see Figure 3.10).
2. During digestion, the blood picks up nutrients through the capillary walls in the GI
tract and transports them to your liver and eventually to the cells of your body.
3. Blood also removes excess water and waste products from cells and brings them to the
kidneys for excretion.
B. The lymphatic system distributes some nutrients through your lymph vessels.
1. Some absorbed nutrients are too large to enter the bloodstream directly and many pass
through the lymphatic system first.
2. Lymph transports digested fat-soluble vitamins from the intestinal tract to the blood
and also contains white blood cells that aid the immune system.
C. Your body can store some surplus nutrients.
1. For example, some excess carbohydrate is stored in your liver and muscles in a form
called glycogen.
D. The excretory system passes waste out of the body.
1. The kidneys allow waste products to be excreted via urine, along with excess water-
soluble vitamins.
a. Kidneys play an important role in helping to maintain water balance in the body.
2. The system is illustrated in Figure 3.11.
VI. What Other Body Systems Affect Your Use of Nutrients?
A. The nervous system stimulates your appetite.
1. The nervous system helps each of us make daily decisions regarding what to eat, when
to eat, where to eat, and, perhaps most important, when to stop eating.
B. The endocrine system releases hormones that help regulate the use of absorbed nutrients.
1. The hormones regulate growth, reproduction, metabolism, and cells’ use of nutrients.
VII. What Are Some Common Digestive Disorders?
1. The Table Tips feature “Digest it Right!” gives tips on healthy eating habits.
A. Disorders of the mouth and throat:
1. Gingivitis and periodontal disease may lead to tooth loss, making chewing and
swallowing more difficult.
2. Difficulty swallowing, or dysphagia, can lead to malnutrition and compromised health.
B. Esophageal problems:
1. These can include heartburn, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD, inflammation,
obstruction, and cancer.
C. Disorders of the stomach:
1. Stomach problems can include a minor stomachache, gastroenteritis, peptic ulcers, and
stomach cancer.
D. Gallbladder disease:
1. Gallstones can form in the gallbladder or bile duct when bile is abnormally thick.
a. Various medical treatments include medicine to dissolve or shock-wave therapy to
break up the stone, or surgery to remove the gallbladder.

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 E. Disorders of the intestines:
1. Flatulence
a. Flatulence can be uncomfortable, but it is normal and is affected by diet and fluid
intake.
2. Constipation and diarrhea
a. Constipation is caused by excessively slow movements of the undigested residue
through the colon, and is often due to insufficient fiber or water intake.
b. Diarrhea is the passage of frequent, watery, loose stools.
3. Hemorrhoids
a. Hemorrhoids are a condition in which pressure in the veins in the rectum and anus
causes swelling and inflammation.
F. More serious intestinal disorders:
1. More serious small intestine and large intestine problems tend to involve nutrient
malabsorption, which can cause severe health consequences.
a. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
i. IBS is a functional disorder that involves changes in colon rhythm; it is not an
actual disease.
b. Celiac disease
i. Celiac disease is an autoimmune genetic disorder that causes a person’s own
immune system to damage the small intestine when gluten, a protein in wheat
and other grains, is consumed.
ii. Treatment is the consumption of a gluten-free diet.
iii. See the Health Connection: A Case Study feature “Tired of Gluten” on page 89
for more information on celiac disease.
iv. The Table Tips feature “Eat Gluten Free” on page 90 gives tips on limiting
gluten intake.
c. Crohn’s disease
i. Crohn’s disease is the general name for diseases that cause swelling in the
intestines.
d. Colon cancer
i. Colon cancer is one of the leading forms of cancer and is one of the most
curable forms of cancer, if it is detected in the early stages.
f. Common digestive disorders are summarized in Table 3.3.
Practical Nutrition Video: Probiotics: Do You Need Them?

In-Class Discussion Questions

1. Food does not just slide through the digestive tract. What are some ways that the muscles
around the organs of the GI tract aid in the digestion and absorption of food?
2. When a person undergoes a gastric bypass surgery such as Roux-en-Y, the surgeon
makes a small pouch at the top of the stomach and bypasses portions of the small
intestine. Initially the stomach is only able to hold one ounce of food at a time. Using
what you learned in this chapter, discuss how gastric bypass surgery affects the digestive
process.
3. Have you or anyone in your family ever experienced any of the digestive disorders
discussed in this chapter? Can you share your experiences with the class?

24 INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE AND SUPPORT MANUAL FOR NUTRITION & YOU, 4E Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
In-Class Activities
1. This chapter provides a lot of information regarding the size of the gastrointestinal tract
and the volume of digestive contents it can contain. In order to put it in perspective for
students, bring a measuring tape, rulers, measuring cups, two-liter bottles, etc., that can
be used to demonstrate various concepts during the discussion of the digestion and
absorption.
2. Sam is a 25-year-old college student. He works full time in addition to taking a full
course load. He usually eats fast-food cheeseburgers and fries in his car for lunch and a
take-out pepperoni pizza right before bed. Sam has noticed that he has put on some extra
weight in the past few months, and his clothes are fitting very tight. He also has been
experiencing severe heartburn several nights a week. Working in groups, come up with
some changes that Sam can make to his daily habits to help alleviate his heartburn.
3. Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest significant amounts of lactose, the major
sugar found in milk. Investigate the causes, symptoms, and treatments as well as
nutritional recommendations for this condition. The National Institute of Diabetes and
Digestive and Kidney Diseases maintains accurate, comprehensive coverage on this
topic. See www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/digestive-diseases.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. In what ways do the mechanical and chemical aspects of digestion differ? How do they
work together?
2. If a friend or relative came to you and said they’d been diagnosed with celiac disease,
what would you advise them to do (other than continuing to see their physician, of
course) to decrease their symptoms? Be very specific.
3. Explain how the nervous system, circulatory and lymphatic system, and endocrine
system work together to use nutrients. Address each separately and then discuss how the
systems work in harmony.

Practical Nutrition Videos

Author Joan Salge Blake walks students through making better eating choices in familiar
environments in the Practical Nutrition video Probiotics: Do You Need Them?, available by
scanning the QR code or through the Teaching Toolkit DVD and course management.

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