24¬

f12 / f13
Ports and Terminals
Planning and Functional Design

October 1994 Prof.ir. H, Velsink

,~}tf,,(.

TU Delft Faculty of Civil Engineering

Hydraulic Engineering Group
Delft University ofTechnology
 246

f12/f13 650246 fl.20.00

f12/f13 PORTS AND TERMINALS

PLANNING AND FUNCTIDNAL DESIGN

prof ir H. Velsink

Contents

Chapter

1. Maritime Transport: Means and commodities

21• Ports and integrated transport chains - introduction

3. Principles of integrated port planning

4. Planning and design of a port's water areas

5. Port terminals - introduction

6. Conventional general cargo terminals

7. Container terminals

8. Dil & liquid gas terminals

9. Dry bulk cargo terminals

10. Fishery ports

11. Marinas

12. Ports and terminals for inland water transport

1 not yet in print

f12/f13 PORTS AND TERMINALS

PLANNING AND FUNCTIDNAL DESIGN

prof ir H. Velsink

Contents

Chapter

1. Maritime Transport: Means and commodities

21• Ports and integrated transport chains - introduction

3. Principles of integrated port planning

4. Planning and design of a port's water areas

5. Port terminals - introduction

6. Conventional general cargo terminals

7. Container terminals

8. Dil & liquid gas terminals

9. Dry bulk cargo terminals

10. Fishery ports

11. Marinas

12. Ports and terminals for inland water transport

1 not yet in print

The older designs of general cargo ships show the wheelhouse amidships, but more
recent designs show a tendency to piace it three-quarters aft or aft.

The draught of the vessel is usually smalI, ranging from 7.5 to approximately 12
metres, which enables the ship to call at most ports of the world, even the smaller
ones.
An example of a general cargo ship is shown in fig. 8.

... Side loading port

Fig. 8. General cargo ship TRIDENTROTTERDAM- The Netherlands 1971

7226 BRT, 3715 NRT, 9022 DWT
LOA = 168.91 m Ship is equipped with side loading ports
B = 23.30 m for horizontal cargo handling.
H = 12.50 m Freezercapacity: 2700m3
D = 8.24 m Container capacity: 60 TEU
S = 22.0 knots Stülcken mast and heavy derrick
E: M; 16000 hp Bow thruster.

Over the past years, when, more and more emphasis was put on the reduction of the
ship's turnaround time, some new developments took place in the design, as weil as in
cargo handling methods, of the general cargo ship: .

a. The openings of the holds (hatches) became wider and were placed in one vertical
line to ease the vertical movement of cargo.
It even became possibleto lower small equipment for cargo handling, such as
forklift trucks, into the holds.
The aim to achieve unobstructed movement of cargo was also one of the reasons
why nowadays most wheelhouses of general cargo ships are placed aft instead of
arnidships.
b. Horizontal cargo handling through side loading ports (see fig. 8 and 9).

c. The introduction of the pallet, which forms one of the basic elements of the Unit
Load Concept (U.L.C.), and of the forklift truck (FLTl.

The Unit Load Concept is a process,in which several separate items of cargo are
bundled together to one unit, which can be handled with the 'conventional' cargo
handling equipment, such as quay cranes, derricks, forklift trucks, etc. It is obvious that
implication of the ULC gives remarkablesavings in loading and discharging time, while
no new, speciai (and mostiy expensive) equipment is needed.

Examplesof the ULC are:

ipp/1993/10 page 11
 MARITIME TRANSPORT: MEANS AND COMMODITIES

CONTENTS

1. Introducti on 2

2. Specific Data of merchant ships 3

2.1 Transport capacity 3

2.2 Vertical dimensions 5
2.3 Horizontal dimensions 5
2.4 Propulsion 7
2.5 Engine 7
2.6 Improvement of ship manoeuvrability 8

3. Commodities and types of vesseis 9

3.1 Introduction 9
3.2 Break bulk or conventional general cargo 9
3.2.1 General cargo ship 10
3.2.2 Multipurposa ship 13
3.2.3 Regrigerated general cargo ship 14
3.3 Mass break bulk (Neo bulk) 15
3.3.1 Introduction 15
3.3.2 Container ships and handling equipment 17
3.3.3 Roro - container ship 23
3.3.4 Ro-ro unit load ship 26
3.3.5 Lash - ship 27
3.3.6 Seabee- ship 28
3.3.7 Bacat - ship 30
3.3.8 Car carrier 30
3.3.9 Heavy lift carrier 31
3.4 Bulk cargo 33
3.4.1 Introduction 33
3.4.2 Crude oil carrier 35
3.4.3 Parcel tanker 37
3.4.4 Liquid gas carrier 38
3.4.5 Dry bulk carrier 39
3.4.6 Combined bulk carrier 40
3.4.6.1 OBO-carrier 41
3.4.6.2 OCO-carrier 42
3.5 Short sea trader 43

4. Tramp and liner trade 45

4.1 Liner trade 45
4.2 Tramp trade 46

5. Graphs 46

ipp/1993/10
 MARITIME TRANSPORT: MEANS AND COMMODITIES

1. INTRODUCTION

Transportation of goods may take place in different ways.

In the beginning of the industrial period transportation by vessel was the only way.
Now the international transportation of goods occurs by sea (ship), river (barge), road
(truck), rail (train), or air (plane).
Of these five so-called modes of transport, international navigation holds the biggest
share viz about 90%.

Af ter World War 11, when the world economy began to boom at an average rate of
growth of 6% per year, the developed countries started to search for means to
decrease transportation costs, thereby especially looking for ways to reduce the time
that ships were laying idle in ports while being loaded or unloaded. (see fig. 1 and 2).

The most attention has been paid to the improvement of cargo-handling techniques.
The first step to decrease turn around time was achieved by the subdivision of cargo
into major commodity or packaging groups. Due to this separation of cargo, based
primarily on the method of cargo handling, specialized ships started to be developed as
containerships, roro ships and barge carriers.

CD @
(.::::;:... ~ accu~,_. .......
_. --t-- _sailin~_, ~
.~ Producer
( mulation
;;))J~;>
I
I
Itru?k
Itra~n
Ibarge
Isea vessel

.!........-_. s upp1y

t
car
train.
I
barge I
sea vessel

transshipment through transport

Fig. 1 Transport chain

Heavy Lift Carrier GLORIA VIRENTIUM - The Netherlands 1977
1599 BRT, 2500 DWT
LOA = 77.24 m
B = 20.00 m
H = 7.60 m
o = 4.15 m
S = 11.5 knots
E : M(2); 2640 hp - Maximum lifting capacity : 800 tons.

Fig. 40. Heavy Lift Carrier Gloria Virentium.

3.4. Bulk cargo

3.4.1. Introduction

Bulk carriers usually carry large quantities of homogenous unpacked cargo, for instanee:

1. liquified gas
2. liquids (oil)
3. chemicals (futilizer, cement)
4. ores
5. coal
6, grain; rice; caraals. atc.

Becauseof the homogeneous nature, this cargo can be handled in a more or less
continuous way.
The handling of bulk cargoes can be executed in various ways, such as pumping
tliquidsl, sucking cereals), slurrying (mixture of dry bulk cargo and a liquid, which can
be transported by pipeline), or by a combination of grabs and a conveyer belt system
(coal and ores).

Bulk carriers can also be subdivided in several types, as will be iIIustrated in the
following chapters.
In principle there exist four types, viz.

1. liquid bulk carriers

ipp/1993/10 page 33
General cargo ships: DWT s::= 1.5 * GRT s::= 2.5 * NRT, and
Very large crude oil carriers: DWT s::= 2.0 * GRT s::= 2.6 * NRT

The definitions of the tonnages are as follows:

_GRT is the total volume of all permanently enclosed space above and below decks,
with certain exceptions, such as the wheelhouse, chart room, radio room and
other specific space above deck, expressed in tons, in which one ton is equal
to 100 fe = 2.83 rn". GRTis normally used as the basis for calculating port
dues.

_ NRT is the total of all space destined for cargo, expressed in units of 2.83 rn", The
NRT is equal to the GRTminus the crew's accommodation, workshops, engine
room, etc.

- DWT is the difference between light and load displacement, in which:

light displacement is the mass of the ship's huil, engines, spares, and
all other items necessaryfor normal working performance.

load displacement is the ship's mass when fully loaded, 50 including

huil, engines, cargo, crew, etc. Fully loaded means that the ship sinks
into the water down to her summer draught line (see Plimsoll mark).

In other words, the DWT gives the mass of cargo, fuel, crew, passen-
gers, fresh water, victuals, etc. expressed in metric tons.

The following unities are used:

metric ton (t = 1000 kg)
-. English or longton tts = 1016 kg)
short ton (sts = 907 kg) and
porttons or shipping tons
Port- or shipping tons are used to determine sea transport charges. A port or shipping
ton is equal to 1 m3 when the specific weight of cargo is smaller than 1 t/m3 and equal
to 1 t when the specific weight of cargo is bigger then 1 t/rn".

For some specialized ships the carrying capacity is not only expressed in BRT, NRT, or
DWT, but also in other units, typical for the type of vessel concerned.

Examples of this are:

TEU: - This unit is normally used.to express the capacity for container-storage on
board of a ship.
TEU stands for Twenty Foot Equivalent Unit, which is the space taken by a
standard container of the following dimensions:
length = 20 feet = 6.03 m,
height = 8 feet = 2.44 m, and
width = 8 feet = 2.44 , or a volume of
6.03 x 2.44 x 2.44 = 35.9 m3
rn" _ The carrying capacity of liquified gas tankers is usually.expressedin rn",

page4
ipp/1993/10
Street length - This dimension is of ten used for so-called ro-ro vessels. It expresses
the totalloading length with standardized width of 2.50 m available
on board of the vessel. It is expresses in units of metres.

2.2. Vertical dimensions

Draught

The draught 0 of a vessel is the maximum distance in metres between the waterline
and the keel of the ship (fig. 4).

Displacement tonnages are calculated in respect of the draught 0 and the stationary
freeboard F, which is indicated on the ship's side (fig. 4).
The maximum draught line is indicated by the so-called Plimsoll Mark (fig. 3).

This mark is composed of a circle and a horizontal bar with two letters on either side of
the circle. The letters stand for the classification society of the Plimsoll Mark, which
issues binding conditions for sizes and quality of materials to be used, tests to be
carried out, etc. Without "classification" a ship is virtually non-insurable.

Most common ietters are:

LR: Lloyd's Register (England)
BV: Bureau Veritas (France), and
AB: American Bureau of Shipping (USA).

The draught of a vessel is related to the density of the water in which she is sailing
(uplifting force). Since the density does not have a constant value over the year, and
also differs with longitude and latitude (a ship sinks deeper into the water in summer
around the equator than in winter on theNorth Atlantic), another indicator is to be
found at the right side of the Plimsoll Mark. This indicates the maximum permissible
draught under various conditions, such as (fig. 2.2): .
TF = Tropical Fresh Water
F = Fresh Water
T = Tropical Salt Water
S = Summer Salt Water
W = Winter Salt Water, and
WNA = Winter Salt Water on the North Atlantic.

Incorporated in the markings of maximum perrnissibledraught is a!so a certain safety

margin.
The draught of a vessel is indicated by numbers which are painted on both sides of the
ship's huil, usually at the bow, midships, and at the stern. Often, these figures indicate
the draught in feet (1 foot = 0.308 m).

2.3. Horizontal dimensions

Length

The length of a vessel can be expressed in two different ways:

LBP: Length between perpendiculars, and
LOA: Length over all.

ipp/1993/10 page5
6. INTERRELATIONS IN THE PLANNING PROCESS

The various planning steps were summed up in section 4 in an apparently logical and
chronological order, but we have also mentioned that, in practice, many overlaps, interrelations
and feedbacks naturally occur. By way of example, some of these interrelations and feedbacks
are indicated in figure 2.

I 1
r TRAFFIC1I
FORECAST
I
1-
MASTERPLAN
-
COST/BENEFIT
ANAL YSIS
1

LOCATION -
ORIENTATEO
SITE
INVESTIGA TIQN

.... I
I L
HYDRAULIC
NAVIGATION
SIMULATOR r IMODEL INVESTIGA TION
INVESTIGA TIONS

Figure2 - Interrelations and feedbacks in the planning process

One cannot carry out hydraulic model studies without keeping at the same time the nautical
aspects in mind and -mutatis mutandis- one cannot optimize the hydro-nautical conditions of a
port without considering aspects like wave penetration.

Similarly, it is not possible to define land requirements of port terminals without knowledge of
the cargo handling and storage systems to be used. Reciprocally, the decision on these
systems may weil be influenced by considerationsof land availability.

Also, original cargo flow forecasts may have to be adjusted on basis of feedback on port costs
to be borne by the cargo.

It wilt, therefore, be obvious that a clear picture has to be formed of all factors involved in the
total planning and their interrelation, before the actual investigation can begin. In other words,
port planning demands a systems approach. This is further complicated by the iterative nature
of the planning process, as schematically presented in figure 3, which as such is an elaboration
of the seemingly simple sequenceof activities shown in figure 1.

page 8
ipp/1990/05
 2.4. Propulsion

Propulsion engines are to be found in the engine room of the ship. They drive the ship's
propeller(s) to enable her to move forward and backward.

The most common propulsion engines are:

SR: Steam Reciprocating Engine,

ST: Steam Reaction Turbine,
TE: Electric Propulsion,
M: Diesel Engine,
GT: Gas Turbine, and
NR: Nuclear Reactor.

Of these various possibilities the Diesel engine is by far the most important one:
approx. 90% of all the ships in the world are equipped with a diesel engine.

2.5. Engine

The maximum output of the ship's engines is usually expressed in HP, which stands for
Horse Power. The unit of Horse Power is: 1 HP =
736 Joule/sec =
0.736 kw.

The position of the engine room is only indicated (by the symbol (A», when it is placed
aft.

In combination with this, the number of propellers is often also indicated in case there
is more than one, viz.:
(2) twin screw
(3) triple screw
(4) quadruple screw.

To iIIustrate the notations, the indication of the vessel "RHINEMARU" could be given,
which is ST (A) (2).
This notation means that the "RHINEMARU" is a vessel with a twin screw, driven by a
steam reciprocating engine, which is placed aft.

Notwithstanding their size some VLCC's are equipped with only one screw with a
diameter as large as 32 feet (speed full ahead ca. 18 kn).

The speed S of seagoing vessels is expressed in knots. One knot is equal to one
nautical mile or 1852 metres per hour (or 0.514 m/sec.).

ipp/1993/1 0 page 7
2.6. Improvement of ship manoeuvrability

Thrusters

Many ships built recently are equipped with one or more thrusters, ei:t:herät the bow or
stern and/or at both places. Eventwin thrusters have been applted,

Fig. 6 Kamewa bow thruster

ipp/1993/10 page 8
 Beaufort 9, with periods T. of 3 to 3.5s. Since, moreover, these waves can be very steep, they
will hamper harbour tugs and similar craft, but large sea-goingvessels will not be effected at all.

Wave penetration into a harbour mostly takes place through the harbour entrance. However,
also the overtopping of low-crested breakwaters or wave transmission through permeable
breakwaters -the latter particularly for long period waves- may contribute to wave agitation
within the port. For example, in the outer harbour of the port of Visakhapatnam on the Indian
east coast, wave transmission through the quite permeableprimary and secondary armour layers
of the southern breakwater is an important cause for the local wave problems encountered.

It is very much necessaryto assessthe magnitude of these phenomenaat the design stage of
the breakwater(s), as it is difficult to devise suitable means to reduce wave transmission once a
breakwater has been built.

In general terms, the problems encountered to limit wave penetration in a harbour increase with
increasing wave period. In this respect, an old ocean swell with a Tof, say, 12 to 16s is
already more difficult to proteet against than wind waves of 6 to 8s period. For still longer
wave periods, as applies for seiches with a T of 2 to 3min or more, the only solution often is to
design the port's water areas in such a way as to minimize the effects.

Wave agitation as a result of wave penetration can be weil investigated with the aid of
mathematicaI modeis. For relatively simple cases and relativelv short period waves, usabie
results can be obtained by defraction-only modeis. If these two conditions are not fulfilled,
more complex models have to be used that incorporate also the refraction effects.

2.2.2 Harbour basin resonance

In case the period of the incident waves equals or approximates the natural period of oscillation
of a harbour basin, resonance phenomenacan be expected. This may lead to locally much
greater wave heights and, consequently, to more severe problems for ships at berth. If a
harbour basin has a more or less uniform depth and rectangular shape, the natural periods of
oscillation T, are as follows:

closed basins

1
with n -= 1,2, ...
.fiiD

open basins

T = 4Ls
• 1
with n = 0,1, ...
n (1 +2n)
.fiiD
The closed basin condition would apply to basins with a very narrow entrance and to transverse
oscillations.

In case of a more complex geometry of the basin boundariesand variabie depths, mathematical
models can be used to determine the Tn in different directions.

2.2.3 Responseof moored ships

(i)
Wave agitation in a port can lead to loss of efficiency or to total disruption of cargo transfer. In
severe cases, it may cause the runture of mooring lines resulting in major damage to ships and
port structures.

F12N/92-07 page 29
3.2.1. General cargo ship

A general cargo ship may carry all kinds of break bulk cargo, viz.

categories of break bulk shape or packing transshipment method

1. bagged goods undefined shape transshipment with ropes

or on pallets

2. normal break bulk crates, boxes, drums transshipment with ropes,

hooks, pallets

3. other types unpacked goods as steel transshipment with ropes

plates, bars and wire, and hooks
lumber and timber

The weight of each piece of cargo (a 'lift') is limited by the maximum lifting capacity of
the shore based crane or of the ship's derrick. Each piece of cargo is handled separately
or sometimes as an assembly of some smaller items.
The cargo handling activities are illustrated in fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Sequenceof loading activities of a general cargo ship.

In this figure and in figure 9 the following symbols are used to indicate an activity.

o temporary rest (awaiting the next activity)

movement of cargo (either vertical or horizontal)
o final stowage (the end of the activities).

The general cargo ship is the arch type of cargo ship. All new, specialized vessels
originate from the 'general cargo ship.

The capacity of the conventional general cargo ship ranges from 5000 to 13000 DWT.
It has four to five holds (space for cargo stowage below deck) and usually one or two
tween decks, which run all along the ship. This makes it possible to stow cargo in such
a way, that it can be distributed evenly over the ship's length and/or to unload a certain
quantity of cargo in a certain port without moving other cargo as weil.

The ship can easily be identified by the many derricks (ship's cranes) placed on deck.
These are arranged in such a way, that each hold can be served by at least two
derricks.

ipp/1993/1 0 page 10
The older designs of general cargo ships show the wheelhouse amidships, but more
recent designs show a tendency to piace it three-quarters aft or aft.

The draught of the vessel is usually smalI, ranging from 7.5 to approximately 12
metres, which enables the ship to call at most ports of the world, even the smaller
ones.
An example of a general cargo ship is shown in fig. 8.

... Side loading port

Fig. 8. General cargo ship TRIDENTROTTERDAM- The Netherlands 1971

7226 BRT, 3715 NRT, 9022 DWT
LOA = 168.91 m Ship is equipped with side loading ports
B = 23.30 m for horizontal cargo handling.
H = 12.50 m Freezercapacity: 2700m3
D = 8.24 m Container capacity: 60 TEU
S = 22.0 knots Stülcken mast and heavy derrick
E: M; 16000 hp Bow thruster.

Over the past years, when, more and more emphasis was put on the reduction of the
ship's turnaround time, some new developments took place in the design, as weil as in
cargo handling methods, of the general cargo ship: .

a. The openings of the holds (hatches) became wider and were placed in one vertical
line to ease the vertical movement of cargo.
It even became possibleto lower small equipment for cargo handling, such as
forklift trucks, into the holds.
The aim to achieve unobstructed movement of cargo was also one of the reasons
why nowadays most wheelhouses of general cargo ships are placed aft instead of
arnidships.
b. Horizontal cargo handling through side loading ports (see fig. 8 and 9).

c. The introduction of the pallet, which forms one of the basic elements of the Unit
Load Concept (U.L.C.), and of the forklift truck (FLTl.

The Unit Load Concept is a process,in which several separate items of cargo are
bundled together to one unit, which can be handled with the 'conventional' cargo
handling equipment, such as quay cranes, derricks, forklift trucks, etc. It is obvious that
implication of the ULC gives remarkablesavings in loading and discharging time, while
no new, speciai (and mostiy expensive) equipment is needed.

Examplesof the ULC are:

ipp/1993/10 page 11
f2 bulking factor
mi acceptable occupancy rate
ha averageheight of cargo in shed [mI

A possiblelayout for the above terminal is given in figure 7.

Z"'>o
100 100

o FFIU:::S
W'Olèk:~H07 ..

i / r
I
(uoJ} LoAj),AlGr
'KoAi::> Ve.H ICL.e~

.
->.
/ ' , ,f
/ /
100 EI'li'TIE.'::> //
/ /
/
/, / /' / /

/ .

<:
I (UN) 1..0ÄJ:) ,N";
: TERMINAL L.flAS>_:S__ ,

/ ' / /

Figure 7 - Example layout container terminal

ct/i 991/09 page 18

Fig. 12 Pre-slung cargo Fig. 13 Pre-strapped cargo

A pallet is a wooden frame, as shown in fig. 10. It exists nowadays in many sizes,
although the 0.8 * 1.2 m2 dimensions are most common (ISO standerd). This size of
pallet has a carrying capacity of 1000 kg. The averagelifetime is approx. 6 months and
its cost is about $ 20.-.

3.2.2. Multipurpose Ship (12,000 - 25,000 DWT)

The multipurpose ship, in fact, a general cargo ship, capable of transporting almost any
piece of cargo, ranging from a small box to a container or even a truck. The designs
made in recent years also show a limited capacity to carry bulk cargo, either liquid (oil,
chemical products), or dry bulk (grain, ore, etc.) and refrigerated cargo.
Especiallydirected towards less developedports, the ship has heavy lifting equipment
on deck, sometimes the patented German Stülcken derricks with a lifting capacity of up
to 250 tons.

The ship can easily be identified by:

a. The robust shape and heavy lift deck equipment.

b. The hatch covers that have been constructed in such a way that they can
withstand the load of heavy pieces of cargo or containers placed on it.
c. Bow thruster and bulbous bow.
d. Side loading ports for horizontal cargo handling.

An example of a multipurpose ship is shown in fig. 14.

ipp/1993/10 page 13
 /'
I
1

Multipurpose ship FINNBUILDER - Finland 1977

16964 BRT, 14260 DWT
LOA = 174.30 m - Stern ramp for roro cargo handling
B = 25.60 m - Three side ports
S = 20.0 knots - Lifting capacity derricks: 40 tons
E : M(A) - Container capacity: 460 TEU
- Bow thruster.

Fig. 14 Multipurpose ship

3.2.3. Refrigerated General Cargo Ship (Reefer 5.000 - 20.000 DWT)

This general cargo ship is solely used for the transportation of fruit, rneat, or other
perishabie commodities, which are kept on board at temperatures between - 30°C and
12°C.

The reefer distinguishes herself from the conventional general cargo ship by the
following features:

The ship is usually painted white.

Her speed is higher; usually from 18-25 knots.
She looks quite elegant and fast; the appearance is streamlined.

In recent years, a trend exists to use refrigerated container ships instead of specialized
ships such as the reefer.
An example is given in fig. 15.

ipp/1993/1 0 page 14
REFERENCES
{1} The Principal Dimensions and Operating Draughts of Bulk Carriers, University of Liverpool, Marine
Transport Centre.

{2} Bulk Solids Handling, the International Journal of Storing and Handling Bulk MateriaIs, TransTech
Publications, Germany.

{3} Self-discharging Bulk Carriers - a Market Study, Ocean Shipping Consultants, 1991.

{4} Prins, prof ir G., Stortgoed Terminals, PATO kursus Haven- en Terminal Planning, 1980-1981.

Ref {4} gives an extensive reference list.

dbc.termj1992*09 page 25
 I c.o
"-.
<,
Qj
E
"+=-
80 "'.'-...,.
. __ . --.L_ conventional tr.nsport
......
(;j
-_._
-0

0
60
-;-_ 1-----.-
"#.
\
-.
Q)

...E...
"+=-
0
40
0- t r anspci t with con! ainers

1
20
r-,

2000
--- ~

4000
/

6000 8000 10.000

distance (miles)

Fig. 16. Time spend in port of container ships and break bulk ships is a function of
the trip length

In the following table an overview is given of the different types of mass break bulk
carriers. In fact the heavy lift carrier is not a mass break bulk ship but because of its
specialized character th is type has been included as weil.

a. containership
first generation (converted general cargo ship)
LOA = 180 à 200 m; B = 27 m; S = 20 à 22 knots: cargo: 750 - 1100
TEU
second generation (tuil cellular container ship)
LOA = 240 m ; B = 30 m; S = 24 knots: cargo:1500 - 1800 TEU
third generation (full cellular container ship)
LOA = 300 m ; B = 32 m; S = 25 à 27 knots: cargo:2400 - 3000 TEU
fourth generation (full cellular container ship)
LOA = 300 m ; B = 32 m; S = 18 knots: cargo:4000 - 4500 TEU

tdentification second, third and fourth generation: high freeboard, super-

structure aft

Lately also so called "post Panamax" vessels have come into operation with a
beam of abt. 40 m (instead of the 32.3 m max. for Panamaxships) and a TEW
capacity in the same order as that of the 4th generation ships. They are more
economical to operate but restricted in the routing.
Furthermore, initiated by Nedlloyd, hatchcover-Iess container ships have been
developed with full height cell guides (including 4 tiers high above the board of the
ship). As they do not require hatchcover handling or deck-container lashing, they
may attain up to same 20% saving in port-time as compared to conventional

ipp/1993/10 page 16
 container ships. Nedlloyd's UCC's (Ultimate Contained Carriers) have a TEU
capacity of 3568.

b. roro/container ship
cargo: containers, road ~g machines, motorcars, lorries and other cargo
provided with wheels.
identification: same as a full container ship but provided with 8 ramp

c. roro/passengership
cargo: passengers,cars, lorries, trailers
identification: ramp, high super structure, ventilation shafts

d. roro/unit load ship

cargo: lorries and trailers
identification: ramp

e. lash ship (lighter aboard ship)

cargo: floatable barges
identification: great length, low super structure and huge gantry crane

f. seabee
cargo: fioatabie barges
identification: elevator to handle the bargessimultaneously

g. bacat (bargecatamaran)
cargo: floatable barges
identification: elevator to handle the bargesbetween the hulls

h. car carrier
cargo: new cars
identification: side ramps, high and long superstructureventilation shafts.

i. heavy light carrier

cargo: huge and heavy units
identification: vast deck-space,one or more heavy-duty cranes or derricks (500t)

3.3.2 ContainerShips and handling equipment

The introduction of container ships has beena breakthroughin the reduction of the
turnaround time of the merchant ships.

Actually the container is only a steel or aluminiumstrong box to carry cargo.

The standardizeddimensionsare:
,
height 2.44 m ( 8 ft) or - the vast majority - 2.59 m (8 Y2 ft)
width 2.44 m ( 8 ft)
iength 6.10 m (20 ft container, 1 TEU, max. weight 20 t)
9.14 m (30 ft container, max. weight 25 t)
12.14 m (40 ft container, max. weight 30 t)

ipp/1993/10 page 17
The American Container Shipping Company Sealand, however, uses solely her own
containers of 35 feet (10,67 m) length.
Many types of containers besides the "conventional type" have been developed in order
to conquer an even bigger share of products to be transported in containers.
Examples are the reefer container, flat container, tank container etc.
Basic advantages of containerization are:
- reduction of the turn around time and thus reduction of port and transport costs
- damage and pilferage of cargo are reduced considerably and th us also insurance
costs
- reduction in packing costs.

But also disadvantages exist.

Even today, almost all regular container services operate only between the developed
countries of the world.
The most important reasons behind this are:

a. Containerization requires a vast capital outlay.

Not only the ships are expensive, but also the handling equipment. The infrastruc-
ture of a port has to be adjusted to the requirements of containerization. All this
asks for vast sums of money for investments. This money is of ten not available in
developing countries. Moreover , such investments are only justified for high
volume trades. which are rare in the developing world.

b. To make a container service profitable it is essential, that there are cargo flows
fr om both sides, since the transportation of empty containers is relatively expens-
ive. Many developing countries have no return cargo.

c. Until today, the majority of cargo carried by containers has mostly been the usual
break bulk cargo consisting of finished or semifinished products. Only recently
containers have been used for the transportation of bulk goods on a small scale.
Unfortunately, the export cargo of many developing countries exists of bulk cargo.

Other disadvantages are stowage lost, high own weight of the containers and an
unfavourable influence on employment in the port sector.
In the beginning of containerization, the containers were, carried by converted general
cargo ships. Today, those ships are called the first generation of container ships which
are mostly used for feeder services.

As soon as the container trade proved to be profitable, the first full containers whips
were built (second generation).

The second generation container ship is mostly used on medium range voyages, such
as USA-W.Europe.
For longer voyages, for instance fr om West Europeto the Far East, the third and fourth
generation container ship is usually used.

.The second, third and fourth generation container ships are easily to be identified.

The ships have a high freeboard and the superstructure is usually placed aft or at three-
quarters. Sometimes a wheelhouse is placed forward. This is due to the fact, that the
view fr om the wheelhouse placed aft is very much limited when many containers are
stacked on deck.

page 18
ipp/1993/10
 The deck itself is flat and unobstructed by the hatch covers so that containers can be
stacked on it in addition to those placed below deck in the slots of the cellular holds.

Depending on the size of the ship, containers are usually stowed up to six high in the
holds and up to four on deck.

The speed of the ships is generally high, ranging from 20-27 knots.

There exists a certain relationship between the DWT and the TEU-capacity of container
ships, viz.

TEU-capacity = 0.05 - 0.06

DWT

The size of most container ships is limited by the dimensions of the PanamaCanal. The
largest (fourth generation) container ships using this canal have the following dimen-
sions:

LOA = 289,50 m; B = 32,22 m; H = 21,50 m; 0 = 11,65 m;

capacity = 57800 DWT; S = 18 knots
Propulsion = 28000 hp; container capacity = 4258 TEU
(including 146 TEU refrigerated containers).
Fourteen of these ships were build for the United States Line in 1984 and subsequent
years. But the company went broke, and some of the ships have been purchased by
the US President Lines for their Atlantic and Pacific trades.

Lift on/Lift off eguipment

To handle containers on and off board a vessel a so called lift onJlift off procedure is
used.
The sequence of activities of cargo handling for a container ship is illustrated in fig. 17.

Fig. 17 Sequence of cargo handling activities of a container ship

Portainers

Usually, the handling of containers at a more or less developed container berth is

carried out by a heavy, shore based. gantry crane: the portainer. The procedure is as
follows (and also applies to the other equipment to be discussed hereafter): the crane-
driver lowers a steel frame, the spreader, which has the same length and width as that
of the container to be handled, on the container.

ipp/1993/10 page 19
The 'pins' (twist locks) at the four corners of the spreader fall into the corresponding
oval corner fittings on the top of the container. Then the twist locks are turned over
90°, by which they are blocked, and the spreader is fixed to the container.

The portainer is an expensive piece of equipment. The newest portainer of EeT in

Rotterdam costs about $ 7 million. This portainer is the latest development, it works
with two trolleys and spreaders.The weight of the crane is about 850 tons.

Fig. 18 Portainer

Shiptainers

Some container ships carry their own equipment to handle containers. This is the
shiptainer (fig. 19), a gantrycrane on board the ship, able to run from forward to aft
along the deck. Some ships even have two or three shiptainers. The shiptainer was
used especially in the beginning of containerization, because at that moment not many
ports were equipped with portainers. At present it is often used for feeder services.

Fig. 19 Shiptainer

ipp/1993/10 page20
Although the container ship equipped with shiptainers is able to call at poorly equipped
ports, the objection is, that the equipment, which requires a heavy investment, is only
used when the ship is in port. Furthermore, the tracks of the gantry-crane consume
space that could otherwise be used for the stacking of containers.
Finally, the shiptainer requires much maintenance due to eerrosion by sea water.

Other Cranes

When containers are occasionally handled at general cargo terminals, lift on/lift off
procedure can be carried out by the ship's own gear, by a big mobile crane, bya
combined operation of two quay cranes, or a by multipurpose crane. Multipurpose
crane's exist with a lift capacity of 60 ton and more.

Terminal eguipment

Various methods can be applied to move a container away from the quay af ter it has
been landed by port- or shiptainer.

a) Straddle carriers.

When placed on the quay the container can be carried by a straddle carrier (fig.
20), to the stacking area on the terminal and left there to wait for further dispatch.
Stacking by straddle carrier can be up to four layers high.

Straddle carriers have the advantage of flexibility and of operating at high speed,
but the equipment is rather expensive and vulnerable to. breakdown.

Fig. 20 Straddle carrier

The driver of the straddle carrier has a limited view, so accidents may happen (and
actually do happen), when strict safety rules are not applied.

In older designs the diesel engine and the hydraulically operated jacks gave cause
to frequent oil spilis on the terminal. Newer designs make use of an electric engine,
and the results, appear to have mostly overcome.

ipp/1993/10 page21
b) Forklift truck

The second method is the movement of the container by a heavy forklift truck. The
disadvantages mentioned for the straddle carrier, such as limited view of the driver
and oil spilIs, are also applicable for most forklift trucks. Although the operating
speed is slower, it has fewer breakdowns than the straddle carrier and it is
cheaper.

A specific disadvantage when used for loaded containers are the high wheel loads
on the pavement.
A special form of forklift is the reach stacker, which has a telescopic tilting
forkbeam, enabling four high, double row stacking instead of single row.

Fig. 21 Forklift truck

c. Trailer

The container mayalso be placed on a trailer directly, in which case three different
methods can be applied:
i) The container is placed on a road trailer, which is brought to the customer
directly.
This method is hardly ever used.
The reasons are:
Trailer drivers may have to wait for long periods.
,Commercial Traffic on the quay-side is mostly not permitted for safety
reasons.
Normally documentation and/or custom procedureshave to be followed
requiring intermediate storage of the containers.

ii) The container is placed on a terminal trailer which is moved by a tractor to

the stacking area, where further handling is carried out by straddle carrier,
forklift truck or transtainer.

iii) The third possibility is the method where every container (35 foot) is placed
on a trailer and moved by tractor to the parking area, from where it is finally
picked up bya road truck. Although this method reduces the complexity of
quay-side activities, it requires a large open space for parking, since stacking
is not possible.

ipp/1993/10 page22
d. Transtainer

A transtainer is a travelling gantry crane for the moving and stacking of containers.
Nowadays, many types of transtainers exist, either on rails or on rubber wheel.
Some types are so big, that they are able to stack containers five layers high.
Transtrainers are also used to load and unload containers on or from railway
wagons (fig. 22).

Fig. 22 Transtainer

Finally, an exarnple of a third generation containership is given in Fig. 23.

Third generation containership TOKYO BAY - Great Britain 1972

59000 BRT, 35500 DWT
LOA - = 289.55 m
LBP = 274.32 m
B = 32.26 m
H = 24.60 m
o = 10.97 m
S = 27.0 knots
E: ST(A) (2) - Container capacity: 2300 TEU

- - _-
Fia. 23. Third aeneration
_-_-_-- container
- ----------- ~hin
----.--

3.3.3. Rara - Container Ship

With the introduction of the full container ship the development had not come to an
end vet.

This is due to the fact that:

- A number of commodities cannot be containerized like motorcars, road building

machines, lorries etc.
- Some large container ships sailing in relatively low volume Hnes could not acquire
enough cargo to reach their full capacity.

ipp/1 993/1 0 page 23

Therefore, the search continued for a vessel, that could take quite a large number of
containers, but also a considerably load of non-containerized cargo.
The sequence of loading activities is given in fig 24.

r'
u
rr I Ir
Ó

Fig. 24 Sequenceof cargo handling activities of a ro-ro/containership

The first types of ro-ro/container ships usually had the ramp at the stern of the ship.
When at sea it was pulled up into a vertical position and in the port it was lowered onto
the quay (fig. 25).

. __ ._-..:,:_ -I
-1

Fig. 25 Rampof a ro-ro/container ship

The disadvantage of this type of ramp is, that a special place in the port or even a
special berth construction is necessary(fig. 26). The manoeuvring with long trailers
may be difficult, since much space is required which is not always available.
The problems with high tidal differences were solved by the use of a pontoon.

Fig. 26 Berth construction for ships with a fixed ramp

To attain more flexibility in the allocation of a berth in a port, ro-ro ships were later on
provided with a quarter ramp, which makes an angle of 45° with the axis of the ship
and enablesthe ship to berth at any part of a straight quay (fig 27).

ipp/1993/10 page 24
 quarter ramp

Fig. 27 Quarter ramp

A more recent development is the so-called slewing stern ramp. This type of ramp,
with lengths of up to 50 metres, can be slewed over 65°, which makes it even more
flexible. The length of 50 metres enables ships equipped with this type of ramp to work
continuously, even in ports with high tidal ranges. Disadvantagesof the system are the
relatively high costs of the ramp (up to 10% of the total costs of the ship) and the loss
of storage space.

Fig. 28 Siewing ramp

The carrying capacity of ro-ro/container ships is usually expressed in TEU as weil as in

street length; the latter being the total length of the lanes in which the ro-ro cargo is
placed in the holds of the ship (standard width of 2.50 m). The latest types of ro-
rolcontainer ships have a total street length of about 5300 m.

An example of a ro-ro/container ship is given in figure 29.

ipp/1993/10 page 25
Roro-containership SAUDI DIRIYAH - Saudi Arabia 1983
40000 DWT - capacity 2050 TEU
LOA = 248,72 m - designed to transport containers,
LBP = 232,00 m self-contained reefer containers
B = 32,26 m vehicles, general cargo and heavy
H = 20,20 m loads including explosives
D = 10,80 m - quarter ramp aft and combined side
S = 20,2 knots door and ramp to 3rd deck; fixed
E: M(A) (1); 27600 hp internel ramps between tank top, 2nd
3rd and upper deck
- bow + stern thruster (each 1770 hp)

Fig. 29. Ro-ro/container ship

The space available in the holds for ro-ro cargo is never fully utilized, due to the
irregular shape of the items stowed on board. This actually leads to a considerable loss
of space, which may even go up to 60%, when compared to a conventional general
cargo vessel, where almost every m3 of space is used for the stowinq of cargo.

3.3.4. Ra-ra Unit Laad Ship

The ro-ro unit load ship differs from the ro-ro/passenger ship by the lack of accommo-
dation; she is purely meant to transport lorries and trailers.
Some vessels of this type have limited accommodation for drivers accompanying their
trucks (fig. 30).

Contrary to the ferry, which normally sails on short routes only, this type of ship,
usually referred to as ro-ro ship, also serves on the longer, intercontinental routes,
especially those to relatively poorly equipped or congested ports. This is due to the
fact, that the loading and discharge times of ro-ro vessels are rather short and also
because shore based cargo handling equipment is not required. The cargo handling
procedure is the same as that iIIustrated in fig. 24.

ipp/1993/10 page 26
Roro Unit Load Ship ANGLIA EXPRESS - Italy 1976
6700 BRT, 4375 DWT
LOA = 147.61 m
B = 22.64 m
D = 6.60 m
S = 20.0 knots
E: M; 16000 hp

Fig. 30 Ro-ro Unit Load Ship

3.3.5. lash - Ship (Lighter Aboard Ship, see fig. 31, 32 and 33)

The Lash is a further step in the development of integrated transport. The principle of
this transport system is as follows:

1. The cargo is stowed into a floatable barge at the producer's premises.

2. The barges are pushed or towed to the piace where the Lash-ship is to arrive.
where they are put in a barge parking area.
3. Af ter the Lash ship has arrived, the barges for the port concerned are unloaded
and the already parked barges are put on board of the Lash ship.
4. The unloaded barges are put together in a formation and pushed or towed to the
customer.
This set-up is the application of an advanced door-to-door transport system, provided
consumer and producer can both be reached by water. Within the system the barges
become the means of transportation itself .

.6-\--~ê!J:------'I.,
Fig. 30. Lash system

ipp/1993/10 page 27
 - ._ - _._
._-.:, •. -;.- ---'::-:;".;~:-' - <t-e-

Fig. 31. Lash ship Arcadia Forest

>\j'
Top view of the stern

Lash-ship BILDERDIJK- The Netherlands 1971

36974 BRT, 20553 NRT, 44094 DWT
LOA = 261.50 m
B = 32.20 m
H = 18.29 m
D = 11.28m
S = 18.5 knots
E: M(A); 26100 hp - Carrying capacity: 83 Lash barges

Fig. 32. Lash ship Bilderdijk

3.3.6. Seabee - Ship

In principle, the system of the Seabeeship is equal to that of the Lash ship; it is also a
type of barge carrier. .
there exist, however, some differences, viz:

1. Barges are lowered into and lifted out of the water by means of a huge elevator
at the ship's stern (capacity about 2000 tons).
Usually two barges are handled simultaneously.

page 28
ipp/1993/10
2. The dimensions and the capacity of the Seabee barge are different from those of
the Lash barge, viz.: 29.70 * 10.70 * 3.00 m.
The carrying capacity is about 850 DWT.
3. The barges are placed parallel to the ship's longitudinal axis.
Besidesbarges, the Seabeeship can also transport containers as single load, or in
the barges. For this reasonthe capacity of the Seabeeship is also expressedin
TEU.
The common TEU - capacity is 824

The sequence of cargo - handling activities is presentedin fig. 33.

.. 1~-~----~
...!-- - - - -

r
- ~
.,

Fig. 33. Sequenceof the cargo handling activities of a Seabeeship.

Fig. 34. Seabeebearges

ipp/1993/10 page 29
3.3.7. Bacat-Ship

The Bacat ship is the third example of barge carriers. In the case of the Bacat (Barge
Caternaram the carrier consists of a twin huil ship (catamaran). The Bacat barge was
originally designed for the British inland waterway system. The barges are pushed in
between the two hulls and then lifted by an elevating platform. The Bacat barge is the
smallest of the three types; the dimensions are:
16.80 * 4.65 m at a draught of 2.45 m. The carrying capacity is 140 tons. The ship,
when fully loaded, accommodates ten of these barges and thr'ee Lash barges. The last
one remain in the water between the two hulls and form some kind of temporary keel
during the voyage of the ship. The time required to unload and load the Bacat ship (in
total a movement of about 5200 tons) is about 6 hours.

B = Bacat barge
L = Lash barge

Fig. 30. Bacat-ship BACAT 1 - Denmark 1973

2700DWT
LOA = 103.50 m
LBP = 93.20 m
B = 20.70 m - Maximum carrying capacity:
H = 10.50 m 10 Bacat barges (B) of 140 DWT each
o = 5.40 m and 3 Lash barges (L) of 360 DWT
E : M(2); 4000 hp each.

Fig. 35. Bacat - Ship

3.3.8. Car Carrier

This type of vessel has been designedfor the transportation of newly built motorcars
fr om the producer to the consumer markets.

ipp'1 993'10 page 30

 6 000

5 000
.,,~
.....
:.J
.....
)...
I\:
4 000
0 U
.....
.._>- ....
0
.3 000
.~ 0
'..) i:
<1:-
a. 2 000
<1l
(J ,..
til
a.;
E ...
:J I-
1 000
.....E I-
<1l
X (J
<1l
:E 0
1.....
1...'"1

""
r--
1...'1
C'
U"\ -:: ...;;
IJ"
.;;
"-
~ :0 r-
Years
-
!T. .r
r-
r-
r-
:x:
r-
C'

Fig. 37. Development of the capacity of car carriers

Fig~38~ Car carrier Traviata (cross sectionl.

3.3.9. Heavy Lift Carrier

The Heavy Lift Carrier (HLC) is another specialized ship, designed to transport huge,
heavy units of cargo, which cannot, or can hardly be transported by any other type of
vessel. Cargo, carried by HLC's, may for instanee be: dredgers, assembly parts of
factories or refineries, drilling platforms, container cranes, etc.
The ship is characterized by the vast deck-space, on which the superstructure with the
wheelhouse has been placed at one of the extremes either at the bow or at the stern,
to create as much deck space as possible. Another characteristic is the presence of one
or more heavy-duty cranes or derricks with capacities of up to 500 tons or more. The
cargo can be placed on deck either by the ship's own gear of by auxiliary equipment,

ipp/1993/10 page31
such as a floating or shore based crane or can be put on board in the roll-on/roll-off
fashion, provided the HLC is equipped with a ramp. The method of operation of some
HLC's is such, that the cargo can also be put on board by floatation, because the ship
is submersible (in the same manner as a floating drydock). These various techniques are
illustrated in fig. 38 .

." ""-= ...../ "1"

"-
-----_._--_.'

Fig. 38. Sequence of cargo handling activities of a Heavy Lift Carrier.

102m.

55 70
20 30 35 '0 '5

E Ë
N ..
MN

116m

Semi-submersible heavy lift vessel SUPER SERVANT 1

The Netherlands 1977 (Wijsmuller) 14450 DWT'
LOA = 139.00 m - Total deck space: 3500 m2
B = 32.00 m - Deck load: 15 t/m2
H = 8.50 m
D = 6.18 m (or 14.50 m submerged)
S = 13.0 knots cruising (15.0 knots maximum)
E : M(2); 8500 hp continuous (9350 hp maximum rating).

Fig. 39. Serni-submersible heavy lift vessel.

ipp/1993/10 page32
Heavy Lift Carrier GLORIA VIRENTIUM - The Netherlands 1977
1599 BRT, 2500 DWT
LOA = 77.24 m
B = 20.00 m
H = 7.60 m
o = 4.15 m
S = 11.5 knots
E : M(2); 2640 hp - Maximum lifting capacity : 800 tons.

Fig. 40. Heavy Lift Carrier Gloria Virentium.

3.4. Bulk cargo

3.4.1. Introduction

Bulk carriers usually carry large quantities of homogenous unpacked cargo, for instanee:

1. liquified gas
2. liquids (oil)
3. chemicals (futilizer, cement)
4. ores
5. coal
6, grain; rice; caraals. atc.

Becauseof the homogeneous nature, this cargo can be handled in a more or less
continuous way.
The handling of bulk cargoes can be executed in various ways, such as pumping
tliquidsl, sucking cereals), slurrying (mixture of dry bulk cargo and a liquid, which can
be transported by pipeline), or by a combination of grabs and a conveyer belt system
(coal and ores).

Bulk carriers can also be subdivided in several types, as will be iIIustrated in the
following chapters.
In principle there exist four types, viz.

1. liquid bulk carriers

ipp/1993/10 page 33
2. dry bulk carriers
3. combined bulk carriers
4. -gas carriers.

The following table gives an overview of the different bulk carrier types:

Bulk Cargo

1. Crude oil carrier

cargo: crude oil
VLCC > 20.000 DWT (Very Large Crude Carrier)
ULCC > 40.000 DWT (Ultra Large Crude Carrier)

2. Product tanker (up to 40.000 DWT)

refii"ledoil products

3. parcel tanker (6.500 - 16.000 DWT)

cargo: refined oil products, chemicaI liquids

4. Liquified gas carrier (up to 130.000 rrr')

cargo: LPG (mixture of propaneand butane)
LNG (liquified natural gas, methane)

5. Dry bulk carriers (up to 330.000 DWT)

cargo: grains, coal, are, fertilizers etc.:

6. OBO-carrier
cargo: either are or crude oil

7. OCO-carrier
cargo: liquid and dry bulk cargo at the same time

Fig. 41. Transshipment of cereals with pneumatic floating elevators.

ipp/1993/10 page 34
Fig. 42. Oil transshipment.

Fig. 43. Transshipment of ore from a sea going vessel into barges.

3.4.2. Crude Oil Carrier

Before the last World War, the consumption of oil was limited, because in those days
coal was the major souree of energy, and crude oil was therefore transported by small
tankers.
When after the Second World War the consumption started to rise (and soon to boom),
the modern crude oil tanker appeared and soon grew larger and larger in size, trying to
keep pace with the demands and trying also to reduce the transportation costs as much
as possible.

The most important producers (and exporters) of crude oil are the Middle East countries
around the PersianGulf, such as Saoudi-Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq
and Iran, and countries such as Nigeria, Venezuelaand Indonesia. The most important
consumers (and importers) of oil are the countries in Western Europe, Japan and the
United States of America. These countries largely depend on the oil from the oil-
producing countries, especially on those of the Middle East.

The following table iIIustrates the development of the size of tankers:

ipp/1993/10 page35
 Year Largest tanker (DWT)

1945 17.000

1955 50.QOO

1960 100.000

1966 200.000

1965 300.000

1976 550.000

Nowadays the intermediate size tanker (50 - 200.000 DWT) is becoming more
important again due to:

1. Levelling off or even some reduction in the world crude oil trade.
2. tncreased use of the (improved) Suez Canal instead of around the Cape services.
3. The fact, th at although VLCC's (Very Large Crude Carriers) and ULCC's (Ultra
Large Crude Carriers) can transport very large quantities of crude oil on one
_voyage, they can only call at few ports in the world, because of their deep
draught. In 1992 less than 10 ULCC's were still in operation world wide.

The crude oil tanker can easily be identified by her flat deck without derricks and hatch
covers. Only sorne deck arranqernents like stoplocks, pumps, pipelines and small hose
derricks with the manifold amidships can be observed. A remarkable feature is the
catwalk, a horizontal gangway, that runs along the deck from bow to stern, tp enable
the crew to move alonq the ship. Older tvpes of tankers have, like the older general
cargo vessels, the main superstructure amidships, but with the newer and bigger types
all is aft; superstructure, wheelhouse, engine room etc.

A remarkable feature of the very large types is the return of the crow's nest at the
bow, which is necessary because of the Iimited view from the wheelhouse aft.

ipp/1993/10 page 36
 "

ULCC BATILLUS- France 1976

275276 BRT, 550.001 DWT
LOA = 414.21 m
B = 63.06 m
o = 28.50 m
S = 16.0 knots
.E: ST(2); 64800 hp

Fig. 44. ULCC Batillus

3.4.3. ParcelTanker

The parcel tanker is a specializedtanker for the transportation of refined oil products,
such as paraffin, diesel oil and/or chemical liquids. The parcel tanker has received her
name from the fact, that the various relatively small compartments in the hold can be
used separately, by which various products can be transported at the same time.

The parcel tanker can be distinguished from the crude oil tanker by various additional
characteristics, such as the numerous small tank hatches, many fore-and-aft running
pipes and, amidships, the manifold with its complex arrangements of pipes and valves,
connected to the ship's tanks system. The manifold is the focal point of the loading
and discharging operations by means of the ship's own pumps. Close to the manifold
are two light hese-derricks.

To reduce the hazards of fire, the holds fore and aft are equipped with double water-
tight bulkheads (cofferdams).
One of the great problems of parcel tankers is the cleaning of tanks. When a certain
type of cargo has been brought to her destination, and another type of cargo is to be
loaded, the tanks have first to be cleaned. in weil equipped ports facilities are available
to execute this in a professional way, !f this is not the case, !!!ega!dumpings at see
may occur, which may seriously harm the marine environment.
A general lay-out of a parcel tanker is given in fig. 45.

ipp/1993/10 page 37
Parcel tanker CHIMISTE SAYID - Marocco 1977
3879 BRT, 2684 NRT, 6433 DWT
LOA =110.53 m
LBP = 101.90 m
B = 16.60 m
H = 8.55 m
D = 6.92 m
.E: M; 4000 hp - Total tank capacity: 7321 m3

Fig. 45. Parcel tanker

3.4.4. Liquid Gas Carrier

The gas is transported at a high pressureor at a low temperature or a combination of

both.

The products involved are:

- LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas), a mixture of propane and butane,
- LNG (Liquified Natural Gas; consists mainly of methane), and
- other types of chemical gas, like ammonia, ethylene, etc.

The gas is mostly transported at atmospheric pressure and low temperature (lPG:
_46°C and LNG: - 162°C) in liquid form in separatetanks in the hold of the ship, i.e.
the so called cryogenic transport.
In liquid form naturaI gas retains only 1/634th of its original volume. fig. 47 gives the
development of the liquified gas carriers.
For smaller quantities - e.g. coaster type and size ships-LPGis also transported in
pressurizedform at normal temperatures. LNGcannot even be liquified by pressuriza-
tion at temperatures above abt. - SO°C.
The capacity of gas tankers is normally expressed in m".

CAPIBALG - 1964
Capacity: 630 m3
LOA = 52.00 m
B 8.50 m
D = 3.60 m

page 38
ipp/1993/10
 METHANE PRINCESS-
1964
Capacity: 27.400 m3
LOA = 175.00 m
B 24.80 m
o = 7.90 m

JULES VERNE- 1965

6:xxxxxi1 Capacity: 25.500 rn"

LOA
B
o
188.00 m
24.70 m
7.30 m

anOnODO) 4
POLARALASKA - 1969
Capacity: 71.500 m3
lOA = 230.00 m
B
o
34.00 m
= 10.00 m

PAUl KAYSER- 1975

Capacity: 125.000 m3
lOA = 266.00 m
B 41.60 m
o = 11.00 m

New design with Kvaerner-

Moss
tanks -1976
Capacity: 125.000 m3
lOA = 270.00 m
B 43.00 m
o = 11.70 m
Fig. 46. The development of the Liquified Gas Carriers.

In principle LNG-carriersare capable to transport LPGas weil; but LPG tankers cannot
. carry LNG.

3.4.5. Dry Bulk Carrier

Dry bulk ships are designed to carry big quantities of uniform, unpacked commodities
such as grain, coal, ore etc.

Loading is always carried out by shore equipment, unloading sometimes by shore

equipment, sometimes by ship-based equipment.
A large number of dry bulk vessels are "ungeared bulk carriers" which have no self-
unloading capability.
"Geared bulk carries" are equipped with derricks at all holds or with gantry cranes and
do not require shore cranes.

ipp/1993/10 page39
In contrast to the tanker, the dry bulk carrier has hatches. The hatches are usually very
wide, in order to give access to the handling equipment in every place in the holds. The
biggest bulk carriers presently is use (VLOC's = Very Large Ore Carrier) measure abt.
350:000 DWT.
Some types of dry bulk ships, the CSU's (Continuous Self Unloader), are self-discharg-
ing via an ingenious conveyer system. Capacities of up to 6.000 tons per hour can be
reached. (fig. 48).
The advantage of these self unloadersis that only some dolphins are necessary for a
berth.

The dimensions are:

20000 - 70000 DWT
LOA = 200 - 250 m.
8 = 20 - 30 m.
H =10-17m.
p = 7,5 - 12,5 m.
S = 12,5 - 15,5 knots

Fig. 48. Self-discharging dry bulk carrier

3.4.6. Combined Bulk Carrier (OIO. OBO. OC

Due to the specialized nature of the ship, bulk carriers often sail in ballast. The reason
is that these ships usually transport raw materials or half finished products from the
producer to the processing markets.
There will obviously not exist a return cargo of the same or similar commodity from the
consumer to the producer. For this reasonthe so called 080 and OCO carriers have
been developed. This ship type may transport either dry bulk or crude oil or both.

page 40
ipp/1993/10
The transport of ore played a very important role in the beginning of this development.
First the ore oil carrier was developed (OIO). When increasingly lighter products (grain)
were transported in bulk, the so-called OBOcarrier was developed. Another develop-
ment with regard to combination carriers was the oeo carrier.

The combination carriers can be distinguished form the ordinary bulkcarrier by the
presencedeck fittings (such as pipelines, hose derricks and manifolds), that can be
observed on deck of a crude oil tanker in addition to the batches of the dry bulk carrier.

OR-
WB OR WB WB or WB
or CO or
CO CO
lOBor FO WB, CO, FO

General Purpose Bulk Carrier Ore Carrier Oil/Ore Carrier (OIO)

WB - wacer ballast
DB - dry bulk, e.g.
WB DB WB GR - grain
DB or CO or OR - ore
or
CO CO CO - crude· o il
WB or FO FO - fuel oi!
WB, CO, Fa V - void
,------ ---
Oil/Bulk/Ore Carrier (OBO) Oil/Ore Carrier (OCO)

Fig. 49. Development of the combined carrier

3.4.6.1 OBO - carrier

The OBO - carrier can transport either ore or crude oil. Usually the same holds are used.
The OBO carrier has been developed mainly to transport oil. This means that when this
ship transports oil, the holds are completely filled; in case of ore, the holds may only be
partly filled but the holds will be completely filled again when low density cereals or
grains are transported.
One of the problerns consists of the need of cleaninq of the ho!ds each time before
changes cargos. Not always the waste water is discharged in an appropriate way.

ipp/1993/10 page41
 OBO-carrier JOREK COMBINER - Norway 1976
66373 BRT, 117000 DWT
LOA =245.02 m
B = 38.71 m
D = 16.00 m
S = 16.0 knots
E : M; 23200 hp

Fig. 50. OBO - carrier

Some safety problems exist with respect to these carriers. Due to explosions two ships
(owned by a Norwegian shipping company) have been wrecked.

3.4.6.2 aca - carrier (ore/cum/oil)

The OCO - carrier can transport liquid and dry bulk cargo at the same time. This is
possible by the special arrangement of the holds.
The central section of the hold is reserved for dry bulk cargo. It is surrounded by tanks
for the storage of liquid bulk cargos usually crude oil (when ore is transported mostly
no carrying capacity is left for oil). By using separate holds for oil and dry bulk cargo no
cleaning problems exist. One of the possibilities of making used of the OCO - carrier is
when two markets exchange bulk products, such as:
South America - USA : ore
USA - South America : crude oil

ipp/1993/10 page 42
 Dry bulk
W90ho'd
OQ
0-' liquid bulk
cargo holds
/'

0/
( 6
OCO-carrierGERTRUDFRITZEN- Free Republikof Germany 1968
22797 BRT
LOA = 190.75m
LBP = 177.00 m
B = 23.70 m
H = 14.00'm - Dry bulk capacity : 12687 m'
D = 9.73 m - Liquid bulk capacity : 24214 m'

Fig. 51. OCO - carrier

3.5 Short Sea Trader

The short sea trader is a sea going ship with a capacity of between 300 and 3000
DWT.
In several countries short sea traders with capacities ranging from 300 to 1500 BRT
are referred to as "coasters". Usually, the short sea trader runs the shorter routes,
connecting the ports around the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and
similar areas of the world.
As discussed in the previous chapters, the size and therefore also the draught of ocean
going vesseis have increased sharplv over the past decade. This has increased the
importance of short sea traders, mainly due to the following two reasons:
- Large vessels tend to call at as few ports as possible, in order to reduce costs, and
- Large vessels are no longer able to call at every port due to restrictions caused by
the dimensions of the ships.

To maintain the conneetion between the ports of call of the large vessels and the other
ports the short sea trader is a most useful tooI. If a short sea trader is 'ámployed in this
way, she is also referred to as "feeder" . Due to her limited dimensions, the ship can call
at most ports. Furthermore it can be observed, that she is, because of the sirnplicitv of
the ship and the small crew, economic in use.

ipp/1993/10 page43

I,
The short sea trader can transport any kind of cargo, such as general, palletized,
containerized or bulk cargo. Therefore, a short sea trader is of ten regarded as a
miniature of the larger ocean-going vessel.

Depending on the type, the short sea trader is of ten fully equipped with cargo handling
gear, which also enables her to load or unload cargo at small ports with limited
facilities.

,
-_.:..;.-
.. .:- • - - ,- .., _ .....
_::: .-;;;'.;.~ __ -~- __ '- '7 - :. - -:. ---.:;..-:_-:-=-------~:-..=.-_--.---.!!

STANDARD DESIGN SHORT SEA TRAD ER (CONOSHIP)

the Netherlands 900 BRT, 1400 DWT
LOA = 65.70 m
LBP = 60.00 m
B = 10.70 m
H = 4.90 m
D 4.13 m - Maximum hold capacity: approx. 1800 m3

Fig. 52. Short Sea Trader

Af ter the second world war, passenger traffic by aeroplane started to boom, and many
passenger ships started to disappear fr om the seas of the world. For some of them
however, new employment was found in the tourist industry. They were (and are) used
to make holiday trips for tourists to warm (usually tropical) and interesting places,
especially in the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas. For this reason, passenger ships
are, today, of ten referred to as cruisers or cruise ships.

ipp/1993/10 page44
 The cruise ship can easily be identified by the high superstructure, sometimes four to
five continuous upper decks, many lifeboats and windows in the superstructure. The
high freeboard is pierced by the portholes of the cabins below deck.
Cargo handling equipment except a possible light derrick aft to serve the stores-holds,
is not available.
Today also the r-r/passenger ship is in use (ferry ship).

~g~--------------------r
Cruise ship VISTAFJORD- Norway 1973
24292 BRT
LOA = 190.82 m
B = 25.00 m
S = 20.0 knots
E : M(2) - Maximum accommodation for passengers:830 persons

Fig. 53. Cruise ship

4. TRAMP AND L1NER TRADE

International shipping can be subdivided into two major categories:

- liner trade
- tramp trade

4.1 Liner Trade

Liner Trade is a seaborneTrade of one company or a consortium of companies, that

maintain regular services between a certain number of ports. When a liner trade service
is maintained bya number of vessels of different companiesbut it mutually agreed
transport rates, this is called a conference.
Another possibility is. that a number of shipowners raise funds to emerge a new
company to start a liner service. This is common practise when the costs of building,
operating and maintenanceof the company's ships are too high to be borne by one
company only. Examplesof this kind of liner service can be found in the container trade
in particular. The ACL (Atlantic Container Line), for instance is a combination of the
following shipping lines:

- Compagniede Navigation Atlantique

- Cunard Steamship Company Ltd
- Holland America Line
- Swedish America Line
- RederiA/B Transatlantic, and
- Wallenius Lines

ipp/1993/10 page 45
The competition of non conference members is reduced by using so called fighting
ships. These fighting ships transport cargo under the normal rates to fight the competi-
tion of the "outsider". The costs involved are absorbed by all members of the confer-
ence.

The main characteristics of the liner trade and conference are:

- Regular services times of arrival and/or departure are scheduled beforehand
- Fixed tariffs this may, sometimes, be a disadvantage
- Good services including the services in port, such as local agents, facilities and
priority in some ports
- Fixed berth in port: this is not the case in all ports of the world

4.2 Tramp Trade

Tramp Trade is the opposite form of seaborneline trade. It is being applied whenever or
wherever needed. Tramp trade is mostly found in the bulk shipping trade, where the
markets are more varying than in the break bulk trade. Sometimestramp ships are
contracted by liner companies on short or long term contracts, in case their own fleet is
not adequate or available to provide the services required.
Chartering occurs through open markets mainly in London and New Vork. The charter-
ing through open markets is reason for strong varying tramp tariffs becauseof the
limited flexibility of the transport capacity. Therefore raw materials processing indus-
tries are concluding long term contracts. This security of long term contracts offers the
possibility to use larger and more specializedbulk carriers.

To illustrate the importance of tramp shipping, the distribution of the world crude oil
transport in 1992 is presented:

ca. 15% was transported by vessels owned by the major Oil Companies
ca. 84% by independent tramp companies, which have leased their ships on short
and long term contracts to Oil Companiesand oil traders
ca. 1% was carried out bv ships owned by governments.

5. GRAPHS

Some graphs with respect to the main dimension of ships are presented in the following
figures. (based upon data from Lloyds Registerof Ships and the sources.

Fig. 54: BRTversus DWT of different ship types.

Fig. 55: Main dimensions of generalcargo ships.
Fig. 56: The bend in curve b to a more or less horizontal line is caused by maximum
allowable width of 32.3 m passingthe Panamacanal, the one of curve L" is
a result of similar length limitation. The dots above these line refer to Post
Panamavessels.
Fig. 57: Main dimensions bulk carriers. Modern VLBC's (Very Large Bulk Carriers) do
have an abt. 1 to 1.5 m lower draught against a somewhat greater length
and beam. This is indicated by the second line for ships in the 170.000 to
210.000 DWT class. It representsthe average over some 90 ships in that
category build in the last ten years.
Fig. 58: Main dimensions crude carriers.
and 59

ipp/1993/10 page 46
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ipp/1993/10 page 47
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ipp/1993/1 0 page 49
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page 50
ipp/1993/10
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ipp/1993/10 page 51
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page 52
ipp/1 993/1 0
Literature references:

[1 J Kruk, ir. C.B., Merchant Shipping, 3,d edition, IHE Delft, 1990

[2J Smagghe, Jean, Trends in Container Vessel Line, International Association of

Ports and harbours, Tokyo, 1988

[3J Williamson, G.A.W., The Principal Dimensionsand Operating Draughts of Bulk

Carriers, University of Liverpool, 1975

[4J Kummerman, H. and Jacquinel, R, Ships' Cargo, Cargo Ships, Mac Gregor
Publications, UK, 1979

(SJ Huisman, J.M., New developments in ContainerShip Design; Proceedings

Singaport '92 Conference, 1992

ipp/1993/10 page 53
 chapter 2.

PORTS AND INTEGRATED TRANSPORT CHAINS

- INTRODUCTION -
 chapter 3.

PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRATED PORT PLANNING

1990/05
 PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRATED PORT PLANNING

CONTENTS

1. Commercial ports: function and development 3

2. Types of planning 4

Why and when are new ports needed? 4

3.

4. Stages in port planning 5

5. The disciplines involved 7

6. Interrelations in the planning process 8

7. Primary programme of requirements 9

8. Preliminary masterplans 9

9. Evaluation procedures 10

10. Numerical evaluation 10

11. Monetary evaluation 12

12. Project optimization 13

13. General observations 16

issue 1991/08
 PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRATED PORT PLANNING

This introduction aims at giving a broad survey of the framework of port planning as a whole
and the complex range of factors th at play a part in it. Such a survey is necessary in order to
clarify the mutual relationship of a number of subjects which have been discussed or will be
discussed in the context of these lectures.

1. COMMERCIAL PORTS: FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

Formerly

A port was primarily a commodities storage place and a distribution centre (for instance
Amsterdam, Antwerp, London). Ships arrived at rather unpredictable moments. The cargo was
stored in the port until market prices made it attractive to sell. Matters like nautical aspects
and transhipment were of secondary importance.

A port grew with the increase of the short-term demand of the aforementioned function as a
commodities storage place and distribution centre. There was hardly any systematic planning,
at least not with regard to transport. Therefore, old ports are often badly situated and
organized as far as transport technology is concerned.

Nowadays

The emphasis has shifted from commodities storage to a link or junction in intermodal transport
chains and an interface between transport modes, where goods are transferred from one means
of conveyance to another, where transport chains meet and part again. The port is attuned to
a transport system that is as cheap and efficient as possible, particularly in terms of cargo
handling.

Even now, storage inevitably still plays an important part, not as an end in itself but rather as a
necessarv evil. Necessary, because the discontinuities and irregularities in both the incoming
and outgoing cargo flows require the maintenance of a certain buffer stock of commodities in
the port.

In order to make the transport within the port as efficient as possible, it is necessary to
streamline the movements of the transport means and the loading and unloading operations and
to ensure the accessibility of the storage areas.

To meet these requirements, one must be able:

• to anticipate increasingly on developments in shipping and goods traffic, i.q. to anticipate
on market demands
• to bring about an increasing degree of specializationin the goods handling according to
their type and their packing

Apart from this, other circumstances have complicated the development of ports:
• the massive scale of present-dav harbour activities
• the much increased density of population and the growing awareness of safety and
environmental aspects
• the development in many ports of a port-orientated industry with all its consequences

The development of a port is, therefore, no langer an issue of local ad-hoc decisions but a
matter of complex, multi-disciplinary long-term planning, bath at regional and national levels.

ipp/1990/0S page 3
2. TYPES OF PLANNING

On the one hand, a differentiation should be made according to time horizon:

• long-term period of about 20 years
port strategie and infrastructural masterplan
• medium-term period of 3 to 5 years
for instanee, the planning, design and execution of new terminals or
the first-phase implementation of a new port plan
• short-term period of 1 year
procurement of equiprnent, small infrastructural improvements and
adaptations

On the other hand, a differentiation should be made according to scope:

• national or regional port planing
• planning new individual ports
• extensions or adaptations to existing ports

In terms of time horizon, the discussion will be restricted to long-term planning because
medium-term planning is usually only a derivation from long-term planning. As in all planning,
work has to progress from large to small and what has to be realized in five years has to fit into
the canvas of infrastructural provisions that will be necessary in, say, ten or twenty years time.
it is, therefore, necessary to develop initially a long-term vision and strategy.

In terms of scope, in the first instanee the planning of new individual ports will be discussed
because, in principle, all the relevant aspects of planning will then come under review.

The drafting of a national ports plan is primarily a matter of general and transport economics
and, as such, falls outside the scope of this discussion.

3. WHY AND WHEN ARE NEW PORTSNEEDEO?

The construction of a new port may be considered because of one or more of the following
reasons:

• The 'choking' of existing ports, such as the 'urbanized' ports (e.g. Marseilles, Algiers,
Alexandria, Barigkok, Bombay, Madras, the original ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp, and
many others).
• Insufficient water-depth in existing ports, and the impossibility or high cost of increasing it.
• The discovery of new mineral sourees or the development of new agricultural areas.
Generally speaking, increased economie activity in an area.
• Sometimes the possibility of stimulating development in certain -as yet- undeveloped areas.

In many cases, a carefully considered choice had to be made or must still be made between the
extension and improvement of existing ports and the construction of new ones.

The advantages of a new port are:

• it can be adapted to modern requirernents
• it can be given a great degree of flexibility

The disadvantages are:

• in addition to the port itself, new through-transport routes (rail, road, inland waterways) will
have to be developed at the same time
• a skilled workforce is not readily available
• port-orientated provisions and services are not immediately available and cannot be that
easily mobilized (forwarding agents, shipping agents, workshops, banks, etc.)
• a new port, therefore, .needsa long running-in time before it begins -to some extent- to
operate efficiently

ipp/1990/05 page 4
It is also important to pre vent too large a decentralization of port actlvities -both regionally and
nationally- as deep sea trade wants to call on as few ports as possible. 'Ports must follow the
trade, but the trade does not always follow the ports!' It is wise to aim region-wise or country-
wise at a minimum number of deep sea ports at strategic locations. This in conjunction with
such small ports for feeder services as local trade and developments require them.

The above applies mainly to the normal multi-functional commercial ports. When bulk
transhipment of only one or two products such as ore, coal or oil is concerned, the problem is
usually simpier. These so-called dedicated ports are just a link in one or more weil defined
integrated transport chains and the processes of location selection, evaluation, decision and
management are centralized by the owner(s) or operator(s) of those transport chains.

4. STAGES IN PORT PLANNING

In the port planning process, the following stages or steps can be distinguished in more or less
chronologicalorder. 'More or less', because there will be many overlaps and many feedbacks
due to interrelation.

Long-term: masterplanning

(i) General definition of the objectives.

(ii) Delimitation of the coastal zone where the port has to be situated if it is to satisfy its
requirements: centres of activity, connections with the hinterland.
(iii) Collecting existing data.
(iv) Rough forecast of the cargo flows: origin/destination, definition of the hinterland.
(v) Study of the likely shipping patterns: number/type/sizes of the ships for the varleus
trades, i.e. translation of the cargo flows into a shipping forecast.
(vi) Provisional determination of the required areas of land and water and the required
water-depth (primary programme of requirements, see section 8), nautical aspects.
(vii) A broad investigation into the local environme_ntalconditions: geological and
geotechnical, oceanographicaland hydrographical, coastal-morphological,
demographical and sociological, etc.
(viii) Generation of different outline plans for different locations, developing
basically a complete overview of feasible solutions.
(ix) Screening of alternative locations and plans on the basis of criteria like:
• the available areas of land and water (plus extension possibilities)
• oceanological considerations (waves and currents)
• nautical considerations
• coastal engineering considerations
• geotechnical aspects
• environmental aspects
• connections with the hinterland
• sociological considerations (urbanization, potential workforce)
• industrial engineering aspects (situation of the area and elevation, cooling water,
foundations, safety)
• costs aspects (construction and maintenance)
• accessibility (i.e. the frequency with which ports in alternative locations would have
to be closed because of waves, currents and/or winds)
Pre-selection of the most promising alternatives.
(x) The drawing up of provisional masterplans for these alternatives (see section 8).
(xi) Evaluation procedure plus final selection (see sections 9 through 11).
(xii) Location-oriented site investigation.
(xiii) Optirnization (hydraulic model studies, navigation-simulator studies, land use, costs)
(see section 12).
(xiv) Detailed masterplan and costs estimate, cost/benefit analysis.

ipp/1990/0S page 5
The above is presented in a schematic way in figure 1.

I CARGO FLOW FORECASTI

t
r SHIPPING FORECAST
I

....
VI

>
THROUGH- FIELD DATA: i=
NATIONAL/ ENVIRON- I PRINCIPAL .1 «
REGIONAL/ MENTAL DIMENSIONS TRANSPORT -OCEANOGR. z
URBAN PLANNING ANO ASPECTS -GEOTECHN. ........
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ASPECTS ASPECTS MORPH «
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Figure 1 - The masterplanning process

ipp/1990/05 page 6
 Some of these steps within the masterplanning process wil! be further discussed in sections 7
through 12.

Medium-term

(xv) Cargo flow forecast for the period in question (in general, a more detailed plan and a
more reliable forecast will be possible than for a long-term masterplan).
(xvi) Phase 1 development plan, induding functional deslans of the terminals, with due
regard to safety and environmental aspects.
(xvii) Detailed geotechnical investigations.
(xviii) Provisional structural designs + costs estimates.
(xix) Capacity optimization.
(xx) Environmental impact assessment.
(xxi) Organization, operation, tariff setting.
(xxii) Financial/economic ev.aluation.
(xxiii) Decisions on investments and execution.
(xxiv) Detailed design, tendering procedure, execution.
(xxv) Manpower development and operational support.

5. THE DISCIPLINESINVOLVED

It will be dear that many divergent disciplines are usually involved in this type of planning
operation. Some of these are:

Technical group
• oceanography and coastal engineering
• hydraulics
• hydro-nautics and nautical technology
• river engineering (sometimes)
• traffic engineering and road engineering (roads and railroads)
• transport engineering
• maritime engineering
• structural engineering
• dredging technology
• geology, geotechnology and seismology
• industrial engineering
• safety engineering

Applied economics group

• macro-economics
• business economics
• transport economics
• econometrics
• organization and management
Sociological/environmental group
• physical planning
• sociology
• ecology and biology
• environmental impact assessment

The port planner generally operates like an orchestral conductor. The conductor must have a
reasonable knowledge of the possibilities and limitations of the various instruments, often he
will be able to play one or more himself, but not weil enough to give a solo performance. He
certainly should resist any such ambition. On the contrary, he should give all his talent and
energy to attain a fine-tuned and balanced performance of the orchestra.

ipp/1990105 page 7
6. INTERRELATIONS IN THE PLANNING PROCESS

The various planning steps were summed up in section 4 in an apparently logical and
chronological order, but we have also mentioned that, in practice, many overlaps, interrelations
and feedbacks naturally occur. By way of example, some of these interrelations and feedbacks
are indicated in figure 2.

I 1
r TRAFFIC1I
FORECAST
I
1-
MASTERPLAN
-
COST/BENEFIT
ANAL YSIS
1

LOCATION -
ORIENTATEO
SITE
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.... I
I L
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SIMULATOR r IMODEL INVESTIGA TION
INVESTIGA TIONS

Figure2 - Interrelations and feedbacks in the planning process

One cannot carry out hydraulic model studies without keeping at the same time the nautical
aspects in mind and -mutatis mutandis- one cannot optimize the hydro-nautical conditions of a
port without considering aspects like wave penetration.

Similarly, it is not possible to define land requirements of port terminals without knowledge of
the cargo handling and storage systems to be used. Reciprocally, the decision on these
systems may weil be influenced by considerationsof land availability.

Also, original cargo flow forecasts may have to be adjusted on basis of feedback on port costs
to be borne by the cargo.

It wilt, therefore, be obvious that a clear picture has to be formed of all factors involved in the
total planning and their interrelation, before the actual investigation can begin. In other words,
port planning demands a systems approach. This is further complicated by the iterative nature
of the planning process, as schematically presented in figure 3, which as such is an elaboration
of the seemingly simple sequenceof activities shown in figure 1.

page 8
ipp/1990/05
 Ini"a' 5.'.cllon

'n~.llog~lIon ~nd
ev.lulion of
.tt.rn.tives

FIn~1 m.sterpl~n
(Subject to p.rlodlc
-- -- -~-----'
1
r.vi .... I

PreliminalY
m.5terplan Tr.nelallon Inlo
• ".,n.lI". a Intra5truc:tural requir.ment •

Figure 3 - Schematic presentation of the iterative process of port planning

Network planning will often be necessary, not only to check the time schedule but also in order
to clarify the interrelations and necessary feedbacks. If there are time constraints, the network
planning can be done by CPM or similar methods.

7. PRIMARYPROGRAMMEOF REQUIREMENTS

The primary programme of requirements means the total range of generally defined demands
that are needed to identify the alternative locations for building a port. Theyare:
• The horizontal dimensions of the port approaches, lts entrance, manoeuvring space and
basins.
• The required deptbs of these water areas.
• The land required for port installations and industry, and the length of the waterfront
required for loading and unloading.
• The relative position of the land areas: distance and height in relation to the waterfront,
the minimum distance to te residential areas and to other port activities in view of the type
of cargo being handled, and the associated safety and environmental aspects.

The requirements are to be defined on the basis of the masterplan phase, Le. on the
requirements of the maximum planning horizon of approximately 20 years. Moreover, additional
space must be available for possible extensions in a distant future.

8. PRELIMINARYMASTERPLANS

The abovementioned requirements, together with the environmental boundary conditions

(currents, waves, bottom topography) have to be set down in a number of outline plans based
on guidelines of a general nature. Some guidelines are already included in the total set of

ipp/1990105 page 9
requirements (e.g. nautical guidelines in the general dimensioning of the port entrance and
manoeuvring space). Other general guidelines are, for instance:
• If possible, any curves in the axis of the port and the port entrance should be avoided, at
least from a point some kilometres outside the entrance to a point within the turning circle.
• Situate the port entrance in such a way that incoming and outgoing shipping encounters
minimum cross-currents and, particularly, strong cross-current gradients and cross-winds in
front of the port entrance.
• If there is a dominant current pattern, the port should be situated in such a way th at
vessels approach and enter the port against that current.
• The port must offer adequate shelter from wave penetration, particularly at the location of
the berths .
• Potential siltation problems must be accounted for .
• The handling of dangerous cargoes requires the introduction of a port zoning plan from the
early beginning of planning activities.

There are often contradictions between guidelines. For instance, the orientation of the axis of
the port in accordance with the minimization of the cross-current component might weil lead to
a greater wave penetration in the port.

Outfine plans for alternative locations must continue to be made until it is reasonably certain
th at no possibility has been overlooked. Af ter the first screening of the various alternative
locations, only a limited number of serious possibilities remains. These are then developed
further into conceptual masterplans and, at this stage, costs analyses can be made.

The comparison of these solutions for alternative locations -or alternative solutions for one
particular location- is usually no easy task, because it is well-nigh impossible to satisfy all the
demands and guidelines. Therefore, an evaluation procedure th at is as objective as possible,
must be developed.

9. EVALUATION PROCEDURES

The basic problem in the evaluation is that the criteria for evaluation are dissimilar, for instance
sociological as opposed to nautical criteria, flexibility as opposed to costs. There are qualitative
and quantitative criteria which must be reduced to the same common denominator for the
purpose of evaluation, in other words, a quantification of qualitative norms. Some of the
possibilities are:
• checklist approach
• numerical systems I multi-criteria analysis
• monetary systems
The checklist approach will not be considered further here as it is, generally speaking, too
simplistic an approach for the purpose.

10. NUMERICAL EVALUATION

The numerical evaluation is usually produced as 'multi-criteria analysis'. It comes in various

forms, such as the measured success index technique, the expectation value technique and the
concordance/discordance technique. In the following, the simplest one, the measured success
index technique, will be briefly discussed.

A framework can be made of e.g. primary, secondary and tertiary criteria, each of which is
given its own 'weight' or norm value.
The norm value of primary criteria can be set by a panel, representing all the disciplines
involved, using an iterative process.

page 10
ipp/1990105
 The norm values of the secondary and tertiary criteria which are sub-divislens of the primaries,
can be set by representatives of the various disciplines in question.

After that, all the criteria are given a valuation. Multiplication and addition of norm values and
valuation marks eventually produce an ultimate quantitatlve appreciation.

Examp/e

Primary criteria primary norm value,

for instance:
(i) port technology 10
(ii) physical planning 6
(iii) industrial development 6
(iv) coastal morphology 3
(v) costs 7
Secondary & tertiary criteria
The primary criterion (il 'port technology' subdivided as follows into secondary and tertiary
criteria:

(il port technology

(al nautical and hydraulic criteria secondary norm value,

for instance: 10
1. approach route (close to shore or obstacles?1
2. stopping length
3. manoeuvring space in port
4. nautical safety
5. traffic control
6. wave penetration in port
7. waves in front of the port
8. cross-current in front of the port

(bI flexibility secondary

norm value,
for instance: 7
1. possibility of extension
2. possibility of changing function allocation (of port areas)

(cl safety (passive) secondary norm value,

for instance: 8
1. the position of danger zones in relation to the local environment
2. possibility of limiting disasters

(dl building time secondary norm value,

for instance: 3

In the above example, the tertiary criteria are assumed to have about the same 'weight'. In
that case, giving a valuation mark is sufficient and a norm value is not necessary. Other
primary criteria can be subdivided in secondary and tertiary criteria in a similar way.

On the one hand, this numerical system has the disadvantage of a still rather great subjectivity
in setting norm values, especially with regard to ' costs'. On the other hand, the whole
calculation can easily be repeated with different norm values, and the sensitivity of the outcome
to shifts in the norm values determined.

ipp/1990/0S page 11
11. MONET ARY EVALUATION

In this type of evaluation all evaluation criteria of the various alternative projects are expressed
in terms of money.

The advantage is th at the marking is less subjective than with the numerical system. Giving a
'weight' to the factor 'costs' is no longer under discussion.

The disadvantage is that it is, generally, much more time-consuming and far more difficult,
partly becauseof the necessity to express quantitative differences in money via risk analysis
(for instance, the difference in safety of alternative approach channels).

A retormulation of the evaluation criteria is necessary,for instance:

• Nautical safety: risk of collisions/running around/consequencesfor the ship and, possibly,
for the local environment/resulting costs. (lt is necessary, for instance, to knowor to
estimate what percentage of collisions/strandings wil! result in the puncturing of one or
more cargo holds.)
• The safety of cargo handling & storage and of industry with respect to the risk to the
installation itself and to the local environment.
• Operational costs: a part of the costs wil! be about equal for all alternatives (for instance,
port management). Differences arise from e.g. limitation of accessibilitv of the port as a
result of wind, waves, visibility, time lost at the berths because of wave movements and
wind.
• Physical planning: extra costs that must be made in the region as a direct result of the
development of the port in order to fit it into the local physical planning, possible costs of
hypothetical substitutes for specific facilities that wil! be lost ('shadow prices').
• Space and flexibility: the likelihood that it wil! not be possible to realize certain required
developments of the port within a certain period. The resulting costs of having them
realized elsewhere.
• Building and maintenance costs of the port.
• Etc., etc.
The costs of alternative projects should be compared on an annual basis:
• annual capital and maintenancecosts
• annual operational costs
• the probability, on an annual basis, of certain calamities and their financial consequences
• etc.

The costs should be discounted, i.e. the present-dav value be determined:

t -0 K
Kc = I t
t -I (I + i)l

in which:
is the rate of discount (usually true interest, that is the actual interest minus the inflation
component)
Kt is the annual costs in the year t
Kc is the present-dav value

In view of the many uncertainties in the different cost and benefit elements, the traditional
deterministic type of analysis and evaluation can best be replaced by a probabilistic approach,
i.e. best gain values replaced by estimated probability density functions.

page 12
ipp/1990/0S
 , 2. PROJECT OPTIMIZATION

Following evaluation of alternative locations and layouts and the selection of the most suitable
one, the optirnization of the project can take place. This means, inter alia, the determination of
and the final decision on the principal forms and dimensions of the port: access, entrance,
primary manoeuvring space, number of service points (berths or quay length), terminal areas,
etc. The tools and exercises used include computations, hydraulic model studies, navigation
simulator studies, operational simulation modeis, with as an ultimate target the minimization of
costs.

(i) Hydraulic model studies, physical or mathematical

Breakwater alignment and wave penetration, current patterns, sediment transport,
siltation and erosion, breakwater stability and, possibly, navigational studies with the
help of scalemodels.

(ii) Navigation simulation studies

Adapting the layout of the port and its approaches to optimize the nautical safety.
Various systems exist, from complete fasttime computer modeis, including a
programmed navigator (quick, cheap, but with limited possibilities) to full-scale realtime
bridge simulators (with human navigators, ship's bridge, outside image, radar display,
etc.).

Generally speaking, navigation simulator studies are more suited for a study of the
nautical aspects than hydraulic model tests because they give a better reproduetion of
the steering effects. These usuallvplav a greater role than the effe cts of the local
physical surroundings, as sea bottom and channel changes (which in their turn can be
more faithfully reproduced in a physical model). In most cases, both arrival and
departure manoeuvres wiIJ have to be investigated. The departure manoeuvre mainly
to verify if there is sufficient rudder control on leaving the shelter of the port under
extreme current, wind an~ wave conditions.

In all cases, sufficient simulator runs wiJl have to be made to obtain a statistically
reliable picture of deviations from the channel axis and of stopping distances actually
used.

The ultimate object is the verification and optimization of the form and dimensions of
the port with respect to the approach channel, entrance and manoeuvring areas by
means of a risk analysis. Also to study e.g. the possibility of a reduction of the
channel width as a result of the introduction of advanced aids to navigation and/or
VTS systems.

(iii) Computations
E.g. with regard to the optimum depth of the port's approaches, taking into account
'tidal windows' for the maximum size vessels, the wave climate and vessel response,
and a certain accepted probability of touching channel bottom.

(iv) logistic simulation models

Study of the effect on ship waiting times of alterations to, inter alia:
• the number of berths or length of quay in the port
• the vertical ti de windows
• the horizontal tide windows
.. one/two-way traffic
• various services: tugboats, pilotage, etc.
• priority rules, safety procedures

The ultimate aim of this investigation is to produce the data needed to arrive at
minimization of the oyerall port costs per ton of cargo.
ot

ipp/1990/05 page 13
 An example of a generally applicable advanced simulation model is 'Harborsim',
developed by the Hydraulic Engineering Group of the Delft University of Technology.
The model simulates the movements of the ships to and from the port, dealing with:
• a large number of ship types (and, necessarily, different categories per type) with
different arrival patterns
• tidal conditions (water levels, current velocities) of each approach channel section
• weather conditions (storm and fog)
• dav or dav and night navigation

The general configuration of the model is given in figure 4, and consists of:
• an approach channel with a maximum of 4 sections (s1, s2, s3 and s4)
(each channel section can be given a one- or two-way traffic designation, depending
on the ship type)
• a maximum of 4 turning basins (s5, s7, s9 and s11), each of which gives access to
a maximum of 10 basins
(each basin may consist of a varying number of berths or varying length of quav
wall [in the latter case providing a varying number of service points depending on
the distribution of ship lengths))

,-,'

ipp/1990/05 page 14
 11:
13

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Figure 4 - General configuration simulation model 'Harborsim'

ipp/1990/05 page 15
In conclusion
• Port planning is no longer an essentially civil engineering effort, but very multi-disciplinary.
• A port can no longer be investigated independently, but only in the context of its function
as an interface between different transport modes and as a link in a number of transport
chains. In other words, it has to be studied in the light of the total transport systems and
chains of which it forms part.
• In th is respect it is noted that optimization of integrated transport chains -applicable to
many bulk trades- can not be do ne by optimizing individuallinks separately, e.g. by
minimizing the port costs to be bom by the cargo. For example, port costs will often attain
a minimum for relatively small ships as water depth usually is an expensive commodity.
But the consequential high costs of sea transport -using small ships- may weil outweigh the
savings in port costs (see figure 5). Therefore, integrated transport chains always have to
be studied in their entirety.

Unloading al
Through transpor I recei ..ing ,tal ion

Unloading port
•
o
u
•
:.

Marin. transport

porl

land transporl

loadlng on land transporl means

Transport dlstance

Figure 5 - Cumulative cost in a transport chain

13. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

(a) The importance of flexibility and space in port planning is often underestimated. Forecasts
regarding the quantitv and types of the goods traffic and the related prognoses regarding
the development of shipping, are often only partially reflected in the real developments.
This is caused by unforeseenevents in the world economy, changes in the areas of
production or consumption, a shift in the type of goods -for instanee. from raw materials to
semi-manufactured articles-, etc. Regularand, sometimes, radical adaptations of the port
masterplan must, therefore, be possible.

ipp/1990/0S page 16
 In consequence, the masterplan is not a static document, but as a 'career plan' for the port
requires regular adjustment to the continually changing boundary conditions: readjustment
of both strategic as weil as infrastructural planning.

(b) Frequent shortcomings or obstacles in port planning are:

• unsatisfactory basic data: outdated, insufficient or unreliable
• too much rigidity in the extrapolation of historical developments
• shortcomings in the systems approach and the planning methodology
• lack of insight and experience of local port authorities; insufficient understanding of the
time and costs involved in in-depth studies
• no adjustment to regional or national port developments
• too much attention to infrastructural provisions and an underestimation of the
importance of operational and organizational aspects
• relatively too much accent on the port activities on the sea-side and too little on the
land-side (more parts are 'ailing' on the land-side than on the sea-side, either in the port
itself or in its hinterland connections)
• unfamiliarity with or underestimation of the demands th at the reception of big, difficult-
to-manoeuvre ships make on the infrastructure of the port, i.e. underestimation of the
hydronautical requirements
• unfamiliarity with safetyaspects associated with the handling of dangerous cargoes

Throughout the world, big mistakes have been and are still being made for many of the
above reasons. In the past 10 to 15 years alone, hundreds of millions of dollars have been
invested in new ports that, after completion, turned out to be either partly or completely
non-functional.

(c) Specific problems in many countries in the developing world are:

• Management
The port management is of ten inefficient, too much of the decision-making process rests
with the central government and too little with local administrators.

• Operation
- cargo handling and goods storage are frequently left in the hands of the port authority
and this usually results in low productivity
- long transit times of goods in the ports
- inefficient organization of storage facilities, leading to the necessity of
overdimensioning of storage yards

• Customs
Often an obstacle in the administrative goods handling. This contributes to the long
periods that the goods remain in port.

• Port congestion
More often caused by organizational and operational shortcomings than by deficiencies
in the infrastructure. lt should also be borne in mind that organizational improvements
are considerably cheaper than extensions of the infrastructure.

• Poor maintenance and lack of spares

Necessitates port structures and equipment th at require a minimum of maintenance and,
occasionally, the purchase of an excess of cargo handling equipment.

• Specialization in goods handling

Often trying to catch up with developments in the West and according to imaginary
needs. Specialization should not be a forced process as drastic changes demand
adaptations over a long period. Equipment should not be unnecessarily sophisticated
and comply with local operational and maintenance skills.

ipp/1990/05 page 17
 • Safety and environmental demands
They still frequentlv meet with little understanding and interest, or even willingness, to
spend money on them or to set up studies in these aspects. Safety and environmental
provisions are of ten seen as a luxurious hobby of the prosperous developed world,
which, in fact, they are not.

• Practical design aspects which may affect planning, as available building materiais,
construction methods, etc. The choice of materials is often limited. On the one hand,
local cement, aggregates, stone from local quames. etc., have to be used. On the other
hand, the aggressiveness of the sea in warm areas is much stronger than in temperate
zones. In certain areas, this has led to large-scale and widespread problems.

• Specific environmental conditions such as the occurrence of rock or coral formations in

the port zone, or the seismicity of the area, can create a wide range of special problems.

(d) In section 12, concerning the optirnization of the project, the element 'wave penetration'
was also mentioned. This defines:
• the point where tugboats (inside the port) can start manoeuvring in position and tying up
to assist the incoming ships (limiting significant wave height approximately H. = 1.5m)
• the wave agitation at the berths and the possible resultant disturbance of the loading
and unloading operations

As far as the latter is concerned, it is difficult to give specific limits of the admissible wave
height, because this is closely connected with the wave period, the angle of incidence (with
regard to the moored ship), the ship' s natural period of oscillation, elastic properties of
fenders and hawsers, etc. But it is also difficult to make model tests into this aspect for
every berth, certainly not so for berths used by a great variety of ships.

In this connection, some indicative values are given: the given wave height limit (above
which loading and unloading operations will have to be stopped) refers to the heights of
residual deep water waves with periods in the range of about 7 to 12 seconds. Locally
generated waves have a short period and have relativelv little effect on the moored ships.
On the contrary, waves with very long periods -seiches- can have a disastrous effect
already at much lower wave height than is indicated in the table below.

0° (head on or stern on)

limiting wave height, H.
• general cargo vessels 1 m
• container, lash/ro-ro ships 0.5 m
• dry bulk, 30-100,000dwt, loading 1.5 m
• dry bulk, 30-100,000dwt, unloading 1 m
• tankers, 30,000dwt 1.5 .m
• tankers, 30-200,000dwt 1.5 - 2.5 m
• tankers, 200,000dwt 2.5 - 3 m

• general cargo vessels 0.8 m

• dry bulk, 30-100,000dwt, loading 1 m
• dry bulk, 30-100, OOOdwt, unloading 0.8 - 1 m
• tankers, 30-200,000dwt 1 - 1.2 m
• tankers, 200,000dwt 1 - 1.5 m

page 18
ipp/199010S
 chapter 4.

PLANNING & DESIGN

OF A PORT'S WATER AREA

1992/07
 PLANNING & DESIGNOF A PORrs WATER AREAS

CONTENTS

page

1. HYDRO-NAUTICAl ASPECTS 3

1.1 General considerations 3

1.2 Ship manoeuvrability and motions 6

1.2.1 Factors of influence 6

1.2.2 Rudder efficiency 6
1.2.3 Turning manoeuvre 8
1.2.4 Stopping distance 8
1.2.5 Effect of local physical conditions 10

1.3 Consequences for port planning 12

1.3.1 Depth of approach channels 12

1.3.2 Width of approach channels 20
1.3.3 Channel lay-out 22
1.3.4 Manoeuvring areas in the port 22
1.3.5 Port basins 27

2. HYDRAUlIC ASPECTS 28

2.1 General considerations 28

2.2 Wave agitation 28

2.2.1 Causes 28
2.2.2 Harbour basin resonance 29
2.2.3 Response of moored ships 29
2.2.4 limited ship motions 32

2.3 Currents 33

2.4 Sedimentation 33

REFERENCES 34

page 2
F12N/92-07
 PLANNING & DESIGN OF A PORT'S WATER AREAS

1. HYDRO-NAUTICAl ASPECTS

1.1 General considerations

(i)
Hydro-nautics is a borderline discipline between nautical engineering or naval architecture and
hydraulic engineering. It investigates and prediets vessel behaviour in the confined waterways
of ports and port approaches in order to be able to design these waterways at a desired level of
safety.

It came into existence as a separate discipline in the sixties as a result of the very extensive
research carried out for the planning and design of the deepwater ports of Antifer in France and
Rotterdam-Europoort in The Netherlands. At this stage of time, it is a quite generally accepted
specialist discipline in port development, certainly so in the development of deepwater ports.

What is involved is the determination of the lay-out and dimensions of a port' s main waterarea,
i.e.:
• the alignment and width of approach channels and port entrances
• the depth of approach channels
• the size and shape of manoeuvring spaces within the port, in particular the stopping space

These dimensions are of great importance, first of all because in many instances the water
areas and the thereto related breakwaters constitute the biggest investment by far in the port
infrastructure, secondly as e.g. entrance width, manoeuvring space and breakwater alignment
are very difficult to change or adapt once the port has been built.

(ji)
For deepwater ports that have to be suitable for the reception of large ships, say, in excess of
50,000 to 70,000dwt, the problem arises tnat the actual sailed track of these ships -as
compared to the ideal track- may deviate considerably from those of conventional vessels. This
is a consequence of the long reaction times of large ships to rudder motions or rpm changes.
Such different manoeuvring characteristics can require the introduction of new limiting
operational criteria for traffic in a port's approaches and other navigation areas. Mutatis
mutandis, the provisions to be made for safe navigation to and from the ports may be extensive
as compared to those for conventional vessels.

(jii)
Important developments in sea transport are not necessarily restricted to past decades, but are
continually stimulated by technological improvements and changes in transport demand. If a
port and its facilities is not adapted to or keeps track of these developments, it will result in
"'~I ...,,~ __ ""_,,,ro+:,,_ .."__ :"',,,_+ro ,.._II:,.,.:__ "".:_ ,...""_.... :_ :_ .....
,.."'_ ......+_ .f.•• __ +:__ :__ Th I."" ~_ ..
uv.ay.;:" \.VII\:f'lE::iiJUV", a"''''Ut;;;i'Il.''', \"VIII.,'VII.:t, 111 .;:)i.IVIL. 111 IIIOU0"4UOL'II;i IUII"LlVllllly. 'II'G tJÇ"'IOILY lVI

the regional and national economy is always heavy.

As already observed, adapting an existing port to new nautical requirements is often a difficult,
time-consuming and expensive affair, if originally insufficient flexibility was incorporated in the
design. Therefore, in the development of new ports, first of all, a thorough evaluation has to be
made of the type, size and number of vessels that will make use of the port, initially and in the
future, and whether these vessels wiJl arrive and depart loaded or unloaded. Secondly, because
of the inherent inadequacies and errors in these evaluations and forecasts, a maximum degree
of future adaptability of the port' s approaches and manoeuvring areas to new types of ships
has to be built in.

(iv)
The transition of a ship sailing in open sea to the mooring at a terminal generally can be divided
in three phases. This division reflects the type of manoeuvres to be performed, dependent on
the configuration of the specific local coastal area.

F12N/92-07 page 3
The first phase is the preparation for the transit movement, the second phase the negotiating of
the port approaches itself and the final slowing down and stopping manoeuvre, and the third
phase the approach and mooring to the berth. Similar phases apply for vessels leaving the port.

The nature of these transit phases is determined by representative maximum and minimum
sailing speeds within which these transits can be performed within acceptable safety criteria.
For example, there are maximum and minimum port entrance velocities within which a ship can
still stop within the port boundaries without taking resort to crash stop procedures.

The above leads to requirements for the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the port' s access
and manoeuvring areas.

Manoeuvring characteristics of vessels with a big mass-inertia lead to big manoeuvring space
requirements as compared to conventional vessels. Assistance of tugboats is required at slow
sailing speeds and in confined waterways; usually, the efficacy of tugboat effort increases with
decreasing vessel speed.

The possibility of failures in the steering machine or the propulsion unit of vessels during port
transits cannot be neglected. The probabilitv of such deficiencies increases with the increase of
the intervals between maintenance and repair works, apart from the fact th at these deficiencies
already occur more frequently in port transits than in open sea because of the sudden changes
in the regime of the engines. The potential effect of such deficiencies should be minimized as
much as possible, particularly where dangerous cargo is concerned, by adequate port planning.

(v)
Deviation of the ideal track in port transits can be caused by many factors, one of them being
the human element. Navigators are human beings, of whom no two react in the same way to a
given situation. The dimensioning of the port transit areas should make allowance for the
stochastical character of the variations in these human actions and reactions.

In a general sense, the actually sailedtracks depend on the manoeuvring characteristics of the
ships concerned and on the condition of the waters in which it sails. These, in their turn, affect
the actions taken on the bridge, necessaryto guide the vessels through the subsequent
manoeuvres of the port transit.

The control activities on the bridge are dominated by three different types of human actions:
• maintaining the required course
• countering at an early stage deviations from the intended track
• avoiding unstable vessels motions which might result in loss of control in steering the vessel
(see figure 1)

Unstable vessel motions are associated with resonanceconditions which are different for
different types and sizes of vessels. Some forms of resonancecan be mastered by human
navigators, others not or not sufficiently. Therefore, in the planning of port approaches, the
investigation into the response of design vessels on conditions representative for the coastal
area concerned, is very important. The purpose always being to ensure safe navigation to and
from the port.

Another essential element in th is safe navigation is the availability to navigators of all necessary
information: information on the ship's position with respect to the track to be sailed,
information of a coordinative nature in the context of traffic surveillance and/or guidance in the
port's navigation areas, and information on environmental conditions (wind, visibility, waves,
currents, tides).

F12N/92-07 page 4
The desired and feasible degree of integration of the information systems, the required reach,
accuracy and reliability, the peak density of the traffic as weil as local atmospheric conditions,
jointJy determine the types and position of the aids to navigation 1 to be procured and installed.

~--------------"
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I
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centerline

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(a)

(b)
y deviations from the intended ship's path
z, water level deviations sea surface
Z2 sinkage deviations ship's bow
Z3 bottom level deviations

Figure 1 Ship's behaviour in confined water navigation - indications of instabie motion

pattern (schematically) in horizontal (a) and vertical (b) plane

Present-davresearch methods permit the systematic investigation of the dynamics of port

transits and marine traffic flows {ref 11}. Such investigations provide basic data, inter alia, for
establishing procedures for navigators and VTS operators alike during port transits. Together
with the introduction of advanced electronic navigation systems, it makes it possible to fulfil the
basic conditions for the safe and efficient navigation to and from a port, also for big and
vulnerable vessels.

Aids to navigation is equipment provided by the port or coastal authority: VTS or VTMS, buoys, leading lights,
positioning systems, etc. Navigational aids is ship-born equipment.

F12N/92-07 page 5
1.2 Ship manoeuvrability and motions

1.2.1 Factors of influence

As from the late sixties, considerable research and development work has been carried out
throughout the world to define the factors and the relationships which determine a ship' 5
manoeuvrability and its responseto its own control systems under real-life conditions in both
open and restricted waters. The advent of the larger tankers and bulk carriers has provided the
incentive for such development, the results of which are being applied in the design of ship
hulls and ship control systems, in training, in setting navigational requirements and operational
limitations and in the design of channelsand other waterways.

Considering the factors which influence a ship's manoeuvringbehaviour, the basic properties
belonging to the vessel itself are called here vessel manoeuvringcharacteristics. They are
determined by the ship's huil shape, its mass, the rudder system and dimensions, the propulsion
system and the power. The manoeuvringcharacteristics are:
• the way the ship reacts on the rudder and on changes in propeller revolutions
• turning ability
• the extent of course stabilitv
• stopping ability

1.2.2 Rudder efficiency

Big tankers and bulk carriers commonly have a relatively small L/b lIength/beam] ratio -in the
range of 6 to 7- and a large block coefficient -in the range of 0.75 to 0.85-. Together with the
bid [beam/draft] ratio, the lp ratio [mass/propulsivepower] and the rudder area, they mainly
determine the manoeuvring characteristics. A small bid ratio and a large block coefficient result
in a relatively long time to react to an applied rudder angle; but, once the ship is rotating, it has
a good turning ability.

It is clear that these characteristics are important for the manoeuvringability of the vessel in a
channel. However, equally essentialis the way the human operator on the bridge uses these
manoeuvring characteristics in steering the vessel.

In confined water, the time to reach ship's responseto an applied rudder angle, can be
favourably influenced by a simultaneousrudder and propeller action. the latter only during a
short time (figure 2) to avoid a noticeable increasein ship speed. The effect of this manoeuvre
increases at decreasing speed.

In general, course stability indicates the extent to which the ship reacts on external
disturbances. A ship is called to be dynamically stabie when the momentum exerted by
resistance forces, counteracts the yawing of the ship caused by the initial disturbance. After
momentum and forces become zero again, the ship follows a straight path, but with a changed
course (figure 3a). This does not occur with a dynamically unstable ship. The momentum due
to the resistance forces, strengthens the initial rotation. The ship continues turning, even after
forces and momentum reach a new state of equilibrium (figure 3b). In shallow water, the
course stability tends to be better than in deep water.

F12N/92-07 page 6
r------------ --_--
Iraek ol Ihe stern '"
test 1 with constant numDer ol
propeUer revolutions
N,.4°/min. /
test 2 N, a 49-73-49/min. over -"

tesl3
250s after to
N, = 49-92-49/min. over
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at to rudder deflection from ó=O to ó=35° s.b.

II
ship 2OO,OOOdwt,
speed 5 knots
Ndder angle Ó=O
draught 62ft. dept 1.1 x draught

Figure 2 Effect of a sudden increase of propeller revolutions during rudder deflection

[source: Koelé and Don]

Manoeuvringof ships
."..-, .. _______.- a

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disturbance .,' _.~ .....~I~;;g_ ..

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Figure 3 Dynamic course stability: a stabie, b unstable

F12N/92-07 page 7
1.2.3 Turning manoeuvre

The turning diameter in deep water at service speed and a rudder angle of 350, varies
considerably between types of ships and even between individual ships of the same category.
Nevertheless, there are c1eartendencies. Many container ships have a poor manoeuvring
capability, particularly those container ships built, or originally built, to operate at high service
speeds of 26 or 27kn. For these ships, turning diameters are in the order of 6 to 8L. Turning
diameters for large oil and dry bulk carriers at service speeds in the 15 to 17kn range, are in the
order of 3 to 4L, some even less than 3L. LNG carriers are mostly in the 2 to 2.5L range,
which would also apply to a great number of conventional general cargo and multi-purpose
vessels.

Turning capability at low speeds is often improved by the use of twin propeller arrangement or
bow thrusters, or a combination of the two. These measures,however, do not constitute a
universal remedy against inadequatemanoeuvring capability. Many container ships, for
instance, are équippedwith twin propellers, but, due to the shape of the huil, the distance
between the propellers is so small compared to the length of the vessel, that the turning
momentum that can be exerted, is virtually ineffective.

Bow thrusters are useful for berthing and unberthing operations, but at speeds of 4 to 5kn or
over, they loose much of their effect.

1.2.4 Stopping distance

The stopping distance is affected by:
+ the size of the vessel and the relation propulsive power - displacement (= mass)
+ the speed with which the vessel enters the port
+ the stopping procedure

As concerns size, the ratio propulsive power - mass of the vessel is inversely proportional to
ship size. In consequence, the power availablefor decelerating -or accelerating- decreasesin a
relative sense with increasing ship size (figure 4). Also the astern power as a fraction of the
installed power varies from one system to another, and may be as low as 50% for a vessel with
steam turbine and fixed-blade propeller to close to 100% for a vessel with diesel engine and
controlIabie pitch propeller.

1111";

1111

~I~
111 til
15
.... s::
'ti Q)

I I I

1 5 10

-iisplacp.menr:
power

Figure 4 Stopping distances of ships [from IAPHl

F12N/92-07 page 8
This means that the distance 's'. required for stopping from a given speed, expressed as a
function of the ship' s own length 'L', varies considerably and increases with increasing ship
size. For example, a 10,OOOdwt general cargo vessel is able to stop from a cruising speed of
16 knots in a minimum distance of about 5 to 7L, say 900m, ('crash stop') whilst a
200,OOOdwt bulk carrier or tanker requires some 14 to 18l, say 4800m. (Starting from a low
speed -sav 5kn-, the stopping distances are obviously much smaller; for a big tanker .s_3L, for a
general cargo ship .s_L.)

In recent years, a number of so-called 'fuel economie' bulk carriers and tankers hav come into
operation with very low propulsive power. (For a 150,OOOdwt bulk carrier, the lp may be
about 13 and cruising speed about 12kn, against a normal lp of about 8 and cruising speed
of 15kn for this size of vessel.l Moreover, their engines cannot run at low rpm's; 'dead slow
ahead' may be in the order of 6kn. In consequence, to sail at low speeds they have to regularly
stop or reverse their engine, which makes them quite difficult to manoeuvre in the confined
space of a port.

With regard to the port entry speed, lt will be obvious th at the higher the speed, the bigger the
stopping distance required. The minimum speed at which a vessel still has sufficient rudder
control to make course corrections, is about 3 to 4kn. However, waves and, particularly, cross-
currents in front of the port entrance may force a ship to maintain a much higher speed until it
has arrived within the shelter of the breakwaters. This will be further discussed in section
1.3.4.

A degree of course control can be maintained by giving periodically brief ahead propeller thrusts
with the rudder set to give the desired course correction (see section 1.2.2). This, however,
unavoidably leads to greater stopping distances.

Finally, as concerns the way of stopping, different procedures are possible. The two extremes
are the crash stop on the one hand, and the fully controlled stop on the other. In the crash
stop, the engines are set at full astern upon entering port. It gives a minimum stopping
distance, but, due to turbulent flow around the rudder, the vessel has no course control
whatsoever (figure 5). For traditional general cargo ships th is is not so much of a problem, but
for big ships it is within the constraints of a port.

numbQr A2 A3 A4 A!l A6 A7 A8 A9 Jl J2 J3
rUddct,. dGtg. 0 0 0 0 0 0 ·0 0 30 30 30
sDcrad kt 9 4.9 14.8 4.2 1!l 2.4 13 ~ 16.2 11 14.4
rflV$ 55.2 31.6 85.4 31 83 33.4 77.1 32 85.8 63.4 84
05t. r"GtVS 42 44.7 42.5 48.8 47.5 46.7 48.3 48.3 42.9 47.7 47.6
hiT = = 2.1 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.4 ex:> ex:> 1.7

_ 30 kt wInd

_-.-------~~99?-~-
..__ ~~
_--------- I /-----.,.

Figure 5 Stopping manoeuvres tanker MAGDALA, 220,OOOdwt [from IAHPJ

F12N/92-07 page 9
In the fully controlled stop, the vessel -once in the port- maintains the minimum speed required
for course control, whilst tugboats tie up for and aft, which takes 10 to 15 minutes at least.
Subsequently, the vessel stops under its own power, but the tugboats keep the vessel on
course. It leads to stopping distance of some thousands of meters which, of course, has a
great impact on port planning and design (section 1.3.4). But, it is a safe procedure and widely
accepted as compulsory for ports which have to receive big ships with dangerous cargo.

Non-recognition of these hydro-nautical aspects and considerations has led to costly errors in
deepwater port development, as wil! be illustrated later.

1.2.5 Effect of local physical conditions

(i)
The manoeuvring characteristics and manoeuvring behaviour are strongly influenced by
environmental conditions. These are particularly:
* shallow water effects increasedresistance, squat, bank effects, changed responseto
rudder, improved course stability
* waves and swell stabie or unstable course deviations, increasedresistance,
sometimes reduced rudder response, vertical ship motions
* currents and winds drift motions

Cross-currents or cross-wind components induce a sideways drift to vessels. In order to

maintain course, a vessel wil! have to steer under an angle with its theoreticaI course. Since
there are practical limitations to this drift angle, the phenomenon becomes of particular
importance in port transit manoeuvres. The more so, becausethe effect of cross-currents
increases with decreasing keel clearance.

Waves and swell have a considerableeffect on course stability and on the required allowances
for deviations from the ideal track when navigating in confined waterways. The effects,
however, cannot be generalized,but have to be investigated for every situation.

The consequencesof ship's responseto waves and swell for the design depth of dredged
channels are discussed in section 1.3.1.

(ii)
The influence of water depth on a sailing ship becomes noticeable at a depth of about 4 times
the ship's draught. The influence becomes significant at a depth of approximately 1.5 times
the ship's draught. Shallow waters are, therefore, usually defined as fairways with a depth of
1.5 times a ship's draught. or less.
-
Effects of shallow water on the manoeuvringcharacteristics are an increased course stability
against a decreasedrudder efficiency. In other words, there wil! be a decreasedtendency of a
vessel to zig-zag around its ideal track on the one hand. On the other hand. turning radii will
increase and the response to rudder angles wil! be slower. Due to increased reststance.
stopping distances will relatively decreasein shallow water. although not in a spectacular way.

Another important shallow-water effect is the increase of the squat of a vessel, i.e. the sinkage
resulting from the return currents along the sides and under the keel. Many investigations have
been carried out in this phenomenon,and many formulae developed. The squat is essentially
proportional to the square of the ship's speed. A general applicable formula is that of dr C.B.
Barrass{ref 10}:

for shallow water:

(1.1 < D/d < 1.5) (figure 6)

C 2
(J = __!!_
30
* S
2
"1 * V2.08

page 10
F12N/92-07
 in which: Ó squat in metres
v vessel's speed in knots
CB block coefficient
5 blockage factor (bd/BO)
52 5/1-5

• r::::
I

[~ ~
~

~
b ..'" j~
!t
d
"

-.-
~ B
~I

Figure 6

for laterally-unconfined water (depth restrictions only):

in which waterplane area coefficient (A/bl.)

vessel's cross-sectional area in the plane of the water surface
vessel length

Figure 7

Obviously, there is no sharp transition between laterally confined and unconfined waters. For
practical purposes, channels with p/O_$_0.4 are considered as unconfined and those with
plO> 0.4 as confined (figure 7). It is also approximately the point that for deep drawing ships
sailing close to the banks, bank-suction becomes noticeable. (Officially, in the english civil
engineeringterminology, channels with p/D> 0.4 are called 'canals'.)

In confined waters, with B/b>5, often use is also made of the formula of Tuck {ref 13}.

(ii)
A special aspect of the shallow water effects is the sailing above or through low density mud
(sling mud). For a number of ports, these aspects have direct consequencesfor their channel
maintenance policy or accessibility criteria (Rotterdam, 5hanghai, Bangkok, Paramaribo,
Cayenne). The following conclusions are the result of prototype and laboratory tests:

F12N/92-07 page 11
* Resistance
Navigation in the presence of mud gives a speed-dependentincreasein resistance, which is
observed particularly in the determination of the rpm - speed relationship. This resistance
depends, apart from the keel clearance, etc., on the shape of the ship. Since the bulk of the
resistance increase must be ascribedto wave-making resistance, the wet surface in 'clean'
water is of importance. Here, a VLCC is probably the most unfavourableform of a vessel
because of its high block coefficient.

* Stopping distance
Becauseof the increased resistance,the stopping distance of a vessel will be appreciably
reduced.

* Squat and trim

When the ship's bottom is still above the silt, increase in squat is noted because of the
increase of current velocities between the keel and the silt. This is in agreement with the
phenomenon in clean water in relation to a firm bottom.
When just ' above' or ' on' the silt, a decreasein the squat through a change or disappearance
in the flow of water under the keel is observed.
With the keel actually in the silt, a reduced squat is observed becauseof the change in
density.

* Rudder efficiency
Becauseof the increase in resistancewhen silt is present and the higher rpm consequently
necessary to maintain a given speed,the propeller slip-stream also becomes greater and,
therefore, the flow round the rudder and, hence, the rudder efficiency increases.

* Propeller efficiency
Becauseof the higher propeller speedsrequired, a smaller reservewill be present for short
impulses of higher rpm's or. more generally, in the use of the propeller.

* Effect of the speed of travel

Considerably more rudder must be applied to round bends at low speeds. At these speeds,
however, in general tugboat assistancewill be available, so that this need not create
problems. Mainly because of the higher rudder efficiency due to the higher propeller speed in
navigation under silt conditions, dynamic movements, such as changes in course, will be
initiated more directly, while -becauseof the damping action of the silt- less time and space
will be necessary for their execution.

Prototype and laboratory tests have shown that navigation is still possible up to relative
densities of about y= 1.2. Generally,there will be a gradual transition from clean water to
sling mud, dense mud and consolidated mud. The 'nautical depth', i.e. the depth determining
the navigability of the fairway, is then defined at the level where y= 1.2 is reached (figure 8).

1.3 Consequencesfor port planning

1.3.1 Depth of approach channels

(i)
The required keel clearance factors and safety margins are schematically show in figure 9.

The vertical movement of a ship in responseto wave and swell is a stochastical parameter, for
which the probability of exceedanceof a given value can be determined, if the local wave
conditions as weil as the ship's responsecharacteristics are known in sufficient detail (see also
sub-sectien (iii) hereafter). These responsecharacteristics, in their turn, may vary significantly
between vessels of the same size and class. Also, the actual channel bottom level, as aresuit
of dredging inaccuracies and sedimentation, is no flat plane nor are there fixed tolerances to
determine a nominal level.

page 12
F12N/92-07
 ...
:)

:z<

Figure 8

T
I
I tide waves
draught
waterJeveJfactors

I i

h
I I I

" squat and trim I ~ShiP factors

gross I
underkeel. '--- - --1--~/\M I ',

clearence: margin for ver:lcal v V ~

* motions and neti clearance. vertical motions

guaranteedor
nomina' depth
J. ~.... /- ~~
_ """"
_ ~
....--act~~l
channel bottom}
channel
~ bottom
\__ dredged depth factors

Figure 9 Underkeel clearance factors

The actual channel bottom level could be defined by determining the probability distribution for
the exceedance of given levels. If both distributions are known, the risk of a ship touching
bottom during a port transit can be determined. On basis of this risk, the dredging level can be
decided upon.

F12N/92-07 page 13
In other words, the spectrum of the distance of the critical point of a ship' 5 keel to the sea
bottom Z(wz) is the sum of the spectra -or probability density distribution- of:
* the responseto wave motions (further discussed in sub-sectio" (iii) hereafter)
* the tide
* the sea or channel bottom irregularities:

in which w is the wave frequency, assumingthat these spectra can be expressed as a multiple
harmonic function with a timescale for R(wr), the speed of the vessel with respect to the
ground.

The probability of a ship touching bottom is the probability of the vertical displacement of the
critical point of the ship's keel exceedingthe average available keel clearance:

in which: k f + B - d - sq
f mean side level during channels transit (with respect to the reference level)
D mean channel depth
d draught vessel
sq squat and trim

For determining channel depth, it remainsto be decided what is the acceptable probability of
the ship touching bottom. In economic terms, this is the probability at which the lowest overall
costs are attained, cost elements being:
* capital and maintenance dredging of the channel
* average damage expectation to ships
* average consequential damage expectation

The costs can best be expressed as the 'present-dav value' of average annual costs over the
economic lifetime of the channel.

It is noted that not all ship - channel bottom contacts lead to damageto the ships; it much
depends on the intensity of the contact and on the nature of the channel bottom: mud, sand or
rock.

Once a ship is damaged, different consequentialdamages may result. The channel may be
blocked for some time imposing delays on other ships. If the vessel is severely damaged, loss
of cargo may occur, which -dependingon the nature and the volume of the cargo lost- may
have very big consequences(e.g. Exxon Valdez!).

Determining channel depth according to the above principles constitutes the probabilistic
method.

(ii)
It will be clear, though, that the application of the fully probabilistic method in practice
encounters many difficulties, e.g.:
* Determining a probability density distribution of the seabottom exceeding certain values or
translating irregularities into a multiple-harmonicfunction may entail difficulties if the
bathymetry is subject to frequent and rapid changes.
* Probability and extent of damageto ships as a function of the force of bottom contact and
nature of the channel bottom is only known in quite approximate terms.
* The probability and extent of consequentialdamagesare even more difficult to assess, even
in order of magnitude.

For that reason, mostly semi-probabilistic -if not deterministic- methods are used. For example,
in determining the optimum depth of the Euro-Maaschannelto Rotterdam, the acceptable risk of
a ship touching bottom during a channel transit was established in a deterministic way: 1 per

page 14
F12N/92-07
100 transits for the maximum size ship. (The probability of a ship sustaining damage as a
result of touching bottom in the Euro-Maaschannel conditions is in the order of 1 per 500 to
1000 events.)

In the fully deterministic way, often use is still made -uniustiv- of the old PIANC-ICORELS
recommendations of 1980 {ref 2}. In these recommendations, the PIANC suggests, by way of
aproximation, th at the gross underkeel clearance can be taken as follows:
• open sea areas exposed to strong and long stern or quarter swell, high vessel speed: 20%
of the maximum draught
• channel and waiting areas exposed to strong and long swell: 15% of the draught
• channelless exposed: 10%

In fact, these percentages were based on Euro-Maaschannel conditions and the former,
deterministic port access rules. But, obviously, this may vary appreciably frorn one location to
another, depending on physical conditions and type and size of ships. For example at Richards
Bay on South Africa's east coast, up to 40% gross underkeel clearance can be reculred
(150,OOOdwt bulk carrier, 17m draught). Moreover, it is emphasized th at the above PIANC
percentages apply strictly to large ships, which for this purpose are defined by PIANC as
vessels of 200,OOOdwt or over. For conventional vessels, or even for LNG carriers, these
percentages would in many instanees be grossly insufficient. Therefore, the original PIANC
guidelines should be used with the utmost care, or not at all. They have been partly replaced
by the PIANC guidelines of 1985 {ref 3}.

(jii)
It is emphasized that for channels subject to tidal motion, not all ships need to be able to enter
or leave port at all stages of the tide. On the contrary, it will often be more economie to
restrict the navigability of the channel, at least for the biggest ships, to a limited period of the
tide, the so-called tidal windows. This mostly refers to the vertical tide (figure 10), but it may
also apply to limiting tidal currents, i.e. to the horizontal tide. (In addition, many ports have a
wave window: wave conditions bevond which port entry is not permitted either for the safety
of the vessel itself, or due to the impossibility of pilots to board vessels.)

Waterlevel (Clml_ \~aterlevel (Clml_

-10 - SOS 10 -I 0 -~ o 1'1

-6 -6

-4

(~] ..._... Tidal windows ....

1:
'"c:21
o
IJl
• lil
n
'8...
rt
o
'" '"z~ ft
:J
...
:D
rt
...lil
Tlme/dlslance diagram lor a crIIlcal vessel In Ihe Euro-Maaschennello Ronerdam ..
:J
o

Figure 10 Vertical tidal window

[Souree: Maritime Approaches to the Netherlands Seaports, TU Delft, december
19841

The type and number of ships involved and the applicable degree of restrietions -i.e. the width
of the tidal window- has to be studied from case to case. It wilt normally be determined on

F12N/92-07 page 15
basis of a minimization of the sum of channel constsruction and maintenance cost and ship
waiting cost. In actual practice, there are of ten considerable hidden waiting costs, because
ships tend to reduce speed weil in advance of the harbour entry, rather than to have to wait at
an anchorage.
(iv)
A free floating vessel has six modes of freedom of motion: three lateral and three rotary. In
consequence, a ship exposed to waves may respond in six different modes, or in any
combination thereof (figure 11).

YBwing

swaying

t heaving

~rging

Figure 11 Ship motions

In each of these modes, a ship has its own natural frequency of oscillation. If excitation occurs
in a particular mode in a frequency near the ship's natural frequency in that mode, resonance
will result. Whether this resonanceis important, depends on the degree of damping. Of the
three most important modes of motion for port design purposes -rolling, pitching and heaving-,
the latter two are rather damped motions, but not so the roll motion which is quite resonance-
sensitive. A ship sailing in astrong beam sea with a wave period near the ship's natural roll
period, may develop very large roll angles in which it loses rudder control and may even
capsize.

It should be borne in mind th at in decreasingwaterdepth, the added mass and damping

characteristics of a vessel change from those in deep water, dependingon the period of
oscillation. In deep water, the natural roll period is usually between 10s and 17s for merchant-
type ships. In wind-generated waves with (usual) wave periods between 6s and 10s, roll
motions need not be of great concern. However, the apparent incident wave period T. will
increase when the waves approachfrom astern (and decrease when the ship is sailing against
the waves) and the ship has forward speed, which will aggravate the situation.

In order to determine the vertical oscillating motions of an arbitrary point at the ship's huil, the
cumulative effects of heave, pitch and roll have to be considered.

The magnitude of the response obviously dependson the relation wave period / natural period
TITn, or, if the ship is moving with respect to the wave propagation direction, on the relation
apparent wave period / natural period TalTn• It also depends on the wave direction with respect
to the position of the ship, and on the wave height, with which it is directly proportional, all
other factors being constant.

Generally, a so-called 'transfer function' is used to define the relationship between wave and
ship motion amplitudes or between the energy density of the wave spectrum S" and that of the

page 16
F12N/92-07
ship response spectrum Sz>for a given wave direction. Figure 12 is an example of a transfer
function for the effect of roll, heave and pitch combined. It gives the value of the energy
densities and of the transfer factor or 'response amplitude operator', RAO, with Szz = RA02 •

Scr· Although the wave spectrum has a peak at about 0.14Hz or T = 7s, there is virtually no
ship response because that frequency is far higher than the natural frequency of the ship
motions. At about 0.06Hz on the contrary, or T = 16 to 17s, there is a strong response (RAO
= about 3), no doubt due to resonance phenomena.

•• •••••••••• Transfer function (RAO)

- - - Eneroy dansity spec!rUm waves (Sec)
Enargy dansity spectrum ver1icaI ship motions (SJ

5.0 2
1"\ 5.0

I \
I \
r "\
.... I \
i . Y \
. ~ I
I
\
\
"
f\I \.:\~ I/ \\
i i
>- "
j:: I
i I \. I \.\ o
~.
CD ... _
I~"" •
\ \
~.

.fi "'''':''.Jf. \:>...............

~~~~--------~~,--~~~~------~,
" ~~o.....
o 0.1 0.2
Encounter frequency (Hz) ~

Figure 12 Characteristic ship motions in waves

Another example is given in figure 13 with separate response functions for pitch, heave and
roll. Here, the ship response is not given as an energy density function but as an amplitude
function.
In the roll motion. maximurn iespûnse ûCCüïSat an apparent wave period T. equai to the naturai
roll period of 16s of the VLCC involved. Since the ship sails with V = 4m/s with waves coming
stern-in under 450, the corresponding real (regular) wave period T can be calculated as follows
(figure 14):

G"T" = cT = L

G-3 • 16
C--

Assuming, for simplicity's sake, that shallow water conditions prevail, the long wave formula
c = Jg"iS" applies.
With D = 23m, c = 15m/s, T = 12.8s and L = 192m.
(Thus, DIL = 0.11, whilst the long wave formula is only fully valid for DIL values < about 0.04.
In other words, the general wave formula

F12N/92-07 page 17
 c a L tgh 2"0
J 2" L
should, in fact, have been used. It would have resulted in the correct values of c = 14m/s,
T=12.6 and L=176m.)

The above value for T will be found in the second horizontal scale of the roll response curve of
figure 13.

I.~------------~----------~
. '"
I -,.----.
,
,.,.,.~•• ,•.••
-..... -: tiE·-u~.-d...~.
r- ...........
~ .4
I~~------------~--+-~----~
:'
il I
~/
T . 5... 11p.rood
Ta . appa .. nl ._11 p.r,od.

c
Ij /
/
,.....
..... ,
...
'~~-------------~1
...
··~------~ 1'·1 l
!
!

~= a.s f-----------"'",,':",//1-;-1------------1
~.'
...... ,,.. a•
.......... "•• lIl
...,...... ~ .
+

....T' Ij'
"'' :~-,\ l.' I
o
_""':. ..
'Á" 'r'
,.
u~--~--------------------~
r.
• 1Z
10 la V.
10
,. ,.
Z4

r 1.'
IJ

..neMING

11..
uf---------- '21

o
REMAINING UNDERKEEL ClEARANCE

Starting points.
'Af---------------~--------_,
ti }I vus.1 : 250.000 dwt.
~ ~ .
I
draught 20 m.•
=
sp.fli 8 knts 4 mis.
~0.51---------
•
ilI' I....
gross un~r kH'1 c1.aranc.
;J I.... 3 m.
fl «r>
...-:
__.~.'!f!...
_..-_ ~~.!LÖ_.:t!-0·· ~....
......."
/..- sw.n 45· trom ast.rn .
D
• ,. U .1.1
amplitud. 2 In.

• Q
MU....
14
• • , 1.1

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

Figure 13 Influence of period of swell on the vertical movements and the remaining underkeel
clearance [souree an unpublished report of Laboratoire National d'Hydraulique,
France]

The shape of the pitch response curve can also be easily understood if it is appreciated that
maximum response in the pitch motion is determined rather by the maximum incident
momentum than by resonance conditions. Schematized and simplified, the maximum

F12N/92-07 page 18
momentum can be expected for L 2~' (figure 16a), or by a period T 2~'/c 500/15
33s.

In the relevant graph of figure 13, it can be observed that the ship response does not have a
peak at the natural pitch period of about 14s, but indeed continues to increase till bevond the
end of the scale (at T = 20s).

120
14

t.Eo 1
t.-

I.. 8 !~
1~ I
I
ij •
i e

I
I
2

--..
Figure 14 Figure 15
[source: Delft Hvdraulicsl.
Similarly, heave response is not so much determined by resonance conditions, but rather by the
magnitude of the net incident force. This force = 0 for L = '-.' (figure 16bl, or at an
approximate period of T = 250/15 = 16 to 17s. The lower graph of figure 13 shows indeed a
near-Oresponse for that wave period. With increasing wave period, and thus wave length, the
incident force and the heave response will increase. With decreasing wave period, the net
incident force and the response will increase initially, but later on decrease again.

The sümmaïy gïaph 'ïemainlng undërkëel clearance', in which the enects of roii, pitch and
heave are combined, clearly shows the importance of the long period waves -or long period
components in a wave spectrum- with regard to the magnitude of the overall vertical ship
motions.

-~-----?t~
-"_ ~~----_
L.'~ t'
I.. .1 "s
(al (bI

Figure 16 Pitch and heave response

F12N/92-07 page 19
The transfer functions of figures 12 and 13 clearly apply to one particular angle between wave
direction and ship. If in a port approach channel the iong period wave components are not
restricted to a narrow sector (in the Euro-Maaschannel there is such restriction), several sets of
transfer functions may have to be developed, each representative for a dominant wave
direction. The great sensitivity of ship response to wave direction is iIIustrated by figure 15.

1.3.2 Width of approach channels

(i)
A ship will generally not be able to navigate a channel in a position parallel to the chanoel axis
or leading line. The forces acting on the ship by cross-currents and wind necessitate the ship to
steer under an angle -the drift angle- in order to follow this leading line. In this way, a state of
equilibrium is reached between external momentum and forces and those from resistance and
rudder.

It is possible to determine this drift angle for varying circumstances by means of model tests. In
confined water it turns out, that under the abovementioned external conditions the ship also
needs a compensating rudder angle to keep the ship in average on a straight track. Especially
for channel axis navigation in cross-currents, relatively big rudder angles are needed for course
correction to preclude a further drifting away from the straight track. Therefore, limitations
have to be set for the maximum allowable drift angle, to ensure that still sufficient reserve
rudder angle is available for course correction. In accordance with PIANC recommendations, the
tangent of this maximum drift angle is usually taken as 1:4, corresponding with an angle of
about 14.5°. Sometimes, the angle is taken as low as 10°. The drift angle as such has
consequences for the path width used by the vessel, which at 14.5° is approximately 2.6 to
2.78. The limitation of the drift angle may have consequencesfor the minimum sailing speed in
the channel.

The actually sailed track of a vessel is determined by:

• cross-current and cross-current gradient
• cross-wind
• speed of the vessel
• waves
• rudder response
• bottom topography
• position information
• human response

The channel width required for a one-way channel consists of the path width, the compensating
width for the motions which a ship makes around the theoretical straight-line course, the
compensating width for location information inaccuracy and a safety margin (figure 17).

C ( bank cl.aronc:,,)

i-w - (chonn.t ...idtll )

i
I

___ -=--=-=- -- - - j- tf
'<;"'-:"":::";::~";""'::r.f=~::---_..:;:-..-
..... (m"al\ d,,~iatiol\)

- - - __ '.J!!.
5-(_t pat,,)

Figure 17 Approximate channel width requirements

F12N/92-07 page 20
The translation of the above into actual dimensions is not a straight forward matter. One of the
reasons is that the human response of the pilot or navigator is of particular importance here and
of a stochastic nature. No two navigators will act or react in the same way in a given situation
of vessel, physical conditions and other vessel traffic. Even a single person will often react
differently in identical situations, but at different periods of time due to differences in
momentary alertness and stress level.

Methods used for determining channel width are:

(a) The empiric method: making use of experience with other channels elsewhere, and
converting qualitative opinions of navigators in quantitative terms.
(b) Physical model investigations.
(c) Fast-time mathematica I navigation simulation modeis: incorporating computerized pilot
reactions on computerized ship's performance.
(d) Real-time navigation simulation: using a 'full miss ion' manoeuvring simulator
(comparable to the flight simulators in aviation training) and live navigators.

Method (a) has all the inherent shortcomings to be expected. Since no two ports and port
approaches are alike, it is difficult and dangerous to translate experience at one location into a
design for another location. However, in the early stage of the design process, empiric values
are often used to make a first assessment of channel dimensions [ref. 19].

Method (b) is hardly used any more. lts only advantage is the possibility of a good
representation of fairway bank and bottom topography and changes therein. But, it does not
allow to model the steering loop, i.e. the combination of the ship's manoeuvring characteristics
and its (human) navigator in areliabie way.

Method (c) is frequently used in early and intermediate design stages, as it allows a quick and
inexpensive comparison of alternative designs and conditions. But, as the performance of the
navigator is incorporated in a deterministic way, it is inadequate for final design and decision
purposes.

Method (d) is the only one that enables the stochastic nature of the navigator
\
performance to be
taken into account, but only up to a certain extent. This is generally done by having different
pilots or navigators make the same channel transit with the same vessel and in identical
conditions of éurrent, visibility, etc. From a total of approximately 15 such runs per set of
identical conditions, a probability density distribution is made of deviations from the ideal track.
From this distribution, the probability th at the vessel will exceed the available channel width can
be calculated. The weak point is the necessity to extrapolate the distribution curve into the low
or very low frequency domain. It has already become evident that the often used normal
distribution is much too unfavourable in this respect. The use of Pearson-typedistribution
appears more suitable, but whether they do give the desireddegree of accuracy, is still unclear.
See for a further discussion {ref 12}.
1::\
\111

Researchand experienceso far have shown that the required channel width depends particularly
on environmental conditions as cross-currents and cross-current gradients (variation of these
cross-currents per unit length of channel), waves and swell, wind, visibility, but also on the
accuracy of information regardingthe ship's position and the easy 'readability' of this
information to navigators. A minimum value for the width of a one-way channel (width at full
depth) would be 5 times the beam B of the biggest vessel in the absenceof cross-currents. An
average value for averageconditions would be rather 7 to 8B. Actual one-way channel width in
existing ports varies between 4 and 10B.

For two-way traffic, distinction must be made between vessel types for which encounters are
allowed. If two-way traffic is required for the biggest vessels, channel width should be
increasedrelative to the one-way channel by 3 to 5B plus compensation for a drift angle.

F12N/92-07 page 21
 ~
r

~
~
!
I ':
~
~

~
,\~i
""'''
i!.:
... "
-&.;2.
... oc
~H
.lil ..
.. ilt

.......
e "
ë""
~
.'" c:

~ ~
.......
....
c

! s
i
-e
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'";:::
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;
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=-:
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I. ---
I 5
I r,
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Figure 18 Lay-out Euro-Maaschannelto Rotterdam

[Souree: Workshop Channel Navigation Deep-Draught Ships, Netherlands Institute
for Navigation, march 19911

F12N/92-07 page 22
Channels subject to a big tidal range are often given a width > la' in which la is the length of
the biggest ships expected to call at the port. This becauseif a ship runs aground on one
channel bank, it may turn on the tide and -in a narrow channel- also run aground with its stern
on the opposite bank. Since channel transit will normally take place around HW, the ship might,
subsequently, break in two at the falling tide. This could block the channel for an extended
period.

In curves, ample and gradual widening should be provided for. The magnitude of this widening
is, again, strongly influenced -apart from the radius of the curve- by currents and, particularly,
by current changes. Reference is also made to the report by a joint working group of PIANC,
IAPH and IMPA on conceptual design of appraoch channels [ref. 191.

1.3.3 Channel lay-out

The lay-out of an approach channel is often largely dictated by the local seabottom topography
and other local conditions. In so far as alternative lay-outs are possible, the following aspects
should be duly considered in their evaluation:
• A channel should show as little curvature as possible. Curves should, in particular, be
avoided near the harbour entrance, as this is nautically already a difficult point.
• A single curve is better than a sequence of smaller curves. Distance between curves should
be at least 1Ol.
• Curve radius should be L1Ol, in exceptional cases ~5l, but with ample local channel
widening.
• Cross-currents should be avoided as much as possible. This applies even more to high cross-
current gradients',for instanee near the harbour entrance and in curves.
• (Emergency)anchorages should be provided along the length of the channel, of which the
last one should be located close to the port entrance.
• Channel orientation should preferably deviate, but not deviate too much from the main wave
direction. Deviate, because if not, strong wave penetration in the port has to be expected.
Not deviate too much, because ships experiencing heavy beam or up to quarter waves, may
develop unstable vessel motions. In other words, channel transit will have to be prohibited in
those circumstances. It would be a major drawback for a port if this occurs regularly.
• Channels should stay weil away from obstacles like capes, under-water rock outcrops, and
the like.

An example of a channel lay-out is given in figure 18.

1.3.4 Main manoeuvring areas within the port

(i)
The manoeuvring of small to medium size vessels generally poses no special problem in the
sense that specific measures have to be taken in the dimensioning of the port infrastructure.
The required stopping lengths aie Iimited (see section 1.2.4; and can usuallv be accommodated
in traditionally sized inner channels and manoeuvring spaces. Manoeuvring capability of these
vessels is generally good, and upon entering port they will often manoeuvre and stop under their
own power.

For large ships, the situation is different. Becauseof their much longer stopping distance and
because of the lack of course control during the stopping manoeuvre, they will mostly not be
allowed to stop under their own power. This may already apply to vessels of approximately
50,OOOdwtand over. This means that, as long as no effective tugboat control is available, sueh
ships have to maintain a certain minimum speed relative to the water, at which there is still
sufficient rudder control available. This speed is about 3 to 4kn, sometimes slightly less.

The above is of particular importanee where large ships with dangerous cargo are concerned,
i.e. crude and product tankers, liquid gas carriers, etc.

F12N/92-07 page 23
The slowing down and stopping length then required within the port boundaries, i.e. in relatively
sheltered water with little or no currents, is determined by the factors:
(a) Entrance speed of the ship.
(b) Time required to tie up the tugboats and to manoeuvre them in position.
(c) Actual stopping length.

sub (a)
The entrance speed is basically determined by the requirements that, firstly, the vessel should
have sufficient speed with respect to the surrounding water for proper rudder control. say 4kn,
and/or, secondly, th at the drift angle should not exceed a tangent of, say, 1:4. Firstly implies
that if there is a following current near the entrance of, for example, 2kn, the minimum entrance
speed will be 6kn. Secondly implies that if there is a cross drift as a result of currents and
winds of, for example, 2kn, the minimum entrance speed will be 8kn. See also figure 19.

sub (b)
The time required for tying up tugboats depends very much on the expertise of the crews and
the environmental conditions. In average circumstances, this time will be in the range of a
minimum of 10 minutes and a maximum of 20 minutes. If the ship moves too fast or if the
waves are too high, the tugboats cannot tie up at all while maintaining acceptable safety
standards. The limiting speed of the ship is 5 to 6kn, the limiting wave height about H. = 1.5m.
This signifies that for favourably located harbours,tugboats may make fast as a standard
procedure already outside the port entrance. This, of course, very much reducesthe
manoeuvring space required within the harbours. Generally, this will not be the case. On the
contrary, it may weil occur that tugs have to wait till the ship is an appreciabledistance past the
entrance before conditions are acceptable.

sub (c)
The actual stopping distance is relatively short. The large ships give astern power the moment
tugboats can control the course and, subsequently,stop in, say, 1.5L from an initial speed of
4kn.

~
------------------------~----~

Figure 19 v vessel speedwith respect to water

Vmin minimum vessel speedfor rudder control (3 to 4kn)
VEFF vessel speedwith respect to channel bottom (designentrance speed)
U current velocity
transverse speed of vessel as result of winddrift
lP drift angle
a angle between current and channel axis

vm Vmin cos lP + u cos a (controlled by minimum speed for rudder control)

provided that tg lP ..$..1/4,or:

F12N/92-07 page 24
 vmin COS I/) + u cos a 2.. 4 (u sin a + VWd)

if not:

vm = 4 (u sin a + vwd) (controlled by maximum permissible drift angle)

The consequence of the above is that the length of the inner channel -in terms of aviation: the
runway of the port- generally has to measure 2 to 3km or more, if the port will be able to
receive large ships under acceptable standard of nautical safety. However, contrary to aviation,
there are no international rules to which the dimensions of port channels and manoeuvring
spaces have to comply. It is left to the insight of the designer and the safety-mindedness of the
owner and investor.

By way of example, if a ship enters port at 6kn and slows down to 4kn over a period of 15
minutes, while tugboats manoeuvre in position, the distance travelled is approximately 2,300m.
Add a distance of l immediately past the entrance before tugs can come near, and 2l for actual
stopping, or, for instanee 3l = 900m, the total length required from port entrance to the centre
of the turning basin will be in the order of 3 to 3.5km.

An approximation of the form and principal dimensions of the inner channel and turning basin is
given in figure 20. Figure 21 summarizes a number of relevant prototype observations at the
entrance of Rotterdam.

llood
------

~~"'aoáf'
~
t e:....
#
----."
,.-

"".)C
xX JC

,,~~._._.<ltlA.-._._.~._.
xJCoOOOOOOaQOO

A
)(x)()( ,11(;--......

crzntezrIinez
.l( .....
J( "';-'

xxx
__ ~

Bel
I
""
I RaL
-1 ,
\

)
\

---_..:.._-~
(lob:
Á"
- ........_,
... ..............
~
........ --------'....."./
..
~--

: I ~~~ posSlblfl srup tracks

, minimum chanr.:lI boundory

AB: nzCCIVQry ond slowing down
A point WMI"{l tugs stort passing
ot sruo ; t irne I"{lQulrczdtor
tinas (wow hIllght ~ 1-1.5 m;
ty Ing up tugs
V .. 5-6 kn)
BC: stoPPing d Istonccz trom
B tugs nzady to assist;" .. 4 kn
4 kn (1.5-2Ll
C smo stoPPflO (V • 0)

Figure 20 Stopping procedure and inner channel dimensions

(ii)
As regards the shape of the inner channel, the navigable width should be increased in a
transverse direction immediately past the port entrance. This because the drift angle of vessels
upon entering has initially a tendency to increase; the bow of the vessel is in more or less
current-free water, while the stern still experiences the cross-currents. Gradually, the width can
be brought back to approximately 2..7B.

The boundaries of the channel should preferably consist of flat slopes and should be free of
obstacles, Under no condition should oil or gas tankers be moored immediately adjacent to main
manoeuvring areas.

The slowing down and stopping length mentioned in sub-section (i) above, can be reduced to
the extent that the ship's entrance speed can be reduced. The latter can be attained by limiting
port entrance for large vessels to a certain maximum cross-current, i.e. by introducing a

F12N/92-07 page 25
horizontal tidal window. Although this has operationa! consequences, it may vet be
economically attractive.

The concept of introducing 'planned port transit navigation' for large and very large ships -that
is: making entry and departure subject to, inter alia, vertical and horizontal tide, as weil as sea
conditions- will in many instances be a sound one.

The inner channel should end in a turning basin or circle, from where vessels, whether small or
big, are towed by tugboats to their respective basins. The diameter of this turning basin should
be L_2L. In exceptional cases, for small ports where no tugboats are available, the diameter
should be L_3L. In case of currents, for instance in river ports, the turning basin should be
lengthened to compensate for vessel drift during manoeuvring .

s~tuaeion entrance anq inner ~.l

RottardAmEuropoo=

p!:Dtotype :uasur .......ts of ~

10 k ='3 250.000 dvt (d"';;5')
" •

• •
I
I I ·1.· I I
5

.~ 1 11 1rTl 1 T I I 1
o 2
• 10

z.ro of qraph is th. sta.rt of th. slovinq davn

&lid stoppinq .....o.uvr. v1~ lev r ..... of propeller (20 r.p .•• l

Figure 21 Slowing down and stopping length

(jij)
The length, width and lay-out of the inner channel can be optimized in a similar way as the
width of an approach channel, viz. by tast-time manoeuvring simulators initially, and by a full-
mission real-time simulator ultimately (see section 1.3.2). Also here, the stochastic nature of
human navigator performance plays an important role.

page 26
F12N/92-07
 With the aid of statistical processing of the simulator results, the boundaries of the inner
channel should be so determined, th at the probability of exceeding these boundaries is equal to
or less than a given acceptable frequency. This acceptable frequency, in its turn, should in
principle be determined on considerations of minimization of overall costs, including the mean
direct and indirect cost of damage when the boundaries are exceeded.

(iv)
Disregard or ignorance of the aforementioned infrastructural requirements for the reception of
large ships, can lead to grave and expensive errors in port design. There are several examples
around the world. Figure 22 shows one such example.

Figure 22 location: North African coast

It is a port, built in the early 70s and designed for Vlees up to 2500dwt and lNG carriers up to
120,OOOm3 capacity. The availableslowing down and stopping length from the entrance til! the
centre of the turning basin is only about 1,OOOm,whilst the main manoeuvring area is
surroundad by berths for ûil and gas tankers. This, obviousiy, invites disastrous coiiisions.
Furthermore,wave agitation in the port was found to be often excessive. As aresuit, the port
has severe operational restrictions; inter alla, by restricting entry in principle to circumstances in
which tugboats can make fast to Vlees and gas tankers weil outside the port entrance. Even
then, the port is still nautically unsafe.

1.3.5 Port basins

Port basins should be given a sufficient width for the safe towing in and towing out of vessels,
whilst other berths are occupied. For conventional cargo and container ships, this results in 4 to
58 + 100 (figure 23). If 8 = 25m (conventionalgeneral cargo ship), this means a basin width of
some 200 to 225m; if 8=32m (container ships), the basin width should be about 230 to 260m.

In case of very long basins, say 1,000m or more, it is desirabiethat ships can be turned in the
basin. The required width is about l+8+50, or, say, 88+50. For 8=25m, this results in a
width of 250m.

F12N/92-07 page 27
For big tankers or bulk carriers, the desirabie basin width -also for two-sided use of the basin- is
4 to 6B + lOOm. The lower value appliesto favourable wind conditions, the higher to frequent
and strong cross-winds. For B = 45m, 5B + lOOm results in a basin width of 325m.

·5- =::::-.... -- ..
( -------- ~".
..I J!,

'2.-t.. iS

1\
~

j I
:c
I
I
~o

201:02'5"

la
c::J r----1 I

~- - - . -- - .-
( > ! .B

Figure 23 Basin width

2. HYDRAUlIC ASPECTS

2.1 Generalconsiderations

In as much as a port per definition is at the interface of land and water, the hydraulic aspects of
port planning and design are manyfold. They mainly comprise:
* Wave agitation inside a harbour at the location of berths hamperingcargo handling operations
or even endangeringthe safety of the ships.
* Wave attack on port structures like breakwaters and slope revetments, threatening their
stability or integrity.
* Tidal and/or permanent currents and changes imposed by the port structures.
* Changesin the sediment transport and, in consequence.to the local coastal morphology
caused by the changes in current and wave patterns. Siltation of a port's water areas.

In certain cases, river engineeringproblems may come into the picture, as weil as density
currents, changes in the salt water penetration into the land, or other site-specific issues.

The different aspects are all dealt with in specializedlecture notes of Delft University of
Technology or in numerous text books. to which reference is made if detailed information is
required. In the present lecture notes, only a general overview will be given of those subjects
that have a direct bearing on the planning and design of a port's water areas.

2.2 Wave agitation

2.2.1 Causes
Waves within the boundaries of a harbour may have been generatedlocally, or have penetrated
from outside. Due to the Iimited fetch, locally generated waves will generally be small and of
short periodicity. But, some ports do have a fetch for specific wind directions which cannot be
neglected, e.g. Rotterdam, New Vork, the Mersey ports in the UK, Bombay and the south-
western part of the port of Singapore. If the fetch is, for example, in the 5 to 10km range,
wave heights (Hsl will be somewhat in excess of 1m for a Beaufort 7 wind, and some 1.7m for

page 28
F12N/92-07
 Beaufort 9, with periods T. of 3 to 3.5s. Since, moreover, these waves can be very steep, they
will hamper harbour tugs and similar craft, but large sea-goingvessels will not be effected at all.

Wave penetration into a harbour mostly takes place through the harbour entrance. However,
also the overtopping of low-crested breakwaters or wave transmission through permeable
breakwaters -the latter particularly for long period waves- may contribute to wave agitation
within the port. For example, in the outer harbour of the port of Visakhapatnam on the Indian
east coast, wave transmission through the quite permeableprimary and secondary armour layers
of the southern breakwater is an important cause for the local wave problems encountered.

It is very much necessaryto assessthe magnitude of these phenomenaat the design stage of
the breakwater(s), as it is difficult to devise suitable means to reduce wave transmission once a
breakwater has been built.

In general terms, the problems encountered to limit wave penetration in a harbour increase with
increasing wave period. In this respect, an old ocean swell with a Tof, say, 12 to 16s is
already more difficult to proteet against than wind waves of 6 to 8s period. For still longer
wave periods, as applies for seiches with a T of 2 to 3min or more, the only solution often is to
design the port's water areas in such a way as to minimize the effects.

Wave agitation as a result of wave penetration can be weil investigated with the aid of
mathematicaI modeis. For relatively simple cases and relativelv short period waves, usabie
results can be obtained by defraction-only modeis. If these two conditions are not fulfilled,
more complex models have to be used that incorporate also the refraction effects.

2.2.2 Harbour basin resonance

In case the period of the incident waves equals or approximates the natural period of oscillation
of a harbour basin, resonance phenomenacan be expected. This may lead to locally much
greater wave heights and, consequently, to more severe problems for ships at berth. If a
harbour basin has a more or less uniform depth and rectangular shape, the natural periods of
oscillation T, are as follows:

closed basins

1
with n -= 1,2, ...
.fiiD

open basins

T = 4Ls
• 1
with n = 0,1, ...
n (1 +2n)
.fiiD
The closed basin condition would apply to basins with a very narrow entrance and to transverse
oscillations.

In case of a more complex geometry of the basin boundariesand variabie depths, mathematical
models can be used to determine the Tn in different directions.

2.2.3 Responseof moored ships

(i)
Wave agitation in a port can lead to loss of efficiency or to total disruption of cargo transfer. In
severe cases, it may cause the runture of mooring lines resulting in major damage to ships and
port structures.

F12N/92-07 page 29
.---.,....------ _._ ..- _.
closed basin open-ended basin
La

fundamental mode
(flrst harmonie)
~~
~
tl"l
F-Ci--J
second harmonie ~

" .. '2.

third harmonie

Figure 24 Basin oscillation

For that reason, port planners and designers like to know the permissible wave height at berth
for different types and sizes of vessels. There is, however, not much literature on the subject.
A few authors have attempted to produce indicative figures, but emphasizing at the same time
their limited value and validity.

The reason is that the definition of limiting wave conditions is quite complicated. In fact, the
waves as such constitute no limiting factor but rather the vessel response. This response of a
vessel at berth to a particular wave spectrum is not only determined by that wave spectrum and
the hydrodynamic properties of the vessel, but also by berth orientation, elastic spring and
damping characteristics of mooring lines and fenders, keel clearance and quav or jetty
configuration. This explains why there is no simple answer.

Of the different modes of movement of a vessel -see figure 11- the only ones of real interest
here are roll and yaw (rotary) and surge and sway (translatory). For a vessel at berth, big
motions in either one of these modes of movement and/or high mooring forces are generally
associated with resonance phenomena. Resonanceoccurs if the frequencv of the excitation
forces -wave forces- is close to the natural frequency of oscillation of the multiple mass-spring
system formed by the ship, fenders and moorings.

This natural period of oscillation Tn is different for different modes of movement.

For the roll motion. T, is not very much affected by the moorings. In other words, T, is more or
less the same as for the vessel in free floating condition. For third generation container vessels
or big ro-ro vessels -the loading and unloading of which is very sensitive to movement of the
vessel-, a typical value would be in the 12 to 15s range, i.e. equal to that of a long to very long
swell. If the period of the excitation force Teis much smaller that Tn, say less than half of it.
the system will only respond very little. If Te is much bigger than Tn, the system will respond as
if a constant force Fewere appliedto it.

That is why wind waves with a period of some 7s or less will not have much affect on these big
ships, although they may be extremely troublesome for smaller craft. Of course, the wave
direction with respect to vessel orientation is also of great importance for the magnitude and
nature of the response.

Contrary to the roll motion. the surge and sway motions for a given mass of vessel are largely
governed by the elastic properties of fenders and mooring lines. Stiff moorings give short
natural periods of oscillation, whilst soft moorings lead to long periods. Extreme values for the
abovementioned third generation container or ro-ro vessels would probably be, sav, 15 to 20s

F12N/92-07 page 30
 tor hard tenders and all steel mooring lines to 120 to 150s tor Yokohama type tenders and all
nylon or polypropylene mooring lines.

The yaw motion is appreciably attected by both the properties of the mooring system and the
hydrodynamic characteristics of the ship. Tn will normally be in between that of the roll motion
and the surge/sway motions.

(ii)
The question is whether wave periods in the above range can be expected in specific new port
developments and, it so, in association with what wave heights and direction. In many
instances, conventional wave observations will have been made. They should provide the
necessary input data tor (mathematica!) wave penetration studies.

Most conventional wavè recorders cannot be used for the measurement of the very long-period,
low-amplitude waves. These very long waves may either be 'tree long waves', originating, for
instance, from storms at remote locations or 'bound long waves'. The bound long waves are
associated with the wave groupiness in a normal irregular short wave spectrum.

The period of these long components is some 20s up to a few minutes, and the wave height a
tew cm up to, say, 0.5m. Measurement can either be done by high accuracy pressure-type
wave recorders or by a step gauge recorder. The occurrence of these long-period components
and the trequency and magnitude is difficult to predict as it varies trom coast to coast. Since
they are the main source for the surge and sway -and sometimes yaw- motions of a vessel at
berth, it is extremely important to start measurementsat an early stage to obtain sufficient data.
By way of illustration, F.C. Vis, et al., {ref 16} in conducting model tests tor a particular port,
found surge motions of 35,000 and 70,000dwt bulk carriers in the 2 to 3m range (between
extremes) for long-period wave heights of 0.13 to 0.15m only.

The same authors developed a theory to predict the significant height HSlb of the bound long
waves from the wave spectrum of irregular short waves. This resulted in the tollowing
equations:

HsJb 0.22. H2$ .....E_ > 0.09 (deep water)

- Tl -for
gT!
p

0.08 • T! • H! for....E_ < 0.04 (shallow water)

=s« gT!
in which:
H. significant (short) wave height
Tp peak period of (short) wave spectrum
D waterdepth

Comparison of calculated and measured bound long-period wave heights at a port location at
the Atlantic coast showed a good agreement. However, a later verification at a location on the
coast of the Arabian Sea tound measured long wave heights about twice as high as the
calculated ones. Obviously, one has to be prudent in applying the theory.

(iii)
It is noted that the surge/sway problems of vessels may be greatly aggravated if the natural
period of oscillation of a harbour basin (in the first or in a higher harmonic mode) corresponds
with the period of the incident long-period waves. The resulting resonance of the basin can lead
to wave heights within the basin that are a multiple of the open water wave height, re section
2.2.2. Often, vessels will have to leave berth or risk breaking the mooring ropes. Many ports
suffer from these 'seiches', for example Hualien in Taiwan, Cape Town in South Africa, the
outer port of Amsterdam - to mention just a tew.

F12N/92-07 page 31
As already observed, it is difficult to make defences against long-period waves by using
breakwaters and similar structures. But, if the predominant wave periods are known from the
beginning, harbour basin shapes and dimensions may be so determined as to minimize the
effe cts of these waves.

2.2.4 limiting ship motions

(i)
Rather than asking to define acceptable wave heights at berth, one could ask to define limit
values of the vessel motions.

The least sensitive vessels are VLCCs, ULCCsand big dry bulk carriers, the latter during loading
only. These ships can sustain surge and sway motions in the _±1 to _±1.5m range (2 to 3m
between extremes), as far as the cargo transfer process is concerned. However, the safety of
the mooring system and limitation of wear and tear of fenders may make it necessaryto restrict
these motions to a maximum of .±.O.75to .±Jm.

Container and ro-ro ships, on the contrary, are very senSitiveto movement with respect to the
quav wall becauseof the nature of the cargo transfer process. In the roll motion, containers
may already start jamming in the cell guides at an angle of a few degreesto the vertical. It is
noted that the effective angle of deviation is a combination of rolt and list. In the surge and
sway mode, movements as low as .±_O.lm have been reported to start affecting productivity in
case of hard moorings, and thus relatively short-period motions. For soft moorings, the effect
will probably become noticeable at motions of .±_O.2to .±_O.3m.

Generally, the loss in efficiency is more severe when handling deck containers than when
handling under-hatch ones.

In a draft version of the report of a PIANCworking group on the 'movements of moored

(container) ships at berth' (1991), the following limiting values are proposed:

type of vessel surge sway roll

(m) (m) (0)

container ship :1:1 :1:0.6 :1:3

container/ra-ra ship :1:0.2 0 0

The report refers to studies by, inter alia, Slinn (1979), Ueda (1987) {ref 17} and Per Bruun
(1989) {ref 18}.

For the container ships, the lower value for the sway motion as compared to the surge motion
probably is intended to reflect the somewhat shorter period of the sway motion. However, this
does not seem to be logical becausethe sway motion is easier to follow for a gantry operator.

(ii)
Within limits, it is possible to influence the vessel motions at berth, particularly the surge and
sway motions, by varying the fender and mooring line characteristics. As already observed, stiff
moorings and fenders lead to small-amplitudeshort-period motions whilst soft fenders and
moorings result in large-amplitudelong-period motions. This does not necessarily mean that
stiff moorings and fenders are to be preferred as they also result in bigger mooring forces and,
thus, in an increased risk of mooring line failure and damageto ship and quav,

It also remainsto be consideredto what extent an operator of a multi-user terminal can dictate
to the ship captains which number and type of mooring lines to use. But, at least, the selection
of a fender system is the terminal owner/operator's prerogative.

F12N/92-07 page 32
Finally, when studying alternative mooring arrangements, it should also be avoided to design a
system with a natural period of oscillation T n that approximatesthe natural period of oscillation
of the harbour basin.

2.3 Currents

The effect of currents in a port' s approacheson port entry and departure procedures and,
indirectly, on the dimensions of the manoeuvring areas, has already been discussed in sections
1.3.2 and 1.3.4. But, currents mayalso effect a ship at berth.

In principle, currents can induce movement of a ship at berth. E.g. strong yaw motions and
resulting very high mooring rope forces -up to about 300 tons- are experienced at 5MBs in the
Singaporearea. They appear to be caused by large eddies in the tidal currents, as has been
demonstrated bya mathematical flow model at Delft University of Technology. Both the
location and the current veloeities of the eddies change rather rapidly with the stage of the tide.

In a semi-enclosedharbour basin, current velocities will probably be too low to create any
problems. But, ports on tidal rivers as estuaries often have berths along the river itself. As
current veloeities may be high, berthing and de-berthing will often be restricted to a short period
around the turn of the tide, although manoeuvring in a bow current may be acceptable as long
as the current is strictly parallel to the berth.

Minor changes in the current direction mayalso cause yaw and sway motions of a ship at a
fixed berth. In all instanees, the mooring arrangement (mooring wires, dolphins, bollards) will
have to be able to resist the statie and/or dynamic current (and wind) forces, even in extreme
conditions.

The statie current forces can be calculated with:

horizontal Fx = ex
lateral v2 * d * Lbp

in which:
Fx.y force [tons]
p relative density of water (kg.s2/m4]
v current velocity [mis]
d draft of ship Iml
LbP length between perpendicularsIml
Cx•y coefficients

Values of Cx.yfor different angles of attack and different d/D values may be found in {ref 15}.
E.g. for a full beam current (900 angle of attack), C, = 0 and C, = 0.6 for d/O > 6, but C,
about 3.3 for d/O = 1.05.

2.4 Sedimentation

For a discussion of sediment transport processesas such, reference is made to the lecture
papers on coastal engineering.

Sedimentation in a port' s water areas leads to the need of maintenance dredging and, thus, is of
immediate economie importanee. The annual maintenancedredging in the port of Rotterdam
and its approachesis in the order of .l0x106m3 at a cost of about Ofl 40 million. As total cargo
throughput is almost 300 million tons, the cost per ton of cargo is only some Ofl 0.15. But, an

F12N/92-07 page 33
average port with an annual cargo flow of, say, 10 million tons and a siltation of 5x1 06m3 at a
dredging cost of probably some Dfl 15 million, would be faced with the problem to recover
Ofl 1.50 per ton of cargo from port charges.

Adequate design of a port's water areas can limit the sedimentation problem. Not much can be
done about the settlement of suspendedsediment in tidal basins, but this is generally also not
the biggest problem. It is more important e.g. to try to make an approach channel partly or
largely self-flushing with respect to any form of siltation by giving it adequate orientation and
dimensions (as long as consistent with nautical requirements).

REFERENCES

{1} PIANC, ICORELS(International Committee for the reception of large ships), Methods for
analysing wind, wave and swell data to estimate on an annual basis the number of days,
and the maximum duration of periods during which port and ship operations will be
impeded by these elements, 1979.

{2} PIANC, ICORELS,Optirnal layout and dimensionsfor the adjustment to large ships of
maritime fairways in shallow seas, seastraits and maritime waterways, 1980.

{3} PIANC, Underkeelclearancefor large ships in maritime fairways with hard bottom, 1985.

{4} IAPH, Guidelinesfor safety and environmentalproteetion of ports, Reportsof the

Committee on Large Ships, 1981 .

{5} Numerousfurther referencesare given in {ref 1 through 4}.

{6} Aspects of Navigability of Constraint Waterways, including Entrances, Symposium

Proceedings,Delft 1978.

{7} L.A. Koelé, 'Behaviour of largetankers in shallow water in relation to the dimensions of an
approach channel', Symposium on Offshore Hydrodynamics, Wageningen 1971,
Publication no. 375 of the NetherlandsShip Model Basin.

{8} J. van Dixhoorn, L.A. Koeléand J.P. Hooft, Feasibility and profit of navigation information
and navigational aids offshore, 23rd PIANCCongress, Ottawa, Canada, 1973.

{9} Proceedingsof the Symposium on Ship Handling, Wageningen, 1973, Publicationno. 451
Netherlands Ship Model BasinWageningen,The Netherlands.

{10} C.B. Barrass,The phenomenonof ship squat, Terra et Aqua, no. 18.

{11} H. Velsink, J.W. Koeman and W.A. de Vries, Ship manoeuvring researchand port design,
Ocean EngineeringVII, 1983.

{12} H. Velsink, Manoeuvring simulation: a port planner's wishes, MARIN Jubilee meeting,
Wageningen, May 1992.

{13} E.O. Tuck, Shallow water flows past slenderbodies, Journalof Fluid Mechanics, vol. 26,
1966.

{14} R.L. Wiegel, Oceanographicalengineering,Prentice Hall, 1964.

page 34
F12N/92-07
{15} OCIMF (Oil Companies International Maritime Forum), Prediction of Wind and Current
Loads on VLCCs, London, 1977.

{16} F.C. Vis, et al, Long waves and harbour design, International Conference on Numerical
Modelling of Parts and Harbeurs. Birmingham, 1985.

{17} S. Ueda and S. Shiraishi, The allowable ship motions for cargo handling at wharves, Port
and Harbour Research Institute, Japan, 1988.

{18} Per Bruun, Berthing and mooring by winches, PIANC Bulletin no. 66, 1989.

{19} PIANC/IAPH/IMPA, Approach Channels, A Guide for Concept Design, Initial Report of the
Joint Working Group 30, 1993.

F12N/92-07 page 35
 chapter 5.

PORT TERMINALS

- INTRODUCTION -

1991/08
 PORT TERMINALS - INTRODUCTION

CONTENTS

3
1. General
3
2. Services provided
3
3. Terminal components
Types of terminals; to specialize or not, that is the question 5
4.
6
5. Terminal capacity: maximum or optimum
7
6. Terminal dimensions
Terminal organization
8
7.
 PORT TERMINALS - INTRODUCTION

1. GENERAL

Port terminals are those port facilities which constitute the factual interface between different
modes of transport of the cargo. For example, from sea going vessel into inland barges, road or
rail transport, pipeline or feeder vessel, and vice versa.

There are also IWT (inland water transport) terminals where the cargo is transferred trom inland
barge or self-propelled vessel to truck or railway wagon, or the other way around.

The terminals are the 'raison d'être' of a port. All other facilities are provided only to enable the
terminals to function, and that in a safe and efficient manner.

2. SERVICES PROVIDEO

The services providèd by a port terminal normally comprise the unloading from ship to shore, or
the reciprocal process, the temporary storage, sometimes a limited processing of the cargo, and
the loading or unloading into or from the trouçh-transport means.

Unloading is also quite frequently done by ship-borne gear. This applies to virtually all liquid
bulk cargoes for which ship-borne pumps are used. It also applies to some dry bulk cargoes
carried by geared bulk carriers or self unloaders, and to the use of ship' s cranes on general
cargo or multi-purpose vessels. The loading of bulk cargoes is almost always done by shore-
based equipment.

Intermediate storage is not necessarily part of the services, but, in practice, almost always is.
Many cargoes need customs checking and/or quality and quantitv checks which precludes
direct through-transport. However, a more'important reason, particularly for bulk cargoes, is
the difference in parcel sizes and loading and unloadinq rates of maritime transport on the one
hand, and through-transport on the other. E.g., a very.large bulk carrier may unload ore at a
rate of up to 5,OOOt/hor 100,OOOtor more per dav. But, there are no means of through-
transport, whether road, rail or inland navigation, that can even approximate such capacities. In
other words, an intermediate storage or buffer stock is necessary. In a general sense, such
buffer stock in a transport node is always necessarywhenever continuous transport (e.g.
pipeline) meets discontinuous transport, or two discontinuous transport flows with different
discontinuities meet, or even two identical discontinuous transport flows with a phase
difference.

Apart from that, certain clients prefer to locate operational and strategic reserves in the port
rather than at the site of production or consumption, which leads to increased storage
demands.

The processing which a terminal can offer as a service, usually consist of packing or re-packing,
bagging (e.g. grain or fertilizer) or blending (e.g. different grades of ore or coal). More complex
forms of processing exist, but are not very common.

3. TERMINAL COMPONENTS

The components of a terminal are:

.. the wet and the dry infrastructure
.. the suprastructure

pt/1991/08 page 3
* the equipment
* the human resources

The wet infrastructure comprises part of all of a harbour basin in which one or more berths are
located to accommodate the ships. The type of berth is largely dictated by the nature of the
loading or unloading process.

Relatively, the most expensive is the marginal quay or wharf which is a quay connected over its
entire length to the terminal area behind it. It thus permits longitudinal as weil as transverse
cargo movements to and from the storage areas over the full length of the ship. This is a pre-
requisite for the efficient handling of all non-bulk cargoes. Marginal quays are also often used
for large dry bulk terminals when heavy gantry cranes have to be able to travel alongside a ship
for unloading purposes. (Particularlyfor dry bulk cargoes, berths for loading and unloading
respectively may be quite different becauseof the different equipment used.)

Relatively, the cheapest form of berth -but not fully fitting in thls overview- is the SPM (single
point mooring) used for the loading or unloading of oil and/or oil products in open sea. A
submarine pipeline connects the SPM (also mentioned SBM, single buoy mooring) to the shore.

Liquid bulk carriers load or unload through pipelines. They, generally, have a central midship
manifold where pipelines from the different holds connect with hoses or (un)loading arms on
shore. Such a process does not require shore-basedequipment to travel alongside the ship. In
consequence, a relatively simple and cheap jetty suffices to carry the loading arms with -often-
separate berthing or breasting dolphins and mooring dolphins to absorb the horizontal forces
exerted by the ship.

But, also some dry bulk carriers are not very demanding with regardto berth and shore
facilities. This applies to the so-called self unloader which carries its own unloading equipment.
It consists of one or two longitudinal belt conveyors below the tapered holds, transferring to a
vertical conveyor system which, in its turn, transfers the cargo to a horizontal conveyor carried
by a swinging boom which can have a length of up to 70m.

The boom conveyor discharges in a hopper and conveyor system on shore. Becauseof the
length of the boom, the only berthing facilities that are required, are breasting and mooring
dolphins. (But, of course, the ship itself is more expensive per ton capacity than a conventional
bulk carrier.)

The dry infrastructure comprises such items as storage area pavements -an expensive item for
container terminals-, roads, foundations for crane tracks, drainage systems, etc. The dry
infrastructure usually does not constitute the most spectacular part of the terminal, but it is,
nevertheless, a very necessary one.

The suprastructure consists of the sheds and ether covered storage spaces as silos, offices,
workshops, etc.

Terminal equipment, either fixed or mobile, is found in a tremendous variety. Fixed equipment
comprises mainly belt conveyors and stationary cranes. Mobile equipment moves either on rails
(all sorts of gantry cranes, stacker-reclaimers,travelling hoppers) or on, mostly, pneumatic
rubber tyres (RTG's, FLT's, straddle carriers, tractors/trailers, a.s.o.). Equipment will be
discussed more in detail in the chapters dedicated to a particular type of terminal.

The fourth and final terminal component mentioned is the human resources. It is certainly not
the least important one. As in most industries, productivity, efficiency and quality largely
depend on the capabilitv and motivation of managementand labour force. An old but weil run
and weil maintained terminal will generally provide a better service level to lts clients than a
modern well-equipped terminal that is poorly operated.

page 4
pt/1 991108
 some types of berths:

marginal quay liquid bulk jetty dolphin berth tor selt unloader

4. TYPES OF TERMINALS; TO SPECIALIZE OR NOT. THAT IS THE aUESTION

The main types of terminals that can be distinguished, are:

• conventional general cargo terminals
• multi-purpose terminals
• ro-ro terminals
• container terminals
• liquid bulk terminals
· liquid gas
· crude oil
· oil products
· edible oil
· chemical products
• dry bulk terminals
· grain
· ore and coal
· special products (cement, sulphur, etc.'
• fruit terminals
• fish terminals
• IWT terminals
• passenger terminals

The conventional general cargo terminal is one of the oldest and, traditionally, was designed for
the handling of break-bulk and -later on- also unitized general cargo. Since break-bulk and
unitization have given way, to a large extent, to containerization, the (conventional) generaI
cargo terminals have lost much of their importanee in modern ports. Nevertheless, they are still
needed. In fact, new ones are still being built because the traditional layouts and dimensions no
longer suffice. A modern general cargo terminal has to be able to handle a much greater variety
of cargo, including containers carried on deck of multi-purpose vessels, at a much greater
speed.

pt/1991/08 page 5
Of course, not all ports can permit themselves to built specialized terminals for all sorts of
commodities. The investments required are mostly considerable and can only be justified if
there is a certain minimum cargo flow through such a special terminal. Also, the space is
sometimes lacking for the development of a variety of special terminals. Finally, specialized
terminals can only live up to expectations -greater handling speed, lower price and less
pilferage- if they are managed and staffed by personnel trained for and experienced in this
particular sort of operation.

Therefore, the answer to the question whether or not to specialize, is more than one of simple
economics and arithmetics

In developing countries, the rate of specialization is lagging behind that of the industrialized
world, not only for shortage of funds, but also because the training of management and labour
is lagging behind. This is understandable and not at all disastrous. On the contrary, it is
unwise to enforce specialization too rapidly.

Talking in terms of cargo volumes handled, so apart from considerations of land availability and
operational capability, a special container terminal cannot be expected to be economical at
throughputs below approx. 50,00q TEU/year. A simple dry bulk terminal may become justified
at a cargo flow of 0.5 to 2 million tons/year, dependingalso on the value of the cargo. For oil
and liquid gas, specialization is normally required from the very beginning, not so much for
economic reasons as weil as for safety reasons.

5. TERMINALCAPACITY;MAXIMUM OROPTIMUM

Terminal capacity can be defined in different ways, and without specifying which definition is
used and about which part of the terminal one is talking, a discussion makes no sense.

To start with, capacity can refer to ship/shore and shore/ship transhipment, it can refer to
storage or to through-transport. Here it will be assumedthat through-transport poses no
bottleneck and that terminal storage capacity is tuned to the transhipment capacity, but also
constitutes no restraint. Needlessto say that, in practice, this is not always the case.

In terms of transhipment capacity we can distinguish, in a general sense, the following:

* maximum instantaneous capacity
* maximum annual capacity
* optimum annual capacity

The maximum instantaneous capacity can only be maintained for a short spell, e.g. when weil
rested crane drivers start unloading a still full dry bulk carrier. This sort of capacity is of no
interest to the port planner, but it is of great interest to the equipment and system designer,
becauseall equipment downstream must at least have the same peak capacity to avoid
overload and clogging up.

The maximum annual capacity is the mean hourly capacity (averagedover a long periodl x abt
21 (effective hours/dav) x 360 (davs/vear). It is the capacitv that can theoretically be attained
if the berths have a 100% occupation, and provided that there are no constraints on the land-
side of the terminal. But, since ship arrivals and ship loading and unloading are time-wise
stochastical processes, a 100% occupation leads to tremendous congestion on the sea-sideof
the terminal and to excessive ship waiting times, it is of no reaI interest to anybody. However,
it is the way that many port authorities opt to define the capacity of their port, because it
shows impressive figures.

The optimum annual capacity is the sort of capacity with which the port planner has to deal.
Unfortunately, 'optimum', again, can be defined in different ways. If 'optimum' is meant to be

pt/1991/08 page 6
 'economic optimum', it generally is th at capacity -or rather cargo throughput- for which the
overall port costs per ton of cargo reach a minimum. The overall port costs comprise all fixed
and variabie terminal costs and all vessel-related costs during the service period as weil as the
waiting period, including all port dues. In a way, the restriction of costs to the port boundaries
is a simplification, but for multiple and split transport chains one cannot do otherwise.

In case of integrated, centrally managed transport chains (which applies to many liquid and dry
bulk trades), the true economic optimum can be sought, which is attained when the total
transport cost per ton from source or supplier to consignee or consumer has reached a
minimum. Port costs may then be weil above an absolute minimum, e.g. because a deeper and
more expensive channel and quay allow the use of bigger ships, which reduces maritime
transport costs. In other words, when talking about optimum terminal capacity in those
circumstances, it has to refer to a given size of ship, which size results from an earlier and more
general optimization exercise.

However, 'optimum' need not always refer to an economic optimum, i.e. there are other
optimization criteria imaginable and also used in practice. For instance, container terminals th at
have to operate in a heavily competitive regional market may wish to guarantee a certain
minimum service level in order to attract shipping companies. Such a service level could be
described, for example, by a guarantee th at no more than x% of the vessels visiting the
terminal, wilt have a waiting time in excess of ,y hours and/or that no more than m% of the
vessels wilt have a total port time in excess of n hours.

The tools used in quantifying these optima, whether referring to cost minima or to service level,
are, for relatively simple situations, the analytical queuing theory, or, for more complex
conditions, discrete simulation modeis. They yield for specific boundary conditions the ship
waiting times, which can be incorporated -if so desired- into the co st minimization study.

6. TERMINAL DIMENSIONS

For different discrete numbers of berths or for different quay lengths, the optimum cargo
transhipment capacity can be calculated in accordance with section 5 above. Reciprocally, the
optimum number of berths or the optimum length of quay for a projected cargo flow can be
obtained by interpolation in between the so calculated optimum capacities.

What remains to be determined, is the optimum size storage area(s) Foe required for this same
projected cargo flow.

In general terms:

in which:
r, gross storage area required
A = specific area required to store a unit (ton, TEU, m3) of cargo
a (gross area x nominal storage height)/(nett area x mean storage height)

(a is a constant for a given type of carço and a given cargo handling method. The relation
gross area/nett area dependson the space required for equipment movements. The ratio
nominal/mean storage height depends on the permissible mean height at full utilization of
the storage area. Sometimes this is equal to the nominal height, e.g. for palletized bags of
cement, sometimes it is less, e.g. for containers.)

~ = mean dweil time of the cargo in the storage area in days

pt/1991/08 page 7
C projected cargo flow (tons, TEU' s. rn'') per year
Ps probability density distribution in time of cargo arrivals or departures on the sea-side of
the terminal

(P, in itself is a function of the probability distributions of ship arrivals and of cargo volumes
per ship.)

PI ditto of cargo arrivals or departureson the land-side of the terminal

Ptd ditto of the dweil time of the cargo on the terminal

Often, PIand Ptd may be assumedto be uniform. If this is not the case and/or if the type of
distribution of P, is inconvenient tor an analytical approach, discrete simulation models may be
used to determine the optimum size of storage area (as weil as optima of number and capacity
of terminal equipment).

A more detailed discussion will be given for individual types of terminals in the relevant
chapters.

As a very rough order of magnitude indication, the following throughput capacity figures may
serve:
* conventional general cargo 4 - 6 t/m2/year
* containers 6 - 10 t/m2/year
* coal 15 25 t/m2/year
* iron ore 30 40 t/m2/year
* crude oil 40 50 t/m2/year

The m2 refers to the total terminal area, including internal roads, offices, workshops and the
like.

However, the author is fully aware that it is not difficult to present for each of these
commodities examples which are either below or above the ranges indicated.

7. TERMINALORGANIZATION

Terminal organization varies over different countries and ports.

In quite a number of ports, particularly in developing countries, a large share or all of the
terminal operations is still in the hands of the port management which consists of civil servants
in the service of local or national governments. Sometimes the pure stevedoring -Ioading and
unloading cargo in or from the ship's holds- is privatized, sometimes even not that. The
terminal managers and labour force are then also civil servents. remuneratedaccording to
government wage scales and without any real incentive with regard to efficiency and
productivity.

In most of Europeand.North America, terminal operations have traditionally been in private

hands, but in rather dispersed ways. After the second world war, the large single terminal
operating company has emerged which controls all cargo handling, storage and possible
processing operations from ship's hold till the terminal gate.

In The Netherlands and most of continental Europe,with their so-called 'landlord ports'. these
terminal operators rent the waterfront (quay) and the required land area from the port authority
(which is a municipal or governmental institution) on a long-term lease. The operating company
itself is responsible (financially, technically and maintenance-wise)for paving, for erecting all
buildings and for equipment procurement and, of course, for terminal organization and

pt/1991/0S page S
operation. This works quite satisfactorily and efficiently and may be considered the best form
of orqanization for terminal eperation.

The above applies to the multi-user terminals. Some dry bulk terminals, many liquid bulk
terminals and some ro-ro and container terminals are single-user terminals. It is then often th at
single user who also operates the terminal, although there are exceptions, e.g. sections of the
ECT terminals in the port of Rotterdam are reserved for Sealand as single user, but still operated
by ECT.

pt/1991/08 page 9
 chapter 6.

CONVENTIONAl GENERAL CARGO TERMINALS

1991/11
 CONVENTIONAL GENERAL CARGO TERMINALS

CONTENTS

page

1. Introduction 3

2. The general-cargo terminal 3

3. The layout of the terminal 4

4. Determination of required storage area 8

5. Determination of berth capacity 9

6. Capacity optimization 10

gencargojnovember 1991 page 2

1. INTRODUCTION

The conventional general cargo terminal is the oldest type of port terminal. Due to specialization in
port operations, the demand for general cargo terminals is, generally, decreasing, but certainly will
not disappear. The requirements with which a general cargo terminal has to comply, have changed
over the years.

As a consequence of unitization and mechanization during the past decades, the shipjquay handling
capacity increased by some 100%. However, the throughput capacity per m2 of the terminal as such
has hardly changed, because no spectacular difterences occurred in the transit time, density and
stacking height of the goods. As aresuit, much more harbour area is required for the same quay
length. In addition, the terminals have to handle containers which arrive as deckload of conventional
general-cargo or multi-purpose vessels and, incidentally, other heavy andjor voluminous cargo.

Containers and other big objects cause obstructions and delays in the normal quay traftic during the
loading, unloading and transport, certainly where it concerns old terminals with narrow aprons of 12
to 15m. Therefore, new terminals are made with wide aprons of 25 to 50m (distance between
frontside quay wall and frontside of shed).

Transport of goods to and from the terminal is dealt with for a major part by heavy road transport
nowadays, which requires spacious parking areas in the terminal and sufticient traftic lanes and
manoeuvring space around the sheds and storage-areas. This adds again to the growing need for
harbour area. Many existing general-cargo terminals are restricted in their capacity due to limited
area available. It is, therefore, important to design new terminals, right from the beginning, with
ample 'breathing space'.

2. THE GENERAL-CARGO TERMINAL

(a) THE CARGO

* Break bulk represents a diminishing percentage.
* Much cargo is palletized, pre-slung or otherwise unitized.
* The percentagè of containers varies.
* Occasionally, there are non-standard heavy loads.
(b) EQUIPMENT
* Tractor +trailers
* Forklifts
* Light mobile cranes (specifically tor open storage)
* 1 heavy multi-purpose crane (per 1 or 2 berths for dealing with containers and heavy loads)
* 1 or more heavy forklifts (again for containers and heavy loads)

Approximate numbers required for a single berth assuming loadingjunloading of 3 holds at the same
time, with 1 gang per hold. Consequently, 3 gangs working simultaneously.

For a complete forklift operation (economical for distances between quay and storage area of up to
75 to 100m), 3 forklifts per hold, thus 9 in total.

For langer travelling distances, a mixed operation forkliftjtractor+trailer is used. Required per hold:
* 1 forklift for the loading of trailers
* 1 forklift for the oft-Ioading of same
* 2 tractors plus 8 trailers

Which gives in total for three holds:

* 6 forklifts
* 6 tractors
* 24 trailers

Moreover, the open storage and the shed require 1 or 2 mobile eranes plus 2 forklifts.

gencargo/november 1991 page 3

The numbers are indicative and netto For all self-propelled equipment one should count with a
percentage of spares of 20 to 25% for maintenance and repair.

(c) VESSELS
Conventional general-cargo vessels 5,000 - 13,000dwt
* 12,000 - 25,000dwt
* Multi-purpose vessels
(L = 150 to lOOm)

Occasionally:
* full container ships
* coasters (short-sea trade)

For some terminals:

* IWT barges and vessels

(d) LOADING & UNLOADING CAPACITIES

Indicative figures for the deep-sea trade based on 3 to 4 gangs per ship.
tonjshiftjship'

conventional general-cargo (break bulk) 200 - 300

* 300 - 600
* timber and timber products (bundies)
steel products (bundies) 500 - 1,000
* 300 - 500
* palletized and pre-slung cargo
containers 800 - 1,300
*

3. THE LAYOUT OF THE TERMINAL

A cargo flow scheme is given in figure 1. A schematic cross-section is shown in figure 2. The high
and low values of the dimensions indicated are, of course, approximate. They have their origin in the
practical experience with regard to the need for driving and manoeuvring space for road vehicles and
cargo handling equipment.
The required dimensions of sheds and other storage facilities have to be further determined, as will
be discussed in section 4.

(a) RAILWAY CONNECTION

In modern terminals, no railway tracks are installed any more on the quay apron. In earlier times,
much direct delivery transhipment took place from ship to railway wagon. This, however, was a
rather slow process due to delays caused by the shifting of wagons. It also hampered the working of
other holds and the cross-transport on the quay in generaL

At present, there is a greatly diminished amount of cargo in general-cargo vessels, that is suitable tor
direct delivery (packed bulk cargo). Since, moreover, the installation of a railway track on a quay wall
is rather expensive, there is a general tendency to shift the railway connection away trom the quay,
preferably to the rearside of the terminal, or alternatively between shed and open storage.

(b) ROAD CONNECTION

As already observed at many terminals, the transport to and from the terminal is largely effectuated
by road transport. In old 'city ports', this may constitute a problem as the road vehicles have to

Tons are given as weight tons of a 1,QOOkg.Many port statistics are, however, still recorded in 'shipping' or 'revenue
tons'. These shipping tons are the basis upon which the ship owner calculates his freight charges.
* lor a load with a relative density < 1: 1 shipping (or revenue) ton = 1m3
* for a load with a relative density > 1: 1 shipping ton = 1 weight ton = 1,000kg
Generally, the average weight of a revenue ton is approximately 0.5 to 0.6 weight ton.

gencargo/november 1991 page 4

 cross extensive urban areas. Problems mayalso arise in expanding ports in developing countries
with a poor raad infrastructure. No terminal, no port can have a greater import/export capacity than
the combined capacity of its trough-transport arteries. Therefore, a port study can normally not be
restricted to the port (or terminal) boundaries.

At the terminal itself, the smooth and safe circulation of raad vehicles and the provision of ample
parking space for waiting vehicles requires due attention.

I
I
I
SHIP
I
1
I
I "
•I
I I I
1 1 QUAY ~--,
1
..
•
)
• • 1

1
• •
,-- - - - - - - - - - - - --I I
DIRECT 1 TRANSIT OPEN
DELIVERY 1 SHED STORAGE
... _ ... _--- ...... _----- I
" • 1
"
I WAREHOUSE

I I
1
I
1 I
-I • • • 1

I
1
1
1
L____=:_j
CON S IGNEES 11

IL----------1 SHIPPERS I
Figure 1 - CARGO FLOW SCHEDULE

(c) IWT PROVISIONS

Ports and terminals located near a navigable river or canal system wil! need special provisions to
accommodate the IWT craft. At first sight, it would appear economical to provide special shallow-
depth quay walls for IWT purposes, as these are much cheaper per unit of length than those required
for the deep-sea trade. However, in practice only few terminals have special IWT berthage as often
the IWT vessels can be served at (temporary) unoccupied sections of the deep-water quay or, in case
of direct delivery, when moored to the deep-sea vessel on the basin side.

But as often many IWT craft will be waiting, either because the cargo is not yet there or cannot yet be
received, or because all quay space is occupied by deep-sea vessels which have priority berthing
rights, special waiting accommodation will generally have to be provided. This can normally consist
of simple mooring piles with a catwalk connection to the shore. Also the location of storage spaces
on the terminal will have to be selected with the easy transfer of cargo to and from IWT craft in mind.

gencargojnovember 1991 page 5

 Ol ,. C,
b 1:, ~,

low high
[In] [In]

a apron width 25 50
transit shed (see section 4) 50 70
b
loading area 30 35
c, 10
c2 road 7
d open storage (see section 4) 0 70
as for c,/c2; road may be omitted 30 45
e2/e,
f warehouse (see section 4) 40 70
as for c,lc2 37 45
9,1g2
h/2 service area, parking, buildings, workshops,
possibly railway
0 25

=220 420

-R
~----------~-- ~

I
~ - Uo -Jl- -
approx 5m roof cant ilever

'I'
min. 30
possible platform
depends upon degree
of mechanization

_1-1.2m

~I =6m I"

Figure2 - CROSS-SECTION TERMINAL

gencargojnovember 1991 page 6

 (d) QUAY CRANES
Travelling quay cranes were used specifically in connection with direct delivery of cargo from ship to
railway wagon in order to prevent too much shifting of the wagons. This consideration does no
longer apply, as the direct delivery has virtually disappeared. Moreover, the lifting capacity and
operating speed of ship's gear has very much increased over the years.

Therefore, in general, quay eranes are no longer used in modern general-cargo terminals, except for
heavy multi-purpose cranes.

(e) BERTH LENGTH

Traditionally, this length was related to the length of the largest vessel frequently calling at the port,
increased with 10 to 15m extra length for and aft. This method is correct for a single berth, but not
for multiple berths in a straight continuous quay front.

UNCTAD investigated, for a number of actually observed ship length frequency distributions and for
the relation average berth lengthjaverage ship length as a variabie, the probability of additional
waiting times as a result of insufficient available quay length [UNCTAD, 'Port Development', 1984]. From
this, the following graph has resulted:

1.20

s Ë 1.10
0;
:!t:
cO
.20-
ö"Ci
eÖ 1.00
_________
1__
o~
0_

0.9

0.9B
average berthlength
average ship length + extra

Figure 3

This graph shows that with an average berth lenqth.equal to 110% of the average ship length, no
additional waiting times occur.

With a large number of berths in a row, the average length theoretically could be reduced even more.
In practice, this is not the case because only a very limited shifting of ships along the quay front is
acceptable.

gencargojnovember 1991 page 7

4. DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED STORAGE AREA

The area required for the separate storage facilities (transit shed, open storage, warehouse) has to be
determined from the annual tonnage and the average transit time (or dweil time) of the goeds as
main parameters. For instance for a transit shed, the required f100rarea 0ts can be calculated as
follows:

in which:
Tt. fraction of total annual tonnage T which passes the transit shed (see section 5)
tav average dweil time of the cargo in days
p average relative density of the cargo as stowed in the ship (e.g. 0.6)
h average stacking height in the storage (e.g. 2m)
f1 proportion gross/nett surface in connection with traftic lanes for forklifts, etcetera (e.g. 1.5)
f2 bulking factor due to stripping and separately stacking of special consignments, damaged
goeds, etcetera
mts average rate of occupation of the transit shed storage

Example:
for Tts 120,OOO/year
f1 1.5
f2 1.2
tav 10 days
mts 0.7
h 2m
r 0.6t/m3

the required surface Otswill be 7200m2, e.g. a shed of 6O*125m.

'rn,' has to be determined in such a way, that most of the f1uctuationsin tavand in the cargo flows
per unit of time can be absorbed.

The factor 'mt;, consequently, clearly depends upon the number of berths (the same is valid for Tts)·
The optimum value depends also strongly on the possibility of occasionally storing excess cargo
outside the terminal and the extra costs thereof.

If statistical material is available, an optimization can be made by means of the probability

distributions of the relevant parameters. This is, however, mostly not the case. For that reason, 'rn,'
is usually arbitrary chosen in the 0.65 to 0.75 range.

In case clear seasonal f1uctuationsoccur in the cargo flows, the required storage area has to be
calculated on basis of the peak season figures instead of annual throughput.

For determining area requirements for open storage and warehouses, an identical procedure can be
followed, though the value of the parameters may difter.

gencargojnovember 1991 page 8

 5. DETERMINATION OF BERTH CAPACITY

The annual berth capacity T, based on ship-shore and shore-ship transfer, is:

In which:
p average production per gangjhour
n average number of gangs per vessel (berth)
t"l1 effective number of working hours per year
(with a 2-shift system, 6 daysjweek, 50 weekjyear and 1 hour loss of time per shift, it equals
{16-2} * 50 * 6 = 4200 hoursjyear)
mb average berth occupancy

Example:
for p 3Otjhour
n 2.5
4200 hours
0.60

the annual berth capacity becomes T = 189,000t

The above berth capacity calculation refers to the transhipment capacity ship-shore and vice-versa. It
will equal the actual terminal capacity provided that the storage capacity and through-transport
capacity match this transhipment capacity. At many older terminals, this condition is not fulfilled.

The value of 'mb' needs to be determined from case to case. If ship arrivals would be perfectly
regular, if all ships would carry the same amount of cargo and, moreover, if the values of 'p' and 'n'
would be constant, mb could equal 1. But it will be evident that in practice there is a considerable
f1uctuation in all of these parameters.

Thus, for each individual case an optimum value of mbwill have to be determined on the basis of,
inter alla, the locally applicable distribution of ship arrivals (e.g. random) and of ship service times
(e.g. Erlang-2). In an existing port these distributions can generally be obtained from available
statistics, in new ports one can only draw on the experience elsewhere.

Different optimization criteria are possible, e.g.: .

* Ensuring a certain service level (ship waiting time should not exceed x hours for more than y%
of the ships served).
* Average ship waiting time should not exceed more than z% of average ship service time (an
often used but disputable criteria, because it rewards poorly functioning terminals).
* The minimization of the sum total of idle berth costs and ship waiting costs.
* The minimization of total port costs per ton of cargo, in which 'total port costs' is the sum total
of é;l1I
terminal costs (fixed and variabie, berths idle and operational) and all ship costs (fixed
and variabie, waiting and loadingjunloading).

The latter criterion is the most logic one, but also the most difficult.

gencargo/november 1991 page 9

6. CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION

Capacity optimization on basis of minimum total transport is schematically represented in figure 4.

The question is, how to determine the minimum P2 of the total transport costs per ton in the port.

6.1 Analytical approach

Based on a given number of berths, varying arrival and service time distributions and varying values
of the volume of cargo handled, a calculation can be made of the corresponding service times and
waiting times. Together with the different cost elements of berths and ships, this will result in the
corresponding total costs and costs per ton. By iteration, a minimum can be determined and, hence,
the optimum occupancy rate of the berths and the optimum berth capacity (see figure 5).

It is noted that when all boundary conditions, parameters and the optimization criteria remain equal,
mbwill increase with an increasing number of berths, provided that the berths are 'interchangeable'
(because of the decreasing probability that all berths will be confronted with peak traffic at the same
time). For general cargo terminals, the optimum value of mb mostly varies between 0.45 and 0.75.

By repeating the above for varying numbers of berths, the sTop! can be plotted against s.
Reciprocally, this method can be used to find the optimum number of berths for the annual tonnage
actually expected to be handled (see figure 6).

In this way, the traffic forecast for a port can be translated into a phased extension planning of the
port infrastructure. In applying the queuing theory in relation with general cargo terminals, generally,
use is made (on the ground of observations in practice) of the Poisson distribution for ship arrivals
(corresponding with an Erlang-1 distribution for the inter-arrival times) and an Erlang-2 distribution for
the service times (see also figure 7).

If in existing ports sufficient statistical material is available, it is, of course, recommendable to verify
the abovementioned assumptions.

For further mathematical elaboration, reference is made to the relevant lecture notes and to, e.g., E..
Page, 'Queuing Theory in Operations Research'. The assumed distribution of arrivals and service
times has, in itself, a rather large influence on the calculated waiting times. UNCTAD's 'Port
Development' iIIustrates this with the graph of figure 8.

6.2 Logistic simulation

The development and use of logistic simulation models make sense if factors have to be taken into
account, which, due to their number or nature, make an analytical treatment of the problem difficult of
impossible. (E.g. disturbing influences on arrival patterns as tidal windows, or working with a variabie
instead of a discrete number of berths.)

For the planning of general cargo terminals, there are, generally, so many uncertalnties (traffic
forecasts, productivity and availability of labourers. etc.) that a very advanced optimization is of little
use. See in this context also G. Tarr and G. Crook [UNCTAD] 'Numerical Aids to the Planning of
Berth Capacity', Dock & Harbour Authority, february 1979.

For specialized terminals, for problems like complex port entry rules and for integrated transport
chains, etc., simulation models are, however, a useful and sometimes even indispensable tooI. For
further details, reference is made again to the relevant lecture notes.

gencargojnovember 1991 page 10

 TOTAl SHIP COSTS
total ship costs

c:
... o
.....
waiting costs
...
UI

UI
o
u.

i TOTAl BERTH COSTS

...co
.....
...
UI

en total berth costs

o
U
variatile costs 2)

fixed costs

TOTAl TRANSPORT COSTS

totaL transport costs

total ship costs

totaL berth costs

1)
The ship costs per ton during the service period diminish onLy if the production per day is raised with
increasing ~, e.g. by using more gangs and/or shifts.
2)
The variable berth costs go up by increasing ~ due to saturation symptoms and declining productivity
of people and plant.
3)
The minimum of the total transport costs P2 corresponds with a lower ~ value than the cost minimum P,
for the port costs only.

Fixed costs capital cost of quay, cranes, sheds (independent of tonnage of throughput)
Variable costs: wages, maintenance, fuel

Figure 4

gencargo/november 1991 page 11

 * number of berths s corresponding
* arrival and service time distributions waiting times,
average load/ship
varying number of ships service times, cost elements
varying total goods cargo volume occupancy rates ships and
berths

..
corresponding total transport
costs in the port

I
..
corresponding costs/ton
I
determine minimum by iteration
I
I

..
optimum occupancy rate "b for given s
..I
optimum annual tonnage sTopt for given s

Figure5

ao
I-

'"
GI
'"
ca

..
~
o

ca
::J
c -----------
c
ca 1/
/1
..
a.
o
/ I
I
1
I
1

number of berths s

Figure6

gencargojnovember 1991 page 12

 POlSSON
an
n!

in which:
p(n) probability of narrivals per time unit (e.g. per day)
a average number of arrivals per time unit
ERLANG
(k~) k
(k-l)

f:
and:

po( t) - P(t)

for k 1: PO(t) = e-~t

k 2: PO(t) e-2~t (1 + 2~t)
in which:
~ 1/tg
tg average service time
k Erlang value
Pt probability density of service time t
PO(t) probabilityof service time >t

\
\
, \
... .,
.......
\
\
:
'0 \
;
:
..,
Q.
\{
,\
1\ --------------- K 1
I \ \ ,,
71 \1 K 2
\
i\
1 'I.
- -- -- K 0)

, 'I.
·6 l- 'I.

",
\
''I.
,,
s f \1

"! " ,
"

Cl>
u
> til
'-
Cl>
UJ C
>
Cl>
:J
I
.)

Cl>
Cl> >
.J::. '_ ·2
... en
- o <11
<11
... a.
til -t
'- '-
til :J
0.<11

service time (days) t

Figure 7 - EXAMPLE: Erlang divisions for ~ = 1j5

gencargojnovember 1991 page 13

 "Or-------------------------------------------------------------~._~----~l,D

0,9
M/M/4

....
Cl CU
C U
M/EZ"

0,5 I----------"-"'-"--"-"-".-"'-'- E./E2/4 ----------------I--+---i----- 0.1

.. >
<-
<0 CU
Jt '"
Cl> Cl>
Cl Cl
<0 <0
<- <-
Cl> CU
> >
<0 <0

0,1 O,Z 0,3 0,5 o,a 0,7 0,' 1,0

eccupancy rate ~

M/E2/4 means:
arrival time distributien: M Markevian (random) = Peissen distrubitien
service time distributien: E2 Erlang 2
4 number ef service points (berths)

Figure8

gencargojnovember 1991 page 14

 chapter 7.

CONTAINER TERMINALS

1991/09
 CONTAINER TERMINALS

CONTENTS

3
1. Development of container traffic
5
2. Container ships and containers
6
3. The container terminal - systems approach
7
4. Container handling and transport
9
5. The quays and cranes
11
6. Storage and handling systems

Terminal layout and dimensions 14

7.
19
References
21
Annexure I
22
Annexure II
 CONTAINER TERMINALS

1. DEVELOPMENT OF CONTAINER TRAFFIC

It was in the early 1950's th at Maclean Trucking (later 'Sea-Land') and Matson Navigation
Company started with the first containerized transports along the east and west coasts of the
USA as a purely domestic operation. The early period was characterized by teething troubles
with operational systems, stacking and loading equipment, as weil as with information
exchange and management in this new, capital intensive branch of port activity.

-
Since there was a simultaneous development by transport companies (sea, railway and road) on
the one hand, and by terminal operators and equipment suppliers on the other hand, different
approacheswith respect to the set-up of container terminals gained support.

Soon, the containerized transport started spreading from the domestic US transport scene to
the international maritime transport market, first in some Atlantic trades, with the Pacific
following suit. Some countries or regions have long resisted the arrival of containers in their
ports -South Africa, South America and, particularly, Brazil- but ultimately had to give in. In 30
to 40 years' time, world container trade has increaseddramatically as weil as the size of ships
and terminals (seefigure 1). By now, container transport has spread to all corners of the world
and still shows an impressive growth rate.

At present, some distinct trends can be discerned, which does not mean that the container
world has stabilized.

Shipowners and ships

.. The main general cargo trades are for the majority containerized (sometimes more than
90%), using mostly 3rd generation container vessels with a capacity of approximately 3,000
TEU1, by preference with diesel engine propulsion and speedsof around 22 knots per hour.
.. Many trades are unbalanced, requiring the return of an economically unattractive
percentage of empty containers.
.. Many shipping companies have mergedto form new consortia or are at least operating in
conferences. A 3rd generation container ship has an annual ton/mile capacitv which is 5 or
6 times as high as that of a 15,000dwt multi-purpose ship. This made the formation of
bigger combines necessary in order to maintain an acceptable short interval between
sailings from the different ports. There is a tendency among these big ship operators to
extend their services bevond the carriage of containers by sea and to offer door-to-door
transport through the procurement of road, rail and IWT companies.
.. The size of containers has been standardizedaccording to ISO regulations to mostly 8ft
wide, 8 or 8.6ft high and 20 or 40ft long boxes.
.. However, in the past few years, 4th generation and 'post-panamax' container vessels have
been introduced as weil as containers with deviating larger width, height and length as wil!
be discussed later on. This creates quite significant problems for many parties in many
places.

Throughtransport

.. Road transport is still the dominating form of throughtransport due to its traditional strong
points of flexibility and speed. However, transport by rail -particularly in the USA- and by
inland navigation are gradually increasing. This can be contributed to rising energy and
labour costs which affect the road transport unfavourably.
.. Particularly in Europe, the existing road network cannot absorb the continuous and rapid
growth of container traffic.

'Twenty-feet Equivalent Units

ct/1991/09 page 3
 gi. '68- ,
~..

--I
"""-"-ï
<-~
~
~
--[JV I
~
II~-
D~;?;l-~
IS.~~~

67 lans
5 lans 40 lans 50 lans
SOmoutreach

DT:lQü-------
24m outreach 35m outreach 40m outreach

C-------lllW----- -:

E
r-- - --
;I
I
•
-----"""1
slorage area 11
I
I
~ :I transit shed.~I: ~~.-.-.-.-.-.-.
b
g!DDo!li
lOOD
\l)

6:DDD
,lOl

:"'!
BB ilblolOOD~
~--.'--.-'~
I

: J--
f
I •

:J
ca:- JL I ::> I Cl;;:)" II i II dj$ :j III j I1 11111111 Q) 0111111111 i Il]]JTl D)
ftexible berth length
berth 175m benh250m

e.- ca""
oerth 300m
••_g...····d --I7L-- d:1f:tbt4i1~lh.., ....._ __,_
-J-
A -'; ,. -:-"J-. ~---s-
• r-
1.000 TEU 2.700 TEU 4,480 TEU
1955 1965 1975 1985

Figure 1 - Evolution in ships and terminals

* IWT and, to alesser extent, rail are offering more frequent and better services (but, of
course, retain the disadvantageth at, in general, tertiary transport by road to final
destination is necessary).
* Particularly in the USA, where the railway system is not electrified and permits the carriage
of wider and higher loads, block trains have emergedth at carry containers two-high at very
competitive prices. They operate partly between container ports and main industrial
centres, partlyon a east/west coast 'land bridge' service.

Terminals

* These, generally, provide a reasonableservice to all connecting transport modes, thereby

using a variety of equipment types and storage systems. Big differences occur in the
utilization of the available areasand in occupancy rates of quays and equipment.
* Use is made of middle-size computers to control the information stream. Recently, a start
was made with the application of small computers for data communications systems and
processing.
• The bulk of the capital outlay in terminals -some 75% of the total- is absorbed by the civil
engineering works, such as drainage,foundations, quay walls, pavement of storage areas
and roads, buildings, etc.
* Specialized container terminals are seldom economically justified for annual throughputs of
less than 50,000 TEU.
* Terminals are increasingly confronted with the consequencesof the introduction of oversize
containers and post-panamaxships which make much of the existing container handling
equipment obsolete.

page 4
ct/1991/09
The expected continuing growth of the container traffic between the large industrialized areas
and the developing countries (Caribbean, South America, Indonesia, India, Pakistan, Africa, etc.)
asks for an increased storage and handling capacity in the future. In these developing
countries, the desired capacity increase can be realized, either by the construction of new,
specificaJly prepared container terminals, or by optimization of existing multi-purpose facilities.
In both cases it wiJl be necessary to carefuJly select the system to be used in order to obtain
the best possible utilization of considerable investments in infrastructural and mechanical
facilities.

In many ports of the world, this utilization is not very efficient, also due to inconsistencies in
the design of the terminals. EspeciaJly, the set-up of new container terminals in areas where
there is only limited experience with the container trade, should be based on simplicity,
reliability and low maintenance.

2. CONTAINER SHIPS AND CONTAINERS

Container ships are usuaJlyclassified according to 'generation':

Container vessel TEU capacity OWT (ave) L 0 B

1'" generation 750 - 1100 14,000 180 - 200 9 27.0
12nd generat ion 1500 - 1800 130,000 1225 - 240 11.5 130.0 1
13'd generation 12400 - 3000 145,000 1275 - 300112.5
14'" generation 14000 - 4500 57,000 290 - 310 11.5 -
Panamax-plus 4300 - 4600 154,000 1270 - 300111
Conbulk mostly Panamax-size bulk carriers

Ouite a significant number of Panamax-plusvessels wilt be launched in the near future. It is,
moreover, not unreasonableto expect that around the year 2000, container vessels with a TEU
capacity of 6000 or over wilt enter into service. Due to the limitation in stacking strength (9
high according to ISO standard), there are reasonsto assumethat the ultimate limit wilt be a
vessel with a TEU capacity of about 6800, with L = 345, 8 = 45, D = 13.4 and having a
deadweight capacity of 78,OOOt[ref 5].

Containers are made in varying sizes. The most important are:

Type External dimensions (feet) Maxirrun payload Actual average payload

L B H (tons) in Rotterdam (tons)
ISO lA 40 8 8 or 8'6" abt 27 16
lB 30 8 8 or 8'6"
lC 20 8 8 or 8'6" abt 22 14
10 10 8 8 or 8'6"
non-ISO 20 8'6" 9'6"
40 8'6" 9'6"
45 8'6" 9'6" abt 33
48 8'6" 9'6"
53 8'6'· 9'6"
Bell 20 8'2'1z" 8'6"
40 8'2'1z" 8'6"

* Apart from the above, there are tank containers, flats, platforms, etc., with generaJly
different heights.
* Total numbers of containers are usuaJlyexpressedin TEU.

ct/1991/09 page 5
* 'High cube' containers are containers with a height of 8'6" or over.
'Oversize' containers are containers with a length exceeding 40ft.
* In the meantime, ISO has also accepted the 9'6" height and is considering to standardize
lengths in excess of 40ft.
* The 8'6" width has the great advantage that it can accommodate broadwise 2 standard
european (and US) stevedoring pallets, whereas the 8' wide containers cannot.
The 8' 2 %" has been developed by Bell Lines of Ireland becauseit can also take the 2
pallets and still complies with europeanroad regulations with regard to maximum width.
* The great majority of containers worldwide have a height of 8'6".
* The oversize containers originate from the US internal market (85 to 90% of US trade is
internal trade and only 10 to 15% international trade). Road regulations in the US allow
larger trailers than in Europe. The 40ft (or 2x20ft) is, therefore, uneconomic for US
conditions. Unavoidably, these oversize containers are also appearing on the world
container scene.

The world' s most important container ports are listed below, together with the throughputs of
1986 and 1989 in TEU.

Throughput in mill ion TEU

1986 1989

Hongkong 2.77 4.46

Singapore 2.21 4.36
Rotterdam 2.87 3.45
Kaohsiung (Taiwan) 2.48 3.28
Kobe (Japan) 1.88 2.46
Busan (Korea) 1.53 2.37
New Vork 2.34 2.15
Los Angeles 1.32 2.06
Keelung (Taiwan) 1.76 1.77
Harrburg 1.62. 1.73

Souree: Ocean Shipping Consultants

Of the top ten, only the throughput of New Vork has decreased. The biggest growth by far can
be found in the East Asian ports.

In 1990, the throughput of Singaporehas increasedto 5.22 million TEU, which made it oust
Hongkong from the first place.

3. THE CONTAINER TERMINAL - SYSTEMS APPROACH

The provision of services to shipping lines and inland transport firms is the main product of a
container terminal and, in each situation, one has to weigh the requirements of the connecting
transport modes in order to determine the type and scope of the local service product that will
have to be supplied.

A package of services required by a mainline ship operator could include, e.g., the following
elements:
* To complete with a 99% reliability, aliloading and unloading operations of individual ships
within 24 hours, calculated from the moment of mooring until departure time.
* To have such an organization of storage and loading systems, that simultaneous treatment
of sea vessels and throughtransport means can be achieved without harmful effects on
speed and reliability.
* The availability of facilities for treatment of all types of containers, thus also for 'off-
standard containers' (for dangerouscargoes, too high, too wide loads, reefers, etc.).

ct/1951/09 page 6
 • The safe treatment of containers in relation to the ships and terminals' personnel as weil as
to the containers and their contents (damages).
• The availability of a 100% reliable monitoring system for the physical storage and loading
of containers as weil as for the information flows.
• The ready availability of ' on-line' information for internal and external use (agents, shippers
and customs).
• A great deal of flexibility and the possibility to improvise in case of exceptional traffic
demands.

The stochastic arrival pattern of transport means, each with a variabie number of containers,
requires terminal systems with a highly variabie handling and storage capacity. It wiJl be clear
that terminal capacity and responseto varying conditlens can only be studied by considerinq
the terminal system in its entirety embracing the infrastructure, the available or planned cargo
handling facilities and the information and communication system.

If one should wish to minimize the costs over the whole transport chain, it will be necessary
that users and operators of container terminal facilities agree on the required service level, that
may weil be less than the one described above.

In order to decreasethe terminal costs per TEU, the container'terminal operator wiJltry to attain
a high occupancy ratio of the quavs, the storage areas and the loading systems, and will
preferably maintain a permanent and fixed labour pool.

Only a few shipowners have recognizedthe favourable cost consequencesof a situation by

which an incidental waiting period of ships of some hours can result in a, say, 40% quav
occupancy and a 60% crane occupancy.

4. CONTAINER HANDLING AND TRANSPORT

In figure 2, a simplified schedule is given for the flow of import containers through the terminal.
In areverse sense, it is equallv applicable to export cargo.

Container loading or unloading into or from a ship is done by heavy container gantry cranes,
often called 'portainers'. Except for a number of srnall feeder container vessels, container ships
do not carry their own gear. The portainer places the containers either temporarilyon the quav
platform between the crane rails or directlyon trailers, depending on the transport system to
and from the stacks.

The most common transport systems from quav to stack are tractor/trailer and straddle carrier,
the latter only being economie for short distances. ECTin Rotterdam has developed the muIti-
trailer system in which a single tractor pulls up to six terminal chassis which have a special
steering mechanismthat makes them follow the same track, thus avoiding the need for wide
curves.

Container handling in the stack -placing, reshuffling and lifting out- may be done by RTG2,
RMG3, straddle carrier, FLT4, telescopic stacker (which is a FLT with an extendable arm) or
side-Ioader(a side-IoadingFLT). The RTG's and RMG's are often calied 'transtainers'. The FLT
types are not very common for loaded containers, for reasonsthat will be discussed later on.

2Rubber-Tyred Gantry
3Rail-MountedGantry
4ForkLift Truck

ct/1991/09 page 7
A certain degree of intermediate reshuffling of the stack is unavoidable (unless a stack is only
one-high), because the sequence of removal of containers from the stack is unknown
beforehand, particularly for import containers.
Loading onto road trucks may be done directly from the stack by the stack handling equipment.
However, some terminals do not wish road vehicles on the terminal premises for safety and
security reasons. In that case, another transport phase by tractor/trailer and/or straddle carrier
has to be introduced.

r.l1 inlar'O ..eter

s..

-intonnation end docunentation

-1-....
flow

~11-I I~-Io-·T--~
tir f---J
t t Î
WI I f--J
H
~.I I cargo flow

--"'l~ "-1'--
flow
CII"O L....j handl iog transport transport handlmg anto ~
l. 1 ad iustments I I =. I
I sMp/quay to staek rcadl
I ....
throughtransport
I
---1 ..---~.----_
..
,
i.-m
I 'ro,l/11lT ns I
'.'0' ~~

TL II corgo flow
-=- __t~~t~CF~__ 1 __ ==1 lnStutf;nq = T=~~t~=
I (separate
.... ll
eens igrments)

capecity handl iog throughtput staek size throughput handt ing equi~t
detennlned by: equipnent system and system $yst~ anl eFS size

Figyre Z - Flow schedule import cargo

The same separate transport is required if the containers are to be loaded on IWT craft or
railway wagons. Actual loading on IWT vessels has to be done by portainer (which can be
much smaller and cheaper than the ones used for seagoing container vessels). Loading of
railway wagons is usually effectuated by RMG.

Approximate purchase price ranges for terminal equipment are: US$

... portainer (for serving sea going vessels) 3.5 - 7 million
... straddle carrier 0.5 - 1 million
... FLT 8-15 tons lifting capacity 0.2 - 0.4 million
... FLT 20-40 tons lifting capacity 0.3 - 0.6 million
... telescopic stacker 45-55 tons 0.4 - 0.6 million
... side-Ioader 0.6 - 0.8 million
... RMG 1.5 - 2.5 million
... RTG 0.8 - 1.6 million
... terminal chassis 10,000 - 20,000
... terminal tractor 50,000 - 100,000
... container, steel zon. 2,500 - 3,000

The different types of equipment are discussed in more detail in section 6.

page 8
ct/1991/09
The above summary description of container handling and stacking systems is by no means
exhaustive. E.g., certain terminals still operate partly or entirely with the chassis system in
which all containers remain stored on the terminal on a terminal chassis. Other terminals
transfer containers directly from portainer to RMG and stack in a semi-automated process (see
figure 3). But, the discussion here will be restricted to the most common systems.

~l
: I
; i
ii
,:P.,'
/1.,
/1 "
/' Ij I

\!J:' /)
)~
nfl_ ~i .
--
;tI'"'~

~
I
:
11
I ~.....
~, I
EEe I - v

m
~

i,
I JS
I
~n
......
I I J_.,_"""s_] I' , I
-, iIiiiiIl· cmE:l E:L I ,
,.,..,
;--......
I
_""",.,.- m
I 11&:-6..__ - !'iu SPUIA r:l:: . I
~
I
I , ,
I I
j
~l WOJ dJ dJ I
,
l I I.
I ,
....,
I"=.
I--
~ -

Figure 3 - Double trolley cranes in service at La Spezia. Italy, with direct transfer to stacking crane

(Souree: La Spezia Container Terminal)

5. THE aUAYS AND CRANES

Although the costs of a terminal's services are determined by a large number of factors (type of
storage and loading systems, wages, labour productivity, occupancy rates, etc.), three cost
elements play a very important role:
* the quay
* the portainer eranes
* the storage area

The above elernents together represent approx, 75% of the total investment for a container
terminal.

Originally, quay length and number of cranes were determined by using averaged values for ship
arrivals and number of containers to be handled in conjunction with peaking factors to account
for coinciding ship arrivals and other irregularities. The next step was the application of the
queuing theory, which method, however, has severe limitations. At present, logistic computer
simulation models are mostly used.

ct/1991/09 page 9
The present-dav complete container terminal simulation package contains. among others, the
following input variables:

+ The ship arrival pattern, realized by a number of ship generators which arrange ship arrivals
according to a random or other distribution. Interaction between different generators is
possible.
+ The 'attributes' of the ships, Le. length, quantitv of containers, unbalance in
loading/discharging, 20'/40' length containers.
+ The quay length, with a special berth allocation algorithm included in the programme.
+ The quay occupancy before and after the factual operational handling procedures.
+ The desired number of cranes to service a ship and a crane allocation algorithm, if the
demand is bigger than the available number of cranes.
+ Crane productions, either as an average with a noise function or stochastic within
boundaries.
+ Dweil time distribution of containers in their respective stacks.
• Simulation length (often more than 1,000 ship arrivals).

The programme provides, among others, the following information:

• distribution of the waiting time of ships
• distribution of the norm time exceedings
• the required number of slots with probabilistic occupancy distribution
• quay and crane occupancy rates
• the consequencesof increasing or decreasingthe number of cranes

This type of simulation gives a good insight into the sensitivity of the choice of the various
parameters. It also clarifies and quantifies the risk of certain choices.

Observation in practice, supported by simulation studies, has led to a number of general

conclusions:
• The level of investments in quavs, storage areas and cranes is sensitive to the definition of
the desired service level (permissiblewaiting time of ships). High service requirements
unavoidably result in low occupancy of quays and cranes.
• The total port time of vessels should be mainly determined by the required service time.
• The total terminal quay length does not have to be a multitude of a single berth length.
• Especiallysmall terminals can increasetheir efficiency (with equal service level) by making
arrival arrangements with shipowners.
+ Reduction of the dweil time saves stacking area and, hence, internal transport.
+ The land transport can improve its own performance by arranging for an arrival pattern
which is evenly distributed over the day.

The actual annual crane production and berth handling capacity varies very much from one
terminal to another. An estimate of a mean value can be made as follows:
+ Assume no capacity constraints due to lack of storage space or transport and stacking
equipment.
+ Gross production per container crane: 20 boxes/hour.
• Loss of time due to opening and closing of holds: 10% .
+ Average number of cranes per ship: 2.
• Net operation period: 0.8 x berthing perled.
Thus, production per 24 hour working dav: 2 x 20 x 0.9 x 0.8 x 24 690, say 700 containers
per 24 hours per berth (during full occupancy!).

Capacitv per year:

• Assume a berth occupancy factor of 40%.
• 360 available working days per year.

Total: 0.4 x 360 x 700 = abt 100,000 container/year/berth. If the division between 20ft and
40ft containers is, e.g., 40%:60%, then the 100,000 containers are equivalent to 160,000

ct/1991/09 page 10
TEU/year/berth. If the average payload would be 12 tons, th is corresponds to almost 2x106
ton/year/berth.

Many terminals do not attain this capacitv, particularly in developing countries. The UNCTAD
conducted a survey in 20 of those ports, and found berth productivity figures from 225 to 750
containers per 24 hours, with an average of 450. Causes are frequent equipment breakdowns,
waiting for transport to and from stacks, longer crane cycle times, etc. If, in addition, there is
onlya 6 dav work week (sav, 300 available days per year) and if there are only, say, 20% 40ft
containers (the percentage 40ft containers in developing ports is mostly low), the capacity
becomes: 0.4 x 300 x 450 x 1.2 = abt 65,000 TEU/year/berth!

But, deviations do also occur to the positive side. In 1990, Singapore's Tanjon Pagar terminal,
so far handling almost all of the Singapore container traffic, handled 5.09x106 TEU over 9
mainline and 2 feeder berths, using 32 portainers. Assuming the 2 feeder berths to be
equivalent to 1 mainline berth, the production equalled some 500,000 TEU/year/berth, whilst
crane production was about 160,000 TEU, probably corresponding with some 100,000
containers/crane/year. This is a positive extreme, resulting from relatively high occupancy
figures, high labour productivity, modern container cranes and low cycle times, and high
equipment maintenance standards. (The total tonnage handled was 75.9x1 06, resulting in an
average payload of 14.9t/TEU.)

In view of this wildly varying productivity, it will not surprise that the actual costs of handling a
container through a terminal also varies from a low of US$70 to 80 (Hongkong, Singapore) to a
high of about US$350 (Bombay, Calcutta).

6. STORAGE AND HANDLING SYSTEMS

Since it is not feasible to have containers handled directly from one mode of transport to the
next, it will always be necessary to have an intermediate storage on a terminal. The dweil or
transit time can vary from some hours to many weeks. Some terminals in Rotterdam attain an
average of about 2.5 davs, while in some developing countries averages of 10 days -or more-
are quite common. This is due to an inadequate organization, time-consuming customs
formalities, etc.

For handling and stacking of containers, special equipment is used (terminal tractors with
chassis, gantry cranes, straddle carriers, heavy forklift trucks, side-Ioaders, etc.).

The civil engineering provisions required for a container storage area vary strongly with the
equiprnent used, and they have to be duly considered when selecting the container handling
system and equiprnent. It may happen that a storage system is rejected because of the civil
engineering consequences.

Furthermore, for civil engineering structures, one has also to consider the large number of load
fluctuations caused by the continual coming and going of equipment, Typical wheel loads are
shown in figure 4.

Special provislens have to be made for containers with special loads, such as:
* electrical connections for containers with cooled or frozen products (reefers)
* mechanical installations by which cooled air can be pumped through so-called port hole
containers
* provisions for storage of containers with dangerous cargo
* provisions for the internal cleaning of containers
* possibilities for a climate-controlled storage of containers (bulbs, potatoes, etc.)
* provisions for the weighing and inspection of containers

ct/1991/09 page 11
The container storage capacity per hectare is, generally, not the main controlling factor for the
choice of a handling system. The throughput capacity (and, especially, the short-time
throughput capacitv) is of greater importance. Also here, the simulation model can play an
important role.

EGUIPMEN'T
f WMEEu..o.a.C
• MAX. I GEM.'
I 'INHEEL -
TYPE
ITI~E/
SIZE
~EEL

In KN l,nKN

ÇONTAINS8 !::28NES:
I

.," gen. ~tlceca :JOO 2~0 seoel I' !!SOsmrn

~~ Con...-..d Sc:or\( 600 :3!50
_ ....I 1; BOOrn,"
2" g..n.
-~
acc 150 ~I '7>710 rnrn
~AILWP.Y GA~Y C~ANES:
1----- ç5 610 rnrn
-250 .ceel

~!~;!It
e ~AILM. STACKING ç:;::;p.NES: :JSO

400 250 pneumsc,c 16.00><25

RL..ea~M~NG C~.:
rubber ti .....

!ti
... = "1
:J ST"RACOLE CA&:lRIe;::lS:

[] u :I-high acadting N..llen 170 1.,0

· ·· 16.00><1215
c:;" r:;:::; '!]
4_ high aeacl<lng Na".n 160 SC
· 1600 ...215

TEBMINAL TRUCKS: 65 50
· · "0.00"20

~=
SVS"TE!M:
~ MlLT'-TRAIL~B

_... erudca Flaar 40 40 .. · 12.00><20

· ·
... 12.00x2O
cne .... 2X20'af40' SS 45

.:EJçx:r p=udc ,6 !(cba_ia

FO~KLIF"T""n=lUCKS:
{",23XS-"1C
20 acltd rubber-

II
LInde 26

[
20KN .~tc tI,... •• .,:e"7-B
44 35 ~ic e~CX11!5

..
40KN die_I Linde

tt::L6 "'120KN Kalmer 71 SC

~CI""
· "12-00x 120

e
~ B
420KN Taylar 20C .,50
· .,a.CO":ö!!5

TERMINAL CHASSIS:

201 1-.,,1 .. 35 215 .. .. 9.00X20

·· ··
,;;; ;:;:J'..,I ex 20' 3-."1_ 30 :Ö!O "0.00"20

215 9.00,,20
40' 2-."1_ 30

Figure 4 - Wheel leads of terminal equipment

Some principal advantages and disadvantages of specific container handling systems are
indicated below.

page 12
ct/1991/09
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Chassis system

• low civil engineering investment • requires a large site (can be expensive)

• simple equipment • high investment in chassis
• low maintenance costs • storage peaks difficult to absorb
• very flexible in operatien • not suitable for automation
• operation requires little training
Straddle carrier system

• moderate civil engineering investment • complicated equipment

• traffic peaks can be weil absorbed • rather high maintenance and energy
• high occupancy rate of equipment costs
• high throughput capacities possible • requires highly qualified personnel
(operation and maintenance)
• requires special safety precautions
• additional internal transport required
• high site maintenance costs
• not suitable for automation

Forklift system & telescopic stackers

• very suitable for stacking of empty • high civil engineering investments

containers when used for storage of full
• simple to organize containers
• safety requires much attention due to
unavoidable combination with internal
transport means
• moderate throughput capacity
• not suitable for automation

Small gantry crane system on pneumatic tyres (RTG system)

• good use of site • rather high civil engineering investment

• high occupancy rate of equipment • high maintenance and energy costs
• simple to organize • requires special safety precautions
• automation possible but difficult • requires highly qualified personnel

Large gantry crane system on rails (RMG system)

• maximum use of site • high civil and mechanical engineering

* low breakdown percentage investments
• low maintenance costs • requires additional internal transport
• automation possible • changes in layout hardly possible
• requires medium-qualified personnel * requires safety precautions

For the selection of handling systems, local conditions are important, e.g.:
• soil conditions
* accessibility of the site (customs requirements, etc.)
• financing possibilities
* availability of qualified personnel
• expected growth rate
• anticipated need for future full- or semi-automation of container handling

ct/1991/09 page 13
Much attention has also to be paid to:
• functional requirements
• high number of load fluctuations (fatigue)
• safety
• comfort of personnel
• provisions for a rapid and easy maintenance

The procurement policy of container terminals has to be aimed at the continuous character of
terminal operations and at the standardization of the equiprnent. It has to be kept in mind th at
the total cost of equipment is a combination of capital costs, maintenance costs and operating
costs.

It is advisable to evaluate the total costs per container move, averaged over the total lifetime.
Investments should be aimed at the avoidanee of breakdowns. The breakdown of equiprnent
causes breakdown of an entire transport process. The loss of production capacity cannot be
regained. Penny-wise can be pound-foolish, see annexure I.

7. TERMINAL LA YOUT AND DlMENSIONS

As explained before, the terminal layout depends, to a certain extent, on the handling systems
chosen. A schematic cross-section is given in figure 5.

ft
:;;
,,~~ fi8
-.
~ ~
.. .. .. ~
ft

""g"
..g
..~
~Ë
0:
s:

....
E 0:
.!!!
!
.§
g
~ .. >-
~
0
I1 c
8.8 5l-
g
~
stacks for import. export. reeters, etc. "5
~ " !

11 vA.RIA e.Lë

i j

Figure 5 - Cross-section containerterminal

The set-back of the front crane rail of at least 2 % m from the coping is necessary to prevent
damage to the crane by the overhang of ships. The fast and strongly flared container ships
have a pronounced overhang in the bow section and, when berthing under some angle, this
overhang can weil extend over the quav front. A sizeable number of portainers already has not
survived this embrace.

The crane track spacing is determined by considerations of stability and of cost (of the crane
itself and of the crane rail foundation: limitation of bogey loads) and also by operational
considerations. Particularly if FLT's are used in this part of the terminal (which is not
customary but does happen at some terminals), they have to be able to manoeuvre
perpendicular to the crane track and, thus, require a wide spacing.

page 14
ct/1991/09
Often, the area immediately behind the rear crane rail is reserved for storing vessel hatchcovers
during loading and unloading operations. This avoids the necessity of repeated re-handling of
these covers and, therefore, saves time.

Railway tracks and road vehicle lanes are as much as possible located in the rear zone of the
terminal. An exception could be made for specialized ship-rail transhipment terminals as found
in the USA, where inland container transport by rail plays a much bigger role than in Europe.

Apart from the areas indicated in the cross-section, space will have to be reserved for:
• container freight station (CFS)
• workshops for equipment maintenance
• office buildings for terminal operating company, customs, first aid, etc.
• road vehicle parking
• entry lanes with weighing and inspection facilities
• damaged containers and hazardouscargoes

In determining the terminal layout, due attention must also be paid to the modes of
throughtransport, and possible changes therein, in a not too distant future. For the time being,
for most europeanterminals, most throughtransport is by road -say 75 to 80%-, the remainder
being handled by rail and sometimes inland water transport (lWT). The anticipated growth in
container traffic is such, that the already congested road network cannot absorb it without
major and unlikely extensions. A gradual shift to rail and, particularly, IWT appears
unavoidable. Terminal layouts should anticipate on these developmentsin terms of being able
to accept those shifts without major reconstruction and without introducing severe
complications for the internal traffic flow.

Stack area

The area requirements for the different stacks (import, export, reefers, empties, etc.) can be
calculated as follows:

o =
e x ~ x F
j

r x 365 x mi

in which:
o area required [m2]
C, number of container movements per year per type of stack in TEU's
t;; average dweil time [days]
F required area per TEU inclusive of equipment travelling lanes [m2]
raverage stacking height/nominal stacking height (0.6 to 0.9)
mi acceptable average occupancy rate (0.65 to 0.70)

The factor t, (averagedweil time) has to be considered separately for import, export and empty
containers (for which dweil times are usually much longer). Also, fluctuations in dweil times
may have to be considered although it has to be realized that the factor td is the average over a
great number of containers, thus, generally, will not vary much.

t;; can be written as:

oe

E -
d -
1
S(t),:o
r
~
S(t)dl

in which:
S(t) (quantity of containers still on terminal) / (total number unloaded containers)

ct/1991/09 page 15
EeT found th at for their home-terminal, the following dweil time distribution applied (see figure
61:

S(tl 1 0 <t < 1

srn [(T-tl/(T-1)J2 1 <t <T

S(tl 0 T < t
Fromthe above it follows that:

T maximum dweil time (e.g. time within which 98% of containers have left the terminal)

td (T + 21/3

T values:
• for Western Europe 10 days
• for developing countries 3 to 4 weeks

Figure6 - Typical dweil time distribution

The factor F is empirie and dependson the handling systems and the nominal stacking height.
Typical values are given below.

System Nominal stacking m2/TEU inclusive of

height travelling lanes
(F)

Chassis 1 50 - 65

Straddle carrier 2 15 - 20
3 10 -13

Gantry crane (RMG/RTG) 2 15 - 20

3 10 -13
4 7.5 - 10
5 6 - 8

Forkl ift (FLT) 2 35 - 40

3 25 - 30

page 16
ct/1991/09
The factor r reflects the fact that the sequence in which the containers will leave the stack, is
partly unknown (mostly so for the import stack) and that extensive intermediate re-positioning
of containers is expensive. Statistically, the need for re-positioning will increase with increasing
stack height. Consequently, the value of r has to decrease. If the acceptable degree of re-
positioning can be defined (e.g., 30% additional moves) as weil as the degree of uncertainty in
departure of containers from the stack, the optimum value of r can be found through
computation or simulation. This degree of uncertainty depends, inter alia, on the mode of
throughtransport. Rail and IWT can, generally, be programmed quite weil, but the sequence of
arrival of road vehicles not.

The factor mi (optimum average occupancy rate) has to be introduced because the pattern of
arrivals and departures of containers to and from the terminal is stochastic by nature. The
optimum value of mi depends on the frequency distribution of these arrivals and departures, and
of the acceptable frequency of occurrence of a saturated stack. The number of container
departures per unit of time may be more or less constant, at least for large terminals, but the
number of arrivals is not. The container arrival distribution can have different forms and
depends, on its turn, on the ship arrival distribution and on the variation of the number of
containers per ship.

In annexure 11an example is given for the determination of the optimum value of mi assuming a
normal distribution of container arrivals.

Calculation example - stack areas

Assume a small terminal to be designed for a capacity of 70,000 TEU/year of which:

35,000 import (of which 15,000 via CFS6)
25,000 export
10,000 empties

Normally, also a part of the export containers passesthe CFS, but this is disregarded here.
Container handling by straddle carrier, stacking three-high (F = 13m2).

Expected t;; values for import, export and empty containers are 10,7 and 20 days respectively.

Import
Oimport (35,OOOx10x13)/ (0.6x365xO.70) approx. 30,OOOm2

Export
°export (25,OOOx7x13)/ (0.8x365xO.70) approx. 11,OOOm2

Empties
Dempt (1O,OOOx20x13)/ (0.9x365xO.80) approx. 10,OOOm2

Calculation example - CFS

(15,OOOx29/2x5x1.4x1.1)/ (O,65x365) = approx. 7,OOOm2

in which:

V represents the contents in m3 of 1 TEU container (29m3)

f1 gross/net area ratio

5Container Freight Station

ct/1991/09 page 17
f2 bulking factor
mi acceptable occupancy rate
ha averageheight of cargo in shed [mI

A possiblelayout for the above terminal is given in figure 7.

Z"'>o
100 100

o FFIU:::S
W'Olèk:~H07 ..

i / r
I
(uoJ} LoAj),AlGr
'KoAi::> Ve.H ICL.e~

.
->.
/ ' , ,f
/ /
100 EI'li'TIE.'::> //
/ /
/
/, / /' / /

/ .

<:
I (UN) 1..0ÄJ:) ,N";
: TERMINAL L.flAS>_:S__ ,

/ ' / /

Figure 7 - Example layout container terminal

ct/i 991/09 page 18

The detailed layout of stacks and traffic lanes depends on the type of equiprnent used. As
already observed, road vehicles are avoided as much as possible on the terminal itself.
However, if for stack handling RTG's and RMG's are used, intermediate transport -e.g. by
straddle carrier- would be required to and from the central loading bays at the terminal
boundary. To avoid these extra costs, some of these terminals do allow road trucks on clearly
marked one-way traffic lanes in the stack zone.

Quay length·

For a small one-berth terminal as used for the above calculation example and f'igure 7, the quav
length is dictated by the length of the biggest vessel to be received. It will, generally, be
between 250m and 300m for 3rd generation container vessels.

For a multi-berth terminal it is, in principle, uneconomic to determine the quav length on basis
of a discrete number of single berths becauseof the variation in ship lengths. This variation will
be different from port to port and from region to region. But, for example, it might weil be that
a 450m quav length in average can accommodate 2 vessels; on the one hand it can only
receive one maximum size vessel at a time, on the other hand it could handle three feeder
vessels.

The quav length will have to be optimized based on the local vessel length distribution, the
loading/ unloading capacity (crane capacity and number of eranes. which mayalso be varied),
number of containers per vessel, and other relevant parameterswith due regard to the
optimization criterion used. This may be minimization of overall port cost per container, but
more often the provision of a specified minimum service level, as discussed in section 3. The
moment that the concept of a discrete number of service points (fixed number of berths) is
abandoned, the Queuingtheory can no longer be applied in this optimization process, and a
logistic simulation model has to be used -as discussed briefly in section 5, and in detail in the
relevant lecture papers-.

Terminal width

The terminal width (measuredperpendicularto the quav front for an ideal rectangular terminal)
is simply the quotient of the total area (stack areas, traffic lanes, CFS, etc.) and the optimized
quav length.

Becauseof the vastly increased container crane capacity and use of a larger number of cranes
per ship, the transhipment capacity per unit length of quav has very much increased over the
past 10 or 15 year. In consequence,the terminal width requirements have increased. Around
1980, a width of 400m was a fair average providing 10ha for a single berth. The ECT Delta
terminal now has a width of 600m, and the new terminal in Antwerp has as much as 800m.

REFERENCES

[1] Containers - their handling and transport, National Ports Council, London, 1979
[2] Rijsenbrij, J.C., Ontwerpaspekten van container terminals, Postdoctorale cursus Havens 11,
Delft University of Technology, 1981
[3] Containerization International (magazine)
[4] Containerization, Port Management Textbook No. 10, Institute of Shipping Economicsand
Logistics, Bremen, 1985
[5] Trends in Container Vessel Size, IAPH, 1989
[6] Les terminaux portuaires à conteneurs, Ministère Françaisde la Coopération et du
Développement, 1989
[7] Container Trade Growth and Port Developmentto 2005; Ocean Shipping Consultants, 1991

ct/1991/09 page 19
[8] Watanabe, ltsure. Container Terminal Engineering in 90's, Ports and Harbeurs. september
1991
[9] Huisman, J.M., New Developments in containership design, Proceedings Singaport '92
Conference, Singapore, 1992.

page 20
ct!' 99' !09
ANNEXUREI

Comparison of cost per handling move for 2 types of straddle carrlers"

(' 980 price level)

Manufacture A Manufacture B

* initial investment $ 425,000 $ 575,000

(completely erected on the site)

* estimated lifetime in operating hours 21,000 30,000

* realizable number of operating hours per year 3,QOO 5,000

* depreciation period in years 7 6

* realizable number of handling moves per hour

on average distances 15 20

* capital cost per year $ 87,300 $ 132,000

* total maintenance cost per year $ 52,500 $ 65,000

* cost of tyres per year $ 8,000 $ 13,500

* fuel cost per year $ 9,500 $ 27,000

* operating cost per year $ 66,000 $ 110,000

Total cost per year $ 223,300 $ 347,500
Total cost per operating hour $ 74.40 $ 69.50
Total cost per handl ing move $ 4.96 $ 3.48

Conclusion

From a cost point of view, the application of the more expensive straddle carrier can save
42.5% in direct handling cost. Besides, it can positively effect the service to be offered.

Note

The higher initial investment for 'manufacture B' is forthcoming from:

.. higher operating speeds and acceleration resultinq in a handling capacity increase
.. highly improved operators' comfort and safety (visibility, strongly reduced noise level, easy
manoeuvrability, etc.)
.. better accessibility ad special provislens for maintenance
.. service period only after ',000 operating hours
.. longer lifetime through the application of quality components and the use of fatigue
calculation methods

6Source: ir J.C. Rijsenbrij,ECT, 1981

ct/1991/09 page 21
ANNEXURE 11

The factor mi (optimum average occupancy rate) should be derived from a frequencv
distribution of container arrivals/departures (or separate distributions of ship arrivals/departures
and number of containers per ship). A trequencv distribution of container arrivals/departures
could, for example, closelv resembie a normal distribution. .

Normal distribution:

Density function:

Probability of exceedance:
X=(X)

With transformation :
X-II.
r- = U
a

page 22
ct/1991/09
Density function:

-u'
f(u) = _l_e 2
{i;

Probability of exceedance:

1
.p;;

This is the standard normal distribution, i.e. a normal distribution for p=O and u= 1.

A table giving the values of K as a function of u, is attached and can be found in most
statistical handbooks.

Example
Assume a large terminal with normally distributed container arrivals (combined effect of irregular
ship arrivals and variabie number of containers per ship).
Assume also as a design requirement a maximum 1 1 chance of reaching full occupation of the
0 00

import staek, that means maximum 1 on each 1,000 time units.

Take as time unit t, = average dweil time containers, say 4 days.
Assume, moreover, p = 5,000 (number of containers per 4 days) with a mean deviation of
d=600.
Since the standard deviation u = (ViTïï)d, or u = abt. 1.25d (only in case of normal
distribution).
Thus, u = 1.25 x 600 = 750.
The Klu table shows for K = 0.001 a correspondingvalue of u = 3. 1O.
In other words, the number of container arrivals corresponding with a probability of exceedance
of 1 1 is:
0 00

(x-5,000) I 750 = 3.10 or x = 7325

And the factor mi (optimum average occupancy rate) becomes:

mi = ub: = 5000/7325 = 0.68

ct/1991/09 page 23
 STANDARD-NORMAl DISTRIBUTION

Probability of exceedance of values of Kx 104

.._
u

8 9
II U o ó

"6a\ 1.66"-11
io , J :000 "Q20
1636 ... "'32~ "486 t.;c,t. ï I
[o. ! ~5b, L. 522
...o~z 1; 3,?ï4 )~ 36 3897 J8 59 I
:..\t; a 161)'?1J .. Ij
10,': "'iL~
,6,2 35~" 3557 3520 3 .. a 3 ;
;707 J6ó ~
!o,.3 378, 37t.~
13 36 3300 !40" 32:9 3192 3156 3121 ,
340~ 3372 1
:Or~
2,?r..., 28,7 Z843 Z8\0 2776,
'0 - 30 1 s Z~9\
i .: !
108~
,0,:> ' 2,43
30so
~70q 2676 26Lt 3 Z6\\ 2:t.;; Z514 24133 24 'il '
zl ..a!
Z327 22~5 Z1'::6 ,,235 2206 2\ 77
2"ZO 23SQ 2~53
10• :- IQ?" \8671
20~0 206; 2!J;~ 200 s :,?ï7 I~"q 18~"
;0,3 211~
16a 5 1660 \635 1611 !
1°,9 \84\ \8\4 \n8

1~39
lïóZ

1~1:
lï~6

11.=?2 :4';3 I....

~ 14Z3 \401 137~ i
jl,O 1587 1562.
\27\ ~ 2. s 1 12;~ 1,10 11~0 11 70 ~
,1,1 135ï 1335 l:n· lZ'?Z
0'385:
1093 IOi ~ :0 55 1038 1020 100 3
;1,2 II s I 1131 1112
Je a 5 0838 0823 i
, 1 ,.3
11,~
0963
0808
0~5\
07~3
Q93'
0778
O~\S
076"
090;
07r..~ 07;5
086~
0721
0853
0708 06~4 cs e i I
06"3 0630 061e ~6"6 059" 0582 057l o 559 i
!l.S Q66a 0655
04 ss:
1'Ó 0543 0537 0526 05\6 o~a s J4gS 0..
85 Ol+75 0465
Qr..Og '}t.t11 0392 038 .. 0375 0367
l,i 0446 0436 0427 0418
03;,g ·1 ;22 031" 0307 0301 02~4
1,1.3 0359 0351 03.... 0336
023'3 0233
11,9 OZ87 02BI 0:1.7" 02.6 a 0262 12~ó 02 SO 02""

021, 0211 n07 .J:1.a2 01=, 019Z 018a 01B3 ;

i2,O I 02;:a 04::
0170 0\65 0162 0158 01S .. 0150 01..
6 01:'31
12•1 , 0179 0174
OlZ9 012! J \22 0119 0116 0113 0110 i,
i2,2 I n39 0136 0132
OO~S OO~" OO~I 00a9 0087 008" ,
0102 0099
!'2 ,,)
- II 0107 010"
OOi! OOil 006= 0068 0066 006" i
:2,~ , 0082. 0080 0078 007S I

\z,S I 0062 0060 0059 oas, 00: s J05~

j~4u
0052
oo::'?
00 S I
0038
0049
00 37
00"-8 \
00 36 '
iz ,ó 00'" 00"5 00"" 0043 OO"i
Je:o 002: OO~S 00:<:7 00:6 :
!Z.7 0035 00 34 0033 00::: 003:
00:, lO::: 0021 002! OO~O 00 I~I
!2,3 0026 002S OOZ4 00Z3
:2.:.' JO l g 00: 9 0018 00\7 00\5 iûlé OOI': 0015 OOI.. 00 14 !
13.J 0007
JCO~ ~OO~ aoc~ 0008 JO:;3 00C8 0008 000,
~3 1 : JOIJ
~OC6 0006 0005 0005 0005
3.: 0007 0007 0006 0006 0005
0004 000" 0003
3,.3 ~OO 5 0005 0005 0001t 0004 000" 0004
0003 0003 0003 ~OO 3 0003 0003 0003 0002
3,~ 0003 0003

page 24
ct/1991/09
 chapter 8.

all & UQUID GAS TERMINALS

1992/1 0
 Oll & uaUID GAS TERMINALS

CONTENTS page

1. Introduction 3

2. Oil tankers and gas carriers 3

2.1 Oil tankers 3

2.2 Liquid gas carriers 3

3. The nature of the products 4

4. Terminals 5

4.1 General 5
4.2 Types of terminals 6
4.3 Location of the terminal - safety considerations 7

5. The berth 11

6. Jetties and dolphins 12

6.1 Land T jetties 12

6.2 Fingerpiers 13
6.3 Approach bridges and jetty heads 13
6.4 Breasting dolphins 14
6.5 Mooring dolphins 17
6.6 Special aspects of LPG/LNG jetties 20

7. Storage areas 21

8. Offshore terminals 21

8.1 SBM's 21
8.2 Fixed offshore terminals 23

References 27

olg.trmj1992*10 page 2
 on, & UOUID GAS TERMINALS'

1. INTRODUCTION

on and gas terminals are separately classified in ports, since: '

* The quantities involved in transhipment per vessel are generally very large in comparison with the
transport of other commedities.
* The goeds transhipped are mostly classified as 'dangerous', leading to special safety requirements.
* Loading and unloading occur through one central manifold on the ship, placecl more or less '
midships. As aresuIt, (un)loading equipment does not have to be able to move alongside the ship to
service the different holds, and, thus, no full-Iength marginal quay is required. For carrying the
(un)loading arms and auxiliary equipment, a relatively small platform is generally sufficient.

Consequently, there are striking differences with regard to dimensions and nature of the port facilities
requirecl as comparecl to other trades.

2. on, TANKERS AND GAS CARRIERS

2.1 ou tankers
The transport of crude oil generally happens in large tankers (VLCC'S2)of 200,000dwt or more. Refinecl
products are transportecl by product tankers of up to 100,000dwt.

Due to the market developments, the ULCC'S3,of around SOO,OOOdwt,

have become rare. Only Exxon
still has a number of these ships in its tJeet.

Dimensions are given in the following tabie:

water displacement length width fully loaded fully loaded

I ILoa 1 Idraught Ifreeboard I
[tonsl I [ml [ml I [ml I [ml I
20,000 26,000 175 21.4 9.2 2.9
I 50,0001 65,000 1230 131.1111.6 3.7
I 70,0001 87,000 1245 35.4 112.8 4.0
100,0001125,000 272 139.7 114.6 4.6
1150,000 185,000 1297 44.2 17.1 5.5
1200,0001240,000 1315 148.8 118.9 6.4
1250,0001295,000 1338 151.8 120.1 7.3
325'0001375'000 346 153.4 124.7 7.3
1400,000 455,000 1381 59.4 25.9 1 9.1
1500,000,560,000 1412
, ,
165.6 127.5
, ,
110.7

2.2 Liquid gas carriers

Marine transport of LNG4 (mainly methane, relative density about 0.45) and LPG5 (a mixture of mostly
propane and butane, relative density about 0.6) takes place in refrigerateclform, LNG at a temperature of
about -165°C and LPG at about -SO°C. The only exceptions are some small coastal tankers that carry

'For the preparation of these lecture notes, extensiveuse has been made of {ref 1}.
~ery large crude carriers
3ultra large crude carriers
41iquifiednatural gas
51iquifiedpetroleum gas

0Ig.trm/1992*10 page 3
pressurized LPG (at about 7 bar). LNG cannot be liquified by pressure at normal temperatures, whilst
the carriage of pressurized LPG in big ships would require too great wall thicknesses for the cargo tanks.

The laad capacity of liquified gas carriers is always given in cubic metres instead of dwt. Dimensions
are given in the following tabie:

cargo Iwater displacement' IlengthlwidthlfUllY loaded' IfullY loaded' 1

loa draught freeboard
[m3] [tons] ICm] ICm] ICm] ICm]

10,000115,000 7.0 1 4.3

177 119.2
24.5 9.5 5.0
20,000 33,000 1138
35,0001 43,000 1187 127.0 10.5 I 7.8
50,0001 57,000 1202 130•0 11.8 I 8.0
75,0001 69,000 134.8111.5 1 9.2
100,000 90,000 245
1220 39.9 12.7 12.3
1125,0001110,000 1278 142.0 113.6 114.5
•• I I I

·values are given for the heaviest product: lPG

1··bY the middle of 1992, two 250,000m3 LNG tankers were under
Iconstruction in Korea

There is a considerable difference in draught between lNG/lPG carriers and oil tankers:

I IlNG
1 1 133,000m3

length [lpp] 1280

width [m] 42
I
draught (loaded)
load capacity
[m]
[tons]
111.5

loaded freeboard Cm]

The draught of the LNG tanker in ballast is only slightly less than the loaded draught, as the tanker has
to take in a relatively large quantity of ballast water for stability reasens.

The above table also shows the high freeboard figure for the LNG vessel, which results in a high
resistance to wind. Especially, in case of spherical tanks (Ross-Mosenberg system) where the tanks
extend approximately 17m above the deck, the influence of the wind is considerable. The low density of
the laad and the high position of these ships lead to significant difterences with oil tankers as regards
their behaviour in waves.

3. THE NATURE OF THE PRODUCTS

The liquid form in which oil and gas are transported, enables rather high loading capacities of up to
approximately 25,000m3 per hour. Vessels smaller than 200,000 to 250,000dwt can load or unload with
net hourly capacities equal to 10% of their deadweight tonnage. Consequently, these ships occupy the
port facilities for a short period only, about 1 to 1.5 days. Loading is performed by shore-based pumps,
unloading by ship-based pumps.

The liquid form permits off-shore loading and unloading by means of pipelines, hoses and mooring
buoys. In case of crude oil and oil products, this may be done through sub-marine pipelines and
f1aatingsingle-point moorings (SPMs). For refrigerated gases, the technology for sub-marine cryogenic
pipelines and SPMs has not yet been developed.

Another important characteristic of oil and gas is the inflammability. In consequence, there are strict
safety requirements for the transport, handlinq and storage of these products, especially for liquified

olg.trmj1992*10 page 4
 gases. The relative density of a typical middle-east crude is about 0.85. For LNG. this is between 0.43
and 0.50. and for LPG between 0.58 and 0.60. Propane. as a component of LPG. liquifies at
atmospheric pressure at a temperature of -50°C. LNG at -162°C to -165°C. The volume of the LNG is
thereby reduced to 1j600th of the original volume.

Figure 1 shows the relation between temperature and minimum pressure required to liquify different
gases.

Temperature - vapour pressure relationships

of some Iiquafied gases

Key to ship types

_ Type 1 fuUy pressurised

~ Type 2 semi-pressurised

c:TI Type 3 semi-pressurised/fuUy refrigerated

5 Type4 fuUy refrigerated

..
Temperatura

Figure 1 Relation between vapour pressure and temperature of

different gases

4. TERMINALS

4.1 General

The shape. dimensions, locations and arrangement of terminals are dictated by their function. This can
be:
* transhipment and storage (e.g. Maasvlakte Oil Terminal, Bullen Baai Curaçao)
* supply to refinery and distribution from refinery
* combination of both foregoing possibilities (e.g. Shell Europoort)

olg.trmj1992*10 page5
The diversity of products has to be taken into account. Terminals belonging to refineries have a more or
less fixed pattern of requirements regarding facilities, dictated by the volume and origin of the crude
imported and the range of products produced.

Typically, a medium-sized refinery, with an annual throughput of 5 to 6 million tons, would need facilities
to receive, say, 20 to 30 VLCC's of 200,000dwt. The products may be exported in same 100 to 240
product tankers in the 25,000 to 50,000dwt range. Two to three berths would be required to
accommodate these ships.

If na sheltered deep-water port already exists, it may weil be economically attractive to unload the crude
at an aft-share SPMjSBM and, thus, avoid having to dredge the channel and basins and to build a jetty
for big tankers. In that case, two berths, able to receive 50,000dwt product tankers, would be sufticient.

For bigger throughputs, the SPM solution becomes less attractive because of lower unloading rates (as
compared to a fixed jetty), greater delays and greater threat of pollution.

Simulation models will have to establish the actual requirements for berths, transhipment capacities and
storage capacities.

4.2 Types of terminals

The most important parameters for the choice of types are:

* cost
* safety
* reliability
The cast calculations need to include:
* inaccessibility due to current, waves, wind, visibility, etc.
• maintenance (e.g. dredging)
• influence of future extensions, if expected

The following types of oil terminals can be distinguished:

(i) Conventional sheltered ports with storage areas

The berth mainly consists of a jetty (figure 2) and dolphins, or of a multiple buoy mooring (MBM).

(ii) Off-shore single buoy moorings (SBM, the most common form of single-point moorings, SPM),
in case of large ships and insufticient water depth near the share (figure 3).

The traditional aft-share terminal consists of one or more SBM's with sub-marine pipelines to the shore
where storage takes place. The pipelines can be dug in, but th is is not always necessary. Trenching
(digging in) may be required for:
• the stability of the pipeline (currents and waves)
• protection against damage (anchors, fishing gear)
• the avoidance of unacceptable stresses in the pipeline due to small curve-radii or long free spans
The sand or gravel cover of the pipelines ranges from 0 to 5m, depending upon the location and the
circumstances.

(iii) Off-shore terminals with floating storage

This new application can be economical in cases of small or remote oilfields. The terminal is an SBM
with a permanently moored storage vessel. Tankers come alongside this vessel for loading (figure 4).

For the loading and unloading of liquid gas, mostly ports are used. Exceptions are a floating LPG
liquefaction and storage plant in Indonesia and an unsheltered oft-shore LNG loading terminal in Brunei,
which will be discussed later.

olg.trmj1992*10 page 6
 -OI==§Er
catwalk
mooring dol phins
breasting dolphins
platform
roadway
pipe track

Flnger Jetty
or fingerpier

1,1,1.1,1 "!tL
Figure 2 Types of jetties

4.3 Location of the terminal - safety considerations

The location selection is based on the following considerations:

Export or import
For the export terminal, the location of the oilfield or gasfield is the main determining factor. For the
import terminal, the suitability of the site and the presence of sheltered naturalor artificial deep-water
harbours wiJl often dictate the choice of a site for the terminal andjor refinery.

Storage area
Availability of an adequate area for tankfarm and, possibly, refinery. Geotechnical factors can be
important.

Waterdepth
The available waterdepth in relation to the draught of the envisaged vessels and the required initial and
maintenance dredging are also important factors.

Safety and reliability

This concerns the technical as weil as the operational safety and reliability.
The technical safetyand reliability refer to matters as, e.g.:

olg.trmj1992*1Q page 7
* sheltered berthing
* no seiches in the harbour basin
* no sudden siltation in the entrance channel
The operational safety and reliability concern:
* storm frequency
* persistent low water conditions
* regular visibility problems
* night-sailing restrictions
* tidal restrictions
* presence of goed functioning port services
* presence of tug assistance
* etc.

Figure 3 Single buoy mooring (SBM)

With regard to safety, it must be mentioned that the surroundings of the terminal, and the refinery, need
to be protected against the hazards associated with the terminal, and vice versa (figures 5 and 6). Due
to the nature of LPG and LNG, the consequences of spilIs can be more severe than with oil terminals,
because the liquid gas evaporates faster (consequently, gas clouds may farm) and because fires
produce, in general, a greater heat radiatian.

olg.trmj1992*10 page 8
 Thus, for terminal planning purposes, different safety distances have to be taken into account:
* The distance to possible leakage or spiJlsources on the terminal within which vapour clouds rnay
develop with an inflammable or explosive density (density above LFL8 or LEL7). Within these
boundaries, no uncontrolled ignition sources may occur.
* The distance to possible fire sourees in the terminal within which heat radiation may cause physical
harm to people.
* In case toxic products are used or processed, the distance to possible leakage or spiJlsources within
which vapour clouds may develop with a density that, again, may cause physical harm to people.

For the calculation of these safety distances, reference is made to, inter alia {ref l5}, {ref 16} and {ref
la}.

Figure 4 Roating storage

It will be clear that the possibility of spills must be reduced to the utmost minimum. In consequence, all
oil and gas terminals should be located in special port basins which are not accessible to other traffic
and which can be easily closed oft by floating booms in case of accidents. Furthermore, the (un)loading
speeds can be restricted, so that in case of e.g. a rupture in the loading arms, the size of the spill can be
Iimited, depending also on the closing speed of the emergency valves. Various other safety measures
are taken by the terminal operators to reduce the possibility of calamities.

However, relatively small events like the rupture of pipes or flexible hoses, the failure of valves, flanges,
seals or gaskets, will occur occasionally, even on the best run terminals. It is particularly for these
'routine events' that the strict abidance to safety distances is important to minimize the eftects.

Blower flammable limit

710werexplosive limit

olg.trmj1992-10 page 9
At the other extremity, there are the major accidents like main tank failure which can result in
catastrophes that are almast impossible to defend against by safety distances. E.g., TNO calculated that
if a 28,OOOm3laad tank of an lPG carrier is ruptured and ignites, a column of fire will develop with a
diameter of 600m and a height of 550m for a duration of 6min; first degree burns will be sustained up to
a distance of 2200m. With delayed ignition, an explosion may occur (with lPG, but not with LNG)
which, under unfavourable weather conditions, leads to a loss of 10% of the living quarters at a distance
as far away as 7 to 11km.

Figure 5

Figure 6

olg.trmj1992*10 page 10
For these major accidents, the best and only defence is to take such precautions, both in planning,
design and in operational procedures, as to bring the probability of occurrence at an extremely low level.
For example, all other ship traftic may be stopped in the neighbourhood of an LNG/LPG tanker sailing
within a port's boundaries, and low-visibility navigation may be prohibited. Also, LNG/LPG storage tanks
may be provided with a double wall, so that in case of an -in itself very improbable- failure of the inner
cryogenic tank, the product will be contained within the, e.g., concrete outer wall (figure 7).

2
\7
1-
9
i_I

rs-
I

10 I 4
r=:

I Caisson
2 Contamer
3 Dome
4 Basesiab
5 Steelliner
6 Foamgiass
7 9 % Ni steel inner rank
8 Suspendedceilinq and isolation
9 LNG pipes and pumps
10 Dram

Figure 7 LNG storage tank, Zeebrugge

5. THE BERTH

The location of the oil terminal berth can be in open sea or bay, as weil as inside a harbour. Local
conditions dictate the best choice. While in Europe harbours and river mouths ofter the required
protection, it is a widespread practice in the Middle East to make the terminals oft-shore (Ras Tanura,
Kuwait, Kharg Island).

For the feasibility of off-shore fixed berths, waves and currents are the decisive parameters. In case of
swell (periods more than 12s), a good orientation towards the wave direction is a necessity {ref 6} and
{ref 7}. But, an orientation parallel to the local currents is equally necessary.

olg.trm/1992*10 page 11
Very roughly, the following limiting wave heights apply for the use of jetties and SBM's {ref 10} {ref 11}:

during berthing during berthing during loading

Iwithout swell Iwith swell lor dischargingl
I~ I~ I~ I

jetty 1.5 - 2.0 1.0 - 1.5 2.0 - 3.0

SBH 12.0 - 3.0 12.0 - 3.0 14.0 - 6.0

The above figures for the jetties very much depend upon the arrangement of the mooring system,
orientation towards wave direction and shape of the wave spectrum. Of course, there is also astrong
influence of currents and wind. Berthing with wind speeds higher than 12.5 to tsm/s is considered to
be unsafe, and is, therefore, not allowed.

Considerations of excessive wear and tear of the fender system may reduce the limiting wave height at a
jetty during loading and unloading weil below the above given figures. The offshore solutions are further
discussed in section 8 hereof.

For a conventional berth inside a harbour basin, the following principles have to be observed:
* For safety reasens. oil and gas berths should be separate from other port facilities. No other
shipping should be allowed inside the oil and gas basins.
* The mooring system has to be of such sturdiness that the ship can, at all times, stay safely berthed,
also when a storm is forecasted. Thus, a sudden departure with its inherent risks, can be avoided.
This very much applies to liquid gas tankers, as these can only sail with either full or empty cargo
tanks. ('Empty' means with 1 or 2% residual cargo to keep the tanks refrigerated on the return
voyage.) Contrary to oil tankers, gas tankers have na partitions in their cargo tanks, which, when in
open sea, would lead to lurching of the liquid in the tanks if only partially filled. This, in its turn, would
cause rupture of the tank wall as weil as loss of stability of the ship.

As concerns the length of waterfront required per berth, for safety reasons the space between two ships,
berthed in line, should be approximately equal to the width of the biggest ship. It should also be taken
into account that the manifold of many ships is not located exactly in the middle of the ship, but
sometimes up to 15m fore or up to lOm aft of the centre. It is, therefore, advisable to take as a
minimum centre-to-centre distance of 2 adjacent berths: the length of the longest ship + 1x the width of
the largest ship + 2x 15m.

6. Jetties and dolphins

6.1 Land T jetties

Oil and gas jetties (figure 8) generally consist of the following components:

* An approach bridge with a roadway of 2.5 to 3.5m width and a pipe track (preferably in one layer for
easy inspection), plus service ducts, lighting and guard rails. The pipe track can be either next to the
roadway and on the same level, or underneath the road. The length of approach bridges varies,
depending upon the local conditions, from tens of meters to many kilometers.

* The jetty head consisting of a platform with:

- loading arms
- service area
- service b,uilding
- jetty crane
- fire fighting tower
- gangway
- etc.
A typical size of a jetty head is 20x35m2.

olg.trmj1992*10 page 12
Figure 8 L jetty arrangement

* The berthing or breasting dol phins which serve to:

- absorb the kinetic energy of the berthing ship
- hold the vessel during on-shore wind
- fasten the 'spring' lines of the vessel (although, sometimes, also special mooring dolphins are
used)

* The mooring dolphins to fasten the transverse mooring lines (breast and stern lines).

6.2 Fingerpiers

Fingerpiers have the advantage of having berths at either side of the pier, with the possibility of joint use
of the approach bridge, platform (partly) and mooring dolphins. But, care should be taken that the
distance between ships does not become too short, causing mooring lines to become too steep. A
minimum distance from ship to dolphin of 30m should be adhered to.

6.3 Approach bridges and jetty heads

Approach bridges and jetty heads are, in essence, simple structures for which local building regulations
apply.

For the roadway loading, the design load is the biggest vehicle that passes during normal use, unless
the building of the jetty as such entails special requirements. Normally, a 15t truck constitutes a
reasonable design criterion.

In many cases, the design of the approach bridge is determined by the number and dimensions of the
pipelines. Spans for the pipelines may not be too big (4 to 12m) due to the stiffness requirements.
Special attention has to be paid to pipeline anchors and expansion bends (loops). In case of LNG lines,
often bellows are used, instead of loops.

olg.trmj1992*10 page 13
When designing approach bridges, it should be tried to have the pipeline anchors coincide with the fixed
points of the approach bridge. Expansion bends shou!d coincide with the expansion joints of the bridge.
The bridge has to be sufficiently rigid in all directions. The vertical deflection should be no more than
1/1000 of the span to prevent that, when draining the lines, a residue of the product remains at the
lower part of the pipeline.

The dimensions of the jetty head are mainly determined by the space requirements of the manifold and
the loading arms. The required minimum distance between successive loading arms is 3 to 4.5m,
depending on their size.

6.4 Breastingdol ph ins

In section 6.1, the functions of breasting and mooring dolphins have been mentioned. Since breasting
dolphins (also called berthing dolphins), contrary to mooring dolphins, have to be able to absorb the
kinetic energy of the berthing ship, they have to be flexible. This flexibility can be attained either by
elastic deformation of the dolphin itself (e.g. by using a number of relatively small-diameter, thick-walled
steel piles) or byelastic deformation of the fenders, or by a combination of the two. Mooring dolphins
have to withstand only quasi-statie loads and, as such, are most economically designed as stiff
structures (e.g. a single large-diameter steel pile).

The impact energy to be absorbed by a dolphin from a berthing ship (figure 9) is:

M Cm Cs
E-

in which:
v = approach velocity of the ship's centre of gravity at the time of impact
M = mass of the ship (displacement)
Cm= virtual mass factor
Cs = stiffness factor
k radius of gyration of the vessel (for big ships about 0.2L)
r distance between centre of gravity and point of impact
W angular velocity of the ship upon impact
v, approach velocity of the ship at the point and time of impact

centre of gravity

breasting
dolphin
v
Figure 9 Berthing ship

The factor Cmhas to be introduced to incorporate the effect of a volume of water that moves with the
vessel; the moment the vessel starts to decelerate, long waves develop on both sides of the ship, with
an increase of the waterievel on the upstream side and a decrease on the downstream side. This level
difference results in a lateral force on the ship.

CmxMis the hydrodynamic mass of the vessel. The value of Cmdepends, inter alia, on the keel
clearance, the type and geometry of the berth, the approach velocity and the deceleration gradient after

olg.trmj1992*10 page 14
 contact with the dolphin. Values between 1.3 and 2.5 are used, the lower values applying for relatively
big keel clearance and solid berths (continuous quay with closed front).

Vasco Costa introduced the approximation Cm = 1+2 Dj8, in which D and 8 are the draught and the
beam of the ship {ref 9}. It is a simplification because it disregards e.g. the important effect of the keel
clearance.

The factor C. depends on the relative elasticities of the dolphin and the ship's huil, as some of the
energy will be absorbed byelastic deformation of the latter. C. is, generally, about 0.90 to 0.95 and,
thus, only of secondary importanee.

It is usually assumed that r is about 90 and the {..).r is small compared to v, 50 that v,
0 = v. In that
case, the expression for impact energy can be written as:

E = ~ M CmC. C• ..;

in which:
C" = ~j~+r2

Ce is normally 0.60 to 0.85.

Another procedure to determine dolphin and fender loading is that of the 'Impulse Response Function
Method', for which reference is made to {ref 20}.

It will be clear that the magnitude of the impact energy is largely determined by the approach velocity of
the ship. As a simple guideline may serve:
* favourable conditions of current and wind v = 0.10mjs
* average conditions of current and wind v = 0.15mjs
* unfavourable conditions of current and wind,
or berthing with smaller vessels v = 0.25mjs

More detailed recommendations are given in {ref 14}. Prototype measurements carried out by Shell at 4
refinery terminals resulted in the graph of figure 10, which demonstrates that the probability of
exceedence of the above indicative values is still rather high.

The availability of statistics for different classes of vessels allows the setting of design values based on
an accepted probability of exceedance. 8ritish Petroleum measured dolphin and fender deflections, and
thus impact energy, for an extended period {ref 19}. For an accepted probability of exceedance of
1j3000 (or once per 20 years), this resulted in the design values tabled below. The design values given
for Shell are partly based on approach velocity measurements, and partlyon certain design
philosophies, e.g. the fear that a long habit of berthing big ships at specific locations may result in a
decrease of caution.

8ecause of the normally oblique approach of a vessel, the breasting dolphins have to be calculated for
an eccentric lateral impact force [F] in conjunction with a friction force of about 0.5F. This unfavourable
combination of forces requires special precautions to prevent rotation (figure lla).

The magnitude of F depends on the energy E to be absorbed, the ultimate deflection of the dolphin and
fender [s] and the elastic properties of dolphin and fender. For the piles of a steel-piled dolphin, there
will essentially be a linear relation between F and 6, but most fenders show a non-linear response (figure
12 and {ref4}). As aresuit, F will generally be in between EjO.3s and EjO.5S.

olg.trmj1992*1Q page 15
 10 11 '4 " " JO II 24 1& ti 10 " 14 11 1. •0
-,
t
•
"
tI
to
I'"-
-, -, FREOERICIA- ALL VESSELS

~
.JO

zo
•uc:
i 10
,•
<,
•..
u r-, <,
• S
4
r-,
,..
u
J
I
<,
e
··"
CT

.:: o. S
I
ALL PORTS - ALL VESSEL0 t--.
r--
I r-,

Cl I

o. I
o.os
0.0 Z
0.0 I
ClOO5

O.DOZ
ClOO I
0 I 4 , la IZ .. 15 11 la IZ
" Zl 11 JO H ]4 n Ja 40

Figure 10 Berthing velocities

It is not only the breasting dolphin that has to be able to withstand the impact force F, but also the
ship's huil may not sustain damage. The permissible huil pressure is 200kNjm2 for LNGjLPG tankers
(and for dry bulk carriers), 250kNjm2 for oil tankers up to about 100,OOOdwt,and 300kNjm2 tor oil
tankers above that limit. However, in view of the US regulation that new oil tankers have to be provided
with a double huil (i.e. separate cargo tank), which wililead to a lighter outer huil structure, it would
appear safe to assume a generally applicable limit of 200kNjm2. The fenders or fender skirts will have to
be designed and dimensioned accordingly, and fender skirts must be mounted on the dolphin in a
flexible way, sa as to be able to adapt themselves to the position of the ship's huil (figure 11b).

Figure 11 (a) (b)

In the above, only the design requirements resulting trom the energy absorption function have been
discussed. Design requirements resulting from quasi-statie farces transmltted by a ship exposed to wind
andjor current, are essentially identical to those ot mooring dolphins and will be diseussed in section 6.5
hereafter.

olg.trm/1992*10 page 16
 3.6
I
e
HN.

1.8

,
I ,
Z.4

:.. Z.O
I I
....... I I
~ 1.6

1.1
I
0.8

0.4
I
00 100 ZOO 300 400 500 700 800 900 mm 1100
Compression-
a} Force reaetsen defleclion curves

~ 1.0 I 01850/10qO./ =:ZOoomm I

i HNm I I I i
~ 0.6
!;!
~ 0.4 ~-..!...._:_+-!--+--+--?-~
'"
.Q

Q 0.1~-"!""_:__L-!-~~~--+--+--+-4
~
~'" OL-~~~~~--~_J--~~ __ ~-L__J
o TOa ZOO 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 mm 1100
Compression-
b} [nergy aosorption copacify- deneetton curves

Figure 12 Force deflection curves and energy

absorption curves of large-diameter
cylindrical fenders
[source {ref l3}]

As concerns the minimum number of breasting dolphins required: in case of only a slight difference in
ship dimensions, berths with 2 breasting dolphins belong to the possibilities. The ctc distance between
the breasting dolphins has to be maximum 0.4 times the length of the smallest vessel, and at least 0.3
times the length of the larqest vessel. This is necessary to stay within the limits of the straight sides of
the tankers, but also to provide a stabIe support for the bigger ships.

It is clear that very soon, two pairs of breasting dolphins are required. This can also be seen as a matter
of security; the inside dolphins serve as a sort of insurance premium in case of damage of the outer
dolphins.

6.5 Mooring dolphins

For each size-class of ship, a multiple mooring line plan has to be made. In most cases, this will lead to
4 - 6 breast and stern line dolphins and, possibly, to 2 - 4 spring dolphins. Mooring dolphins are
equipped with quick-release hooks and electrical capstans. The mooring dolphins have 3 hooks each.
The 'safe workload of the hooks should preferably be equal to the breaking strength of the heaviest
mooring lines. Contrary to traditional practices, the breast and stern mooring lines should run as much
as possible at a right angle to the ship {ref 12}.

olg,trmj1992*10 page 17
Jointly, the mooring dolphins (and mooring lines) should ba able to resist any wind and current force
exerted on the ship, that would move the ship away trom the berth. The general formula for wind and
current forces is:

in which:
Cx•y coefficients for wind and current farces in the direction x (lateral) or y (Iongitudinal)
p density of air or water respectively
A exposed area of the ship above water (for wind) or under water (current)
"f current or wind velocity from a direction with angle cp with the ship (lp = 0, head wind or
current)

For currents, the value of C varies strongly with the keel clearance. Figure 13 gives values for Cy-<:urrenl for
different values of 4' and d/D, Figure 14 gives values for CY-wind and Cx-wind (and Cm for the moment
exerted on the ship). Further data may be found in {ref 13}.

LATERAL CURRENT FORCE COEFFICIENT

Cy

-1.0

Cy

-2.0

-3.0 HlttHHHII~HllltHJ!IIlHill!t+',,1
_Le_ge_nd
tHtHttHtHt~~.fHllHT!jll!ji: Water Depth Ta Draft Ratio
---- 1.05
---- - 1.10
0
ll!llflfllllJilllllllHllIIIfHHfHlllllHfHf+lllWilJi' !l)4! - - - 1. 2
IllIttttttlltttttttttttttttt!ttttttttttttttttttttttttit!tttt!li:,!iit --- --- 1.50
!, ---- - --- 3.00
tHtHtHt!tHlil4iW~ ? 6. 00

CURRENT ANGLE OF ATTACK, f

Figure 13

page 18
olg.trmj1992*10
 - 10
method/lnstllute shoptyp<!
- 0.8
BSRA I
-0.6 - - - Isherwood II
._._ NSMB
-Ol. II
_ •. _ Remery.v. Oortm. I
Cx -0.2 - -DHL m
0 ····_·········OCJMF I

r -0.2
-0.4
20 160 lBO 200
I ballasted VLCC
II LNG - carrier
m LPG - carrier

Cy
1.0

0.8
--.
0.6

Î
80 100

l'
·006
........

Cm

1
- 0.08

- 0.19

-0.12

-0.14

- 0.16

-0.18

Figure 14 Wind lcad coefficients

[source Delft Hydraulics]

In case of exposed jetty terminals, the dolphins (both breasting and mooring dolphins) must also be able
to resist the forces directly or indirectly induced by the waves. Normally, all-steel mooring lines, or
hawsers, are used for tankers, but in case of appreciable exposure to waves, softer moorings (e.g. steel
with nylon 'header') may be required to limit mooring line forces. This leads to greater ship motions
which may make it necessary to disconnect the loading arms if the motion amplitude starts to exceed
certain critical values. Normally, for long-period horizontal motions -surge, sway and yaw-, amplitudes of
.±.2.5to 3m are allowed. LNG loading arms often have an auto-disconnect set at .±.2.5m. Some
loadjelongation curves for different types of mooring lines are given in figure 15.

olg.trmj1992*1Q page 19
 3
2
ë==
o
Z
tol 6
0;
E-o
(Jl
4
...
Q

C
..:
Q 3
....
20

10

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

% EXTENSION OF LENGTH

STEEL CORE WlRE (6x36 ORDINARY LAYl

(6x25
ADVANCE MAIN-MADE FIBRE
NYLON BRAID LINE
NYLON SQUARE LINE
,,,\
\.!) POLYPROPYLENE SQUARE LlNE

Figure 15 Load extension curves for mooring lines

As in practice there is much uncertainty with respect to the actual distribution of the overall current, wind
and wave forces over the different mooring lines, mooring dolphins are often conservatively calculated
for the combined breaking strength of the different mooring lines that may be attached.

To verify and optimize mooring arrangements for berths in difficult situations, physical model tests are
still used. Although mathematical models exist, the complexity of the multiple mass-spring system and
of the different excitation forces often sheds doubt on the reliability of their results.

6.6 Special aspects of LPG/LNG jetties

The following aspects require special attention:

* The stringent safety requirements have an influence on the design in the form of more conservative
values for safety coefficients, acceptable stresses, etc.
* In the case of leakages or spills anywhere in the pipeline system, the very low temperatures of LNG
can expose steel structures to so-called 'cold showers' which cause an irreversible brittleness.
Therefore, exposed steel structures have to be protected, e.g. by applying a cover of concrete or by
incorporating the structure in a concrete floor.
* For the design of various parts of the jetty, especially the loading platform, spatial forms have to be
avoided which facilitate the development of so-called 'gas pockets'.
* By applying isolation material around the pipelines, the surface exposed to the wind doubles or
trebles with subsequent higher wind farces.

olg.trmj1992*10 page 20
 * Aeeeptabie deformations and rotations of the structure are smal! and are also determined by the
nature of the applied isolation materiais.
* An elaborate system of fire-fighting equipment is required.

7. STORAGE AREAS

The size of storage areas for oil and liquid gas depends on the number and dimensions of the tanks and
the distanees between these tanks. Space has to be added for pipetracks. roads. pumping stations,
buildings, etc. The dimensions of the tanks depend upon the size of the vessels, the intervals between
ship arrivals and the diversity of the products.

In case of oil tanks, the distance between the tanks is mainly determined by the criterion that each tank
has to be surrounded by a concrete or earth wall (bund) at such a distance and of such height, that in
the event of the collapse of a full tank, the oil can be contained within the bund. For example, a tank of
100,OOOmsurrounded
3 bya Sm high bund (4m useful) requires a surfaee of 25,OOOm2or 160mx160m.

Operational storage eapacity is, generally, in the order of 1 month consumption. In addition to this,
there may be a strategie storage.

Liquid gas storage is more dangerous than oil storage, and requires special safety provisions as
discussed already earlier. E.g., any escaping liquid from pipeline or tank rupture should be contained in
as smaUas possible an area to minimize the evaporation surface.

As a guideline for space requirements, an LNG terminal with a throughput of 6 million tons per year
reqUires, roughly, 15 to 20ha for storage, in 4 tanks of 60,000 to 80,OOOme3 ach. This direct need for
space is exclusive of the safety zone which must be kept free of uncontrolled sources of ignition.

8. OFFSHORE TERMINALS

8.1 SBM's

The advantage of an SBM is that the ship always takes the most favourable position in relation to the
combination of wind, current and waves. Tankers of up to 50,OOOdwtcan be handled within 24 hours.
The SBM is attractive due to the simplicity of the system and the low investment casts. Figure 16 shows
an SBM with multiple-chain anchors. The system with 6- or 8-chain anchor is the most comman.

As a comparison of the investment cast, a VLCC jetty, fully equipped and including local dredging,
requires an investment of approximately 2.5 times the investment needed for an SBM with a 36" sub-
marine pipeline of 5km length. In addition to the differences in investment casts, there are the expenses
for tug assistance which is required for vessels berthing alongside a jetty, but not required for those
mooring at SBM's. Mostly, 3 or 4 tugs are used. Their capacity depends on the size of the ship and is
aften calculated with: required bollard pull = (ship dispiacementj100,OOOx 60 + 40) tons. E.g., a
200,OOOdwttanker, with a displacement of 240,000 tons, would required a joint static pulling power of the
tugs of 180 to 200 tons.

For the SBM a simple mooring launch is sufficient.

But, on the contrary, maintenance casts for SBM's are considerably higher than for jetties. In particular,
the hoses (underwater between pipeline and buoy, and the floating hoses between buoy and ship)
require strict inspection and frequent replacement. although the technology has very much improved
over the years.

In general, for small to moderate yearly throughputs SBM's are more economical than jetties. Only with
big ships and for large throughputs, jetties become more economical.

olg.trmj1992*10
page 21
 _MSL
.
... Universa!
• connectors
-,•••,....-ChaJn pendant
-, (8 or 8 PCSJ

Twin IU~"" Anchors

or anCh~r piles
hOM lII1nQa Sea~··'" <,

.....' , ...,,,,,, ... i'" "'/,,/. ~

/ '<;
/ .
,
Subrnarine
pipeline "

I Manifold
\
\
\ /
~"
Redué';' T8~ hoses

Figure 16 SBM with multiple-chain anchoring

The following overview given in {ref 11} compares aspects of the main systems:

jetty !multiPle buoy moorings SBH's

[di reet Iby sea by sea

access from shore

nl.mber of hoses 11 . 8 11 . 4 11 - 3
I I I
time between arrival and start of pumpingl2 hours 15 hours 12 hours

mooring possible with wind up to 30 knots 1 1

and head waves of 11.0 . 2.0m 11.5 - 2.0m 2.0 - 2.5ml
I
oil transhipment with wind up to 40 knots
and head waves of up to 1.5 . 2.0m 12.0 - 2.5m
I
ship has to leave berth with wind of 60 I I
knots and waves higher than
I- 12.0 - 3.0m

preference regarding ease of berthing andl I

de-berthing 12 13

possible tide effects 1yes Ino

I I
damage sensitive parts Ifenders lbuoy chains Ihoses

assistance during berthing and mooring tugs and flatslflats and tugs desirablelflats

assistance for the departure tugs and flatslflats !none I

The attractiveness of SBM's is also based on the fact that they can be used in very deep water (figure
17).

page 22
olg.trmj1992*10
 SUlMAA'1E PtPEUIE
[SL8SEAMANIR:l.D
f
~~~~:;=;;;:_~~~~"-.~0~;/~/~;.~':~'
e.,:~._
...~.~.. ~==_=,,=.==~~~~~~~~~~
___
Figure 17 Deepwater SBM

An SBM buoy mainly consists of the following components:

* buoy body
* tuming table
* swivel
The buoy body is divided into watertight compartments. There should be ample freeboard to avoid
submerging of the buoy during maximum load. The maximum gradient may not exceed 10 to 15
degrees. The design load of the buoy should be equal to the breakload of the hawsers.

As regards selection of a buoy's location, it will be obvious that the sub-marine pipelines, i.e. the
distance to the shore, should be as short as possible, But, it is equally obvious that there must be a
zone of sufficient deep water around the buoy to ensure safe arrival and departure manoeuvres of the
ships for different directions of wind, waves and currents. For that reason, the distance from the buoy to
the critical waterdepth should be at least 3 times the length of the biggest ship.

8.2 Fixed offshore terminals

In areas where sea conditions are generally calm, the construction of fixed offshore terminals may be
considered, in the form of loadingjunloading platforms and dolphins. The platform may be connected to
the shore by pipe trestles or by sub-marine pipelines. Figure 18 shows an example of the latter: the
Kharg Sea Island loading terminal (Iran), designed for 500,000dwt tankers on one side and 300,000dwt
tankers on the other.

Another example and a quite innovative design is given in figures 19 and 20. It is the Brunei LNG
loading terminal, designed and operated by Shell. It is located some 4.2km offshore. The jetty head
with special loading crane has been connected to the onshore storage by means of a simple trestie
which carries the LNG pipelines. The ships are moored, assisted only by mooring launches, with the
bow towards the sea and the stern close to, but free from the jetty head. This concept was chosen to
avoid the need for tug assistance and channel dredging. The ships and the loading crane are

olg.trm/1992*10 page 23
specifically adapted to each other, and, hence, only the 7 LNG carriers of 75,OOOm3 each, especially
designed an built for the Brunei-Japan trade, can be handled here.

Construction was started in February. 1971 and was completed

in October. 1972 at a cost of some 1.15 million. bringing the total
capita I investment in the Crude Oil Terminal on Kharg Island to
1.67 million.
.... . ...
.

Figure 18 Sea Island, Kharg

The mooring system allows the ship to change its position during loading over an angle of 2x40°to keep
waves head-on all the time. The mooring system is a 'soft' system with the steel mooring lines provided
with a 60m nylon header. This allows a displacement in the horizontal plane of up to 12m. The loading
system is provided with a quick-release device (and no-return valves) which can be operated from the
ship. The terminal was inaugurated in 1972 and has given virtually trouble-free service since. A more
detailed description is given in {ref 1} and {ref 8}.

page 24
olg.trmj1992*10
 NOIlS PllE

Figure 19 layout of LNG berth

olg.trmj1992*10 page 25
Figure 20 LNG berth loading crane

olg.trmj1992*1Q page 26
 REFERENCES
{ref 1} W. Kemper, 'Olie en vloeibaar-gas terminals', PATO Cursus Havens 11,TU Delft 1980-1981.

{ref 2} 'The principal dimensions and operating draughts of bulk carriers', University of Liverpool,
Marine Transport Centre.

{ref 3} 'Optimallay-out and dimensions for the adjustment to large ships of maritime fairways in
shallow seas, seastraits and maritime waterways', PIANC (Permanent International Association
of Navigation Congresses), International Commission for the reception of large ships, 1980.

{ref 4} 'Improving the design of fender systems', PIANC, 1984.

{ref 5} 'Underkeel clearance for large ships in maritime fairways with hard bottorn', PIANC, 1985.

{ref 6} E.O. Truck and P.J. Taylor, 'Shallow wave problems in ship hydrodynamics', 8th Symposium
on Naval Hydrodynamics, Rome, 1970.

{ref 7} J.P. Hooft, 'The behaviour of a ship in head waves at restricted water depths', International
Shipbuilding Progress, no. 244, vol. 21.

{ref 8} J.M. Langeveld, 'The effects of technological changes on seaports', PIANC 24th Congress,
Leningrad, 1977.

{ref 9} F. Vasco Costa, 'The mechanics of impact and evaluation of the hydrodynamic mass; analytic
study of the problem of berthing', Proceedings of NATO advanced study institute on analytical
treatment of problems of berthing and mooring ships, july 1965, published by ASCE, New Vork.

{ref 10} J. Versluis, 'Exposed location single buoy mooring', Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, 1980, OTC 3805.

{ref 11} R. Maari, 'Offshore rnooring terminals', 1977.

{ref 12} Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF), 'Guidelines and recommendatioris for the
safe mooring of large ships at piers and sea islands', Witherby and Co Ltd, London.

{ref 13} OCIMF, 'Prediction of wind and current loads on VLCCs', 1977, Witherby and Co Ltd, London.

{ref 14} Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses 'Ufereinfassungen', EAU 1985, Erst & Sohn, Berlin.

{ref 15} (a) 'Methoden voor het berekenen van fysische eftekten', tweede druk, 1988.
(An english version is available of the first edition, 1979: 'Methods for the calculation of the
physical eftects of the escape of dangerous material'.)
(b) 'Methoden voor het bepalen van mogelijke schade', eerste druk 1990, Directorate General
of Labour, Ministry of Social Aftairs, Voorburg, The Netherlands.

{ref 16} 'Risk analysis of six potentially hazardous industrial objects in the Rijnmond area, a pilot study',
CORO Steering Committee, 1981, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

{ref 17} 'Analysis of the risk inherent in the importation of LPG in bulk at four sites in The Netherlands',
TNOjMinistry of Health and Environmental Protection, 1980, The Hague, The Netherlands.

{ref 18} A. Lannoy, 'Analyse des explosions air-hydrocarbure en milieu libre', Bulletin de la Direction
des Etudes et Recherches, no. 4, 1984, Electricité de France.

{ref 19} J.S. Balfour, J.C. Feben and D.L. Martin, 'Fendering requirernents, design fender impact
criteria', 1980, Proceedings of Ports'80, ASCE, Norfolk, USA.

{ref 20} A. Vrijburcht, 'Loads on fender structures and dolphins by sailing ships', Rijkswaterstaat
Communications, no. 49, 1991, Rijkswaterstaat,The Hague.

olg.trmj1992*10 page 27
 chapter 9.

DRY BULK CARGO TERMINALS

1992/09
 DRY BULK CARGO TERMINALS

page
CONTENTS

3
1. Introduction

Dry bulk commodities

3
2.
4
3. Dry bulk ships

Unloading systems
6
4.
General
6
4.1 8
4.2 Grabs
Pneumatic systems 10
4.3 12
4.4 Vertical conveyors
Bucket elevators
12
4.5 15
4.6 Slurry systems
Self-unloading vessels 16
4.7
Loading systems
17
5.
On-terminal handling and storage 19
6.
19
6.1 Transport systems 20
6.2 Stacking, storage and reclaiming 22
6.3 Blending, processing, weighing
Climatic and environmental considerations 23
7.
25
References

page 2
dbc.termj1992*09
 DRY BULK CARGO TERMINALS

1. INTRODUCTION

Betore going Into the different aspects of bulk terminals, it may be useful to elucidate the meaning of the
word bulk. Traditionally, the expression was used tor a commodity that was loaded or discharged in a
loose form, e.g. coal or unbagged grain. More recently, however, there has been a tendency to talk
about bulk shipments in the sense of shipments by the tuil shipload or substantial part-load, whether or
not the commodity is handled by bulk cargo methods in the traditional sense. So, one can speak of a
bulk shipment of steel plates, bundled timber or bagged cargo. For this latter form of bulk shipment,
also the terms of mass breakbulk or neobulk are used. However, the terminals to be discussed
hereafter are dealing with the actual bulk transport and, specifically with the dry bulk commodities.

One has to differentiate from the start between loading and unloading terminals. Contrary to virtually all
other terminals -liquid bulk, containers, general cargo-, the dry bulk terminals are mostly designed for
one-way traffic only and, as aresuit, loading and unloading terminals are basically different in character.

The best location of a dry bulk loading terminal is not necessarily close to the main centre of commercial
and industrial activities in the area, but rather in the vicinity of the origin ot the commodity, e.g. near the
mining centre. Important site solution criteria are the natural conditions, the land communications and
the available depth of water, since big bulk carriers have a considerable draught. Due to the large
quantities often handled in these ports, extensive storage facilities are required and the necessary land
area has to be available. As aresuit, worldwide many of the big loading terminals are so called
'dedicated' terminals or ports, designed and developed to handle only one particular commodity, but in
very large quantities.

Unloading terminals are much more diverse, both in location, size and cargo handling system. In
consequence, a relatively large part of this paper wil! deal with unloading terminals.

2. DRY BULK COMMODITIES

Dry bulk commodities can be divided into:

* major bulk (i) Iron ore

(ii) coal
(iii) grain '
(iv) phosphate
(v) bauxitejalumina
* minor bulk e.g. sugar, rice, bentonite, gypsum, wood shavings & chips, salt, fish,
copra

The total world maritime transport of minor bulk constitutes about one third of that of major bulk. A
short description of the major bulk commodities is given below.

(i) Iron ore

This is the most important dry bulk commodity, representing some 20% of the total dry carpo shipment
by weight. The are shipped has a stowage factor which varies between O.30m3and O.52m per metric
ton, with an average of 0.4m3•
Iron are, generally, is dusty and sa it is normally necessary to provide dust extraction equipment.
The density of iron are limits the stacking height in terminals because of the limits of the load-bearing
capacity of the ground. The angle of repose is usually less than 40°.
Sometimes, the iron are undergoes a concentration process before being shipped. The concentrate is
than baked into small spheres or pellets.

(ii) Coal
Coal has a stowage factor which varies between 1.2m3 and 1.4m3 per metric ton.
All types of coal, also anthracite, are subject to spontaneous combustion, caused by heating of the coal,
as it absorbs oxygen from the air. But, the sensitivity to this phenomenon differs trom one type to

dbc.termj1992"09 page 3
another, which is important for the planning of the coal stockpile, as it may rest riet the permissible
height.
Generally, the dust nuisance can be controlled by the use of water sprays at transfer points and
discharge positions and on stockpiles.
The angle of repose varies from 30° to 45°.

(iii) Grain
Under this heading belong wheat, barley, oats, rye, tapioca, etc. These grains have different densities
and properties, 50, consequently, they also have different storage and handling requirements. Since
grain is a perishabie commodity, it is necessary to have proper ventüation and protection against
weather conditions and pests during shipment and storage. In the grain trade, variation in seasonal
conditions results in large f1uctuations in transportatlon requirements. Various types of vessels of
different sizes are used, including combined carriers.

(iv) Phosphate ,
Phosphate rock is the main raw material for the fertilizer industry. It is very dusty and absorbs moisture
very rapidly, which can create problems for unioading.
The average stowage factor is a.92m3 to 1.0m3 per metric ton. Practically all shipments are in the form
of a powdery concentrate. The material is very fine, and special provisions have to be made to prevent
dust problems.

(v) Bauxite/alumina
Bauxite ore, when processed into alumina, is the basic raw material for the production of primary
aluminium.
The two raw materials differ greatly in bulk density. Bauxite stows at 0.SOm3to a.88m3 per metric ton,
and alumina at a.6m3• Handling characteristics are also different.
The trend is towards conversion of bauxite to alumina at the souree, which halves the transportation
requirements.
Particularly alumina is dusty and requires precautions against soil and air pollution.

3. DRY BULK SHIPS

Dry bulk carriers are designed for the transport of commodities such as grain, coal, iron ore derivates,
bauxite, phosphate, cement, etc. Carriers have also been designed and built for the transport of both
dry and liquid bulk cargo. These are the so-called OBO carriers (ore/bulk/oil). Since the holds are
alternatively used for the dry and liquid bulk cargo, they need to be cleaned at every change, which is a
disadvantage. The OCO carriers (ore cum oil) have separate holds for liquid and dry cargo, in this way
avoiding the many cleaning operations. Another type is the OSO carrier (ore/slurry/oU) .. Neither the
OBO nor the OCO carriers have been used on a big scale, due to their limited application potentiais.

The loading of bulk carriers virtually always occurs by shore-based equipment. Unloading may be done
by shore-based equipment -the most common method- as weil as by ship-borne equipment. In the latter
case, one can distinguish between geared bulk carriers and self-unloaders. Geared bulk carriers are
vessels equipped with deck-mounted grab cranes, generally one for every hold. Self-unloaders are
equipped with a continuous unloading system. It usually consists of one or more longitudinal horizontal
belt conveyors in the lowest part of the ship, which are fed from funnel-shaped holds through
hydraulically operated valves or doors. The horizontal conveyor unloads onto an inclined or vertical
conveyor which, in its turn, transfers the cargo on a third conveyor mounted on a revolving boom (up to
SOmlong). From there, the cargo drops into a shore-based hopper (see figure 22).

These self-unloaders originate from the coal trade on the big lakes in the USA, but are more widely used
now in different parts of the world for the shorter transport distances (coal from Sumatra to Java) or for
through-transport from a main port to a secondary port or industry terminal (coal from Rotterdam to
Sines, Portugal). The advantage is that no shore cranes are required, but particularly that a simple
dolphin berth (instead of a continuous marginal quay) is sufficient to berth the ship, even in case of very
wide slopes (see figure 1). The disadvantage is that the ships are more expensive per ton capacity and
more vulnerable to mechanical breakdowns, e.g. a broken conveyor belt is difficult to repair in the
confined space at the bottom of the ship.

dbc.term/1992*09 page 4
 ST ocJ( 1'1LE

11'1111/'1'111""" '\'1' \'1'1'1'1'1

f"lo~UJ<; l>ot.P~/",J t
'\ T'"C.
13ReA-"iT
/ HD""•• "\70..,./'.....'.. «"
DoL?Wu"
""""'l~"" / Ccûv&:yoiè. 1300M

Figure 1 Dolphin berth for self-unloaders

[source {ref 1})

For smaller required capacities, the short sea traders are used, also called coasters. They have the
advantage of being able to visit virtually all ports due to their restricted draught. They are equipped for
transport of bulk and general cargo and, usually, have their own unloading gear.

For general information, curves are given showing the relationship between the length overall, beam and
full-Ioad draught as a function of the DWT for the main range of conventional dry bulk carriers (see
figure 2). The biggest bulk carriers in existence to date measures 350,OOOdwtand has a Loa of about
380m, B = 63m and d = 23m.

For non-conventional bulk carriers, typical dimensions are:

self-unloadersshort sea traders

dwt 20,000 - 70,000 300 - 3,000
Loa 200 - 250m 40 - 95m
W 20 - 30m 5.5 - 13m
H 10 • 17m 3 - 8.5m
Or 7.5 - 12.5m 2.5-- 6m

It is emphasized that the type of cargo Oow or high relative density) is governing the actual draught of
the carrier. Detailed information is given in {ref 1}.

The actual draught, in its turn, contrals the possibility to enter a port with restricted depth. Therefore, it
is important to judge the most efficient -and economic- relation between:
* types of commodities to be transported, and their bulk densities
* type of carrier most suitable tor that purpose
* cargo combination possibilities
* technica! restriction of ports on eall

dbc.termj1992*Q9 page 5
 ft I m

"'"'j
tCl» :al

--
-
-
~L_~
'10
I
__ ~~ __ ~~ __ ~~
length overall

__ ~~~~~~~
zo 4Q to 10 rco 120 '40 110 'Ia 200 220 ~4Q

ft I m
, .. 10

,...
...
'2D
beam
,... »
..
.. 80 10 100. 120 '.0 180 'Ia 200 220 240

ft I m

..'"
..
draught fully loaded

Figure 2 Principal dimensions of dry bulk carriers

4. UNLOADINGSYSTEMS

4.1 General

There is a variety of unloading systems and equipment, some continuous, some discontinuous, and with
a wide range of capacities. The main systems are (see figure 3):
* grabs
* pneumatic systems
* vertical conveyors
* bucket elevators
* slurry systems
* self-discharging vessels

dbc.termj1992*09 page 6
 vertical
elevator
2
o _.:.-~9 '>;,6
\}\) v\:
5 6
pneumatiel
hydraulic gantries

61 8·02

lA{!(t~
8
rtJJ

elevator

E3 E5

oob
00
00
G6

G
pipeline

Figure 3 Ship unloading systems for bulk materials

[source Bulk Solids Handling]

The capacity of the unloading equipment is usually decisive for the throughput capacity of the terminal,
as the capacities of other terminal equipment should be geared to that of the unloading facilities.
However, there is confusion in defining capacity. The following three definitions are currently used:

(a) Peak capacity, also knowas cream digging rare, is defined as the maximum (hourly) unloading
rate under absolutely optimum circumstances: a full hold, an experienced crane operator and at
the start of his shift.

dbc.termj1992*09
page 7
 This unloading rate has to be the design capacity of all down-stream plant and equipment: belt
conveyors, weighing equipment and stackers. If not, it would give rise to frequent blockages and
stoppages in the cargoflow. It is, therefore, of prime importance for the systems designers and
equipment suppliers.

(b) Rated ca pa city, also known as tree digging rate, Is defined as the unloading rate, based upon the
cycle time of a full bucket or grab trom the digging point inside the vessel to the receiving hopper
on the quay and back, under average conditions and established during a certain length of time.

(c) Effective capacity is defined as the average hourly tonnage attained during the unloading of the
entire cargo of a ship. The necessary interruptions tor trimming, cleaning up, moving between
holds, etc., are taken into account, but not the scheduled non-working periods, such as night time,
weekends, etc.

The etfective capacity multiplied by the annual operational availability of the berth times the permissible
rate of occupation gives the annual berth capacity which is the main parameter for the port planner. In
other words, whereas the equipment designer is primarily interested in the peak capacity, the port
planner's interest is in effective capacity.

For the grab unloading system, the different capacities relate about as follows:
* peak capacity 2.5
* rated capacity 2.0
* effective capacity 1.0
* effective capacity 0.8
(unfavourable conditions, i.e. narrow hatches)

For the continuous unloading systems, the differences are smaller, but vary considerably from one
system to another. For example, a mechanical chain unioader for raw tapioca still requires trimming and
cleaning up in the hold, which results in a large discrepancy between rated and effective capacity, but
self-unloading vessels can maintain the rated capacity over almost all of the unloading time.

T 0 add to the confusion, port authorities, in their marketing efforts, at times use a 'maximum berth
capacity' or sometimes simply called 'berth capacity', which is the effective capacity, but calculated for a
100% rate of occupation. Such figures have no real significance because in those conditions, a
tremendous congestion would develop and the port or terminal would be out of business in a very short
time.

In the tollowing, the main unloading systems will be discussed.

4.2 Grabs
The grab, normally, is used for picking up material from the vessel hold and discharging it into a hopper
located at the quay edge, feeding onto a belt conveyor (see figure 4).

The attainable handling rate for a grab is determined bya number of factors, such as hoisting speed,
acceleration of the grab bucket, travelling speed. horizontal and vertical distances, closing time of the
grab. skill of the operator. the properties of the material being handled. shape and size of cargo holds,
and cleaning requirements. Mechanical restrictions and operator fatigue restrict the number of crane
cveles per hour that can be attained to about 60. though 40 is closer to a normal average. The payload
deadweight ratio of the grab bucket effects the net production; the normal ratio is 1:1, but new designs
are approaching 2:1.

A bulk cargo terminal for a range of commodities will require a set of 2 or 3 grab buckets per crane (one
in use, one on standby andjor one in repair). Commodities with signifieantly different physical
characteristics need an additional set of grabs. The types of grabs vary considerably, depending on the
product which has to be handled. The principal materials handled often by grab are iron ore, coal,
bauxite, alumina and phosphate rock. Smaller, mobile, grabbing cranes deal with raw sugar, bulk
fertilizers, petroleum coke and varieties of beans and nutkernels.

dbc.termj1992*09 page 8
 <A~,~ve~~ 'BooM
llof 'R'" SEl) "PD<."l"oN

70000

-.-.
~~----~~~~~----------~
I
.1
Figure 4 Heavy grab ship unioader by PWH with 85t lifting capacity.
The unloading capacity is 4,200 metric tons per hour on coal.
[source Bulk Solids Handling)

Another type of grabbing crane, different trom the already mentioned overhead trolley crane, is the
revolving grabbing crane (see figure 5).

Here, the grab lifts the material and discharges it into a hopper at the tront to eliminate slewing during
operation. The hopper feeds a conveyor or it can discharge directly into trucks or railwagons. Ufting
capacity of a grab goes up to 85t (EMO, Maasvlakte).

Typical ranges of rated capacities are:

* travelling overhead trolley grabbing crane unioader 500 - 2500 tons/hour
* revolving grabbing crane, lifting only 500 - 700 tons/hour
* revolving grabbing crane, with 90° slewing 200 - 250 tons/hour

Occasional lower and higher capacities occur.

Based on measurements, Hoogovens Ijmuiden distinguishes the unloading process in three stages with
decreasing productivity as indicated in figure 6_

dbc.termj1992*09 page 9
 llrab

/"
quay COfMtYOI belta

Figure 5 Revolving grab crane

1500 .-1
1-1-------9
I I

I :
1 I
1000 -I :
1 I
I :
... I I
~5
...... 500 -,
1 :
I
Ol
c:
...
Ol
Q.

'"'"
.1 G :
...co
c: I
2
I free digging
stage
I intennediate
I stage
I trinrning
I stage of
I
I
I 50 % of the load
o -,--,----,--,--,--,
135: of the loadl1S :: Ioac
the
I
o 20 40 60 80 100-%

~
time as a percentage of the unloading time

Figure 6 Unloading rate as a function of unloading time

[source {ref 4})

4.3 Pneumatic systems

Pneumatic equipment is classified into:

* vacuum or suction types (from several piaces to one spot)
* pressure or blowing types (from one spot to several places)

dbc.term/1992*09 page 10
Bulk cargo with low specific gravity and viscosity, e.g. grains, cement, pawdered coat, fish, fish-meal,
alumina. etc., may be handled by pneumatic systems. A disadvantage of the pressure type Is the dust
problem.

The construction of vacuum pneumatic conveyors is simpie, and there is no spillage of materials during
transport. However, the power consumption is high, compared with. other transporting systems.

The pneumatic elevator can be:

* quay-based (see figure 7)
* floating (mounted on a panteon)

1. Combination vacuum/pressure system: 2. Combination vacuum/pressure system:

conveylng graln trom shlp Into bagging conveylng trom shlp to barge
hopper

,-1
I .

, J I
._J i
: I

: I

3. Vacuum-oniy system: 4. Vacuumlng grain trom shlp:

transferring graln trom shlp Into truck loadlng graln by gravlty Into barge
or raUwagon loadlng hopper

Figure 7 Portable pneumatic handling equipment

[source UNCTAD Port Planning Handbook]

Typical unloading rates (rated capacity) are in the 200 to 500tjh range, but capacities as high as
1,OOOtjhoccur.

In case of relatively smal! throughputs andjor non-dedicated terminals, portable pneumatic equipment
may be used with a capacity of about 50l/h. More than one unit may be used at a time, serving
different holds (see figure 8).

dbc.term/1992*09 page 11
 1 conveymç plpeltne
2 receiver
3 fill"r
4.blow"r
5 drschcrcer
6 matenar transfer conveyor

() ®
Rotarydisch.rger, rotary valv. or lirtock

Figure 8 Pneumatic suction conveying system tor ship unioader

[source Bulk Solids Handling]

4.4 Vertical conveyors

Different types of vertical conveyors for unloading purposes are:

typical rated capacity:

* chain conveyor 200 tonsjhour
* vertical screw conveyor 900 tonsjhour
* spiral conveyor 75 tonsjhour

The chain conveyor is usuaüy built inside a rectangular casing, whilst the vertical screw conveyor (see
figure 9) is a full-blade screw contained in a tubular casing. Transport by chain conveyors is restricted
to dry, friable materiais, whilst the screw conveyor can deal efficiently with fine-powdered and granular
materiais, suitably sized lumpy materiais, semi-liquid materials and fibrous material. The throughput is
restricted to the rate at which material can freely flow into the feed aperture.

For unloading or loading of bulk (in bags or boxes), avertical spiral conveyor may be used (see
figure 10).

4.5 Bucket elevators

A bucket elevator consists of a continuously rotating bucket wheel, suspended from the luffing boom of
the travelling unioader. This bucket wheel digs up the material and feeds a continuous bucket elevator.
The quay has to be constructed to withstand the dynamic digging forces and the weight of the structure
of the equipment. Alternatively, a bucket chain elevator can be used, with the buckets acting as digging
scoops. As in the case of the wheel elevator, the bucket elevator is suspended from the luffing boom.
Otten, still the full hold of a ship cannat be cavered whilst the different travelling, luffing and slewing
motions to be performed during unloading make the equipment mechanically vulnerable (see figure 11).

dbc.termj1992*09 page 12
Figure 9 Feeder tor coal with collectlng vanes and
dlgging blades

spiral conveyor
* unloadlng 1500 bags ot SOkgper hour
* loading 2100 bags of SOkgper hour
* bulk loadlng BOOt/hmaximum

Figure 10 SpiraJconveyor

dbc.term/1992*09 page 13
 .__-.
......
......
....
..

Figure 11 Movements of a continuous unioader

[souree prof G. Prins, 'Stortgoed Terminals', TU Delft]

Maintenance costs of bucket elevators may be considerable. In terms of cost per ton unloaded, they
appear to be less efficient than grabs, taking into account the total capital expenditure and the operating
costs. However, the free digging rates of the biggest unioaders built to date are around 5,OOOtjh,
against about 4,OOOtjhfor a grab system.

A bucket elevator has the following tunctional features:

* The bucket elevator assembly is always held vertical for easy operation due to the application of the
parallel link (pantograph) motion.
* The bucket elevator can rotate freely to enable high unloading efficiency and easy operation.
* The swing-out and catenary mechanism of the bottom half of the elevator are provided for easy
access of material under the hatch overhang and tor efficient clean-up operation.
* An L shaped configuration can be attained by swinging the elevator 90 at the second sprocket wheel
0

tor digging the bottom layer (see figure 12).

* The elevator, the boom conveyor and the transfer points are totally enclosed to eliminate dust.

dbc.term/1992*09 page 14
 * An automated unloading system can be provided.
* Variabie speed control of the bucket elevator can be provided for handling materials with different
densities.

r----------------- -----,
IHl's Continuous Ship Unloader for Reynolds MetaIs
Co., Corpus Christi, Texas. is designed to unioad
70,000 DWT ships at !he rate of 2,000 t/h bauxite.
Vear of delivery: 1991.
(Photo taken during erection of machine)
(seealso"bulk solids handling" 2/91, p. 539)

- .'.... '''-.~

Figure 12 General arrangement and main operating functions of IHl's continuous unioader
[source Bulk Solids Handling]

In some designs for free-flowing material, the buckets are attached to a steel wire which is pulled over
and through the cargo (see figure 13). In other installations, the digging function is pertormed by a
bucket wheel that unloads onto avertical conveyor (see figure 14).

4.6 Slurry systems

Ore and coal, after mixing with water, can be transported as slurry. But, so far this form of bulk
transport did not yet find a very wide application. Coal slurry pipelines occur in the USA for the land
transport of coal to powerplants and, e.g., in India for iron ore to a pellet plant. Ta limit pumping
velocities, and thus transportation cost, the coal or ore has to be ground very fine, which gives problems
for the later de-watering. The lower limits of transport distance and transport quantities for economic
viability appear to be in the order of 50km and 5million tjy respectively.

In the maritime transport, it is the Marcona Corporation which has pioneered the slurry system, using
vessels from 50,OOOdwtto 140,OOOdwt, a.o. for the transport of iron ore from Australia to Japan. But,
worldwide the maritime transport of slurries is only a small fraction of the total bulk transport.

One of the difficulties is the environmental problem posed by the slurry water. In case of land transport,
the slurry water, after the de-watering process, can be returned by separate pipeline for re-use. But,
when loading a ship -for economic reasons, the slurry is transported in the form of about 85% solids and
15% water-, the excess water generally wiJlhave to be collected and treated to avoid serious water
pollution. This Is expensive and, in case of SBM loading terminals, also technically difficult.

dbc.termj1992*Q9
page 15
 / / " ..

Figure 13 Continuous unioader with 762mm buckets supported by

arevolving crane. Enclosed elevating, dumping and
take-away design with integrated dust collecting system.
[souree Bulk Solids Handling)

At the unloading terminal, waterjets have to be used in the ship's holds to bring the solid matter again in
suspension, which is necessary for pumping. Before use in power plant or blast furnace, the slurry
must, once again, be de-watered to an acceptable low water content of 10% or less. This can be done
for not too fine materials in settling ponds, and otherwise by filters, cyclones or thermal drying.
Whatever process Is selected, there is, once again, the problem to get rid of the polluted excess slurry
water, which explains the limited application of the slurry system tUIthe present.

4.7 Self-unloading vessels

A discussion of these vessels and some of their advantages and disadvantages has already been given
in section 3. A more complete listing of these advantages and disadvantages is given hereafter.

Advantages
* Reduction in voyage times due to high unloading rates (up to 10,OOOtjhand over for iron ore and big
vessels).
* Multi-port discharge because no -or only very simple- shore-based unloading equipment is required.
* Cargo blending; cargo of different qualities, requiring blending, can be loaded in separate holds and
blended into the conveyor belt system.
* Ship discharging flexibility: direct to stockpiles
into hoppers located on platforms off-shore
into other vessels
into warehouses or silos with a rooftop access
* Environmental and pollution control; stringent requirements can be met.
* Simple and cheap berth structure; a few dolphins will do.
* No stevedoring assistance required.

page 16
dbc.term/1992*09
 1. Bucket wheel
2. Vertical cel! conveyor
3. Boom conveyor
4. Portal tower
5. Horizontal leed conveyor
6. Stacker

Figure 14 Design of the continuous bulk unioader

[source Bulk Solids Handling]

Disadvantages
(as compareel to conventional bulk carriers)
* Higher capital cost of vessel (about 15%).
* Higher crew costs; specializeel unloading experts requireel.
* Lower carrying capacity; the self-unloading equipment takes space.
* Greater mechanical vulnerability and, thus, higher downtime.

5. LOADINGSYSTEMS

The loading of bulk cargo is virtually always a continuous process in which one or more movable ship
loaders are feel by a belt conveyor system from the stockpile and drop the cargo in the different holds of
the ship. In case of dry and dusty products, the ship loader will have to be provideel with a telescopic or
spiral chute to reeluce drop height and fall velocities.

Load capacities vary from a tew thousands tjh to 20,000 tfh (Tubarao, BraziI). Particularly tor the very
large loading terminals, receiving big bulk carriers and requiring great water depths, the selection of

dbc.termjl992*09 page 17
location. terminal layout and loading system should be a joined eftort of mechanical and civil engineers
as the respective problems are very much inter-related.

The most common ship loader is a travelling crane on a quaywall or jetty. to which the ship is berthed
(see figure 15). But. as tor big bulk carriers quaywalls of some 300m length are required. with a great
retaining height. the civil sub-structure becomes relatively expensive.

For that reason, the so-called radial and linear ship loaders have been developed. which are less
expensive in terms of sub-structure (see figure 16).

Figure 15 Loading terminal

[source prof G. Prins]

radial shiploader travelling shiploader

150 RUNWAy

r
Ie
c
j j

1eo.000 OWT

ieo 220 HATCH COVERAgE

HATCH \:OVERAGE

linear shiploader

220 HATCH COVERAGE

Figure 16 Shiploaders
[source P. Soros]

page 18
dbc.termj1992*09
 Unear loaders
The bridge of the loader rotates around a pivot, and is supported by this pivot and by a straight railtrack
parallel to the ship. Apart from rotating, the bridge also travels longitudinally across the pivot. Due to
th is combined movement, the frontside of the bridge moves parallel to the ship's side. In order to reach
the holds of the vessel, a loading boom with horizontal and vertical motion is connected to the bridge.

Radial loaders
The bridge of this loader also moves around a pivot, but is supported at the other end by a circular
track. A telescopic loading boom is attached to the bridge. This boom can reach all the holds of the
ship which is berthed at a number of dolphins placed in one line.
An altemative to th is system, allowing the ship to head in different directions, has the dolphins placed in
a circle segment, or provides a buoy mooring for the ship. The latter solutions are used for unsheltered
terminals to minimize wave effects.

6. ON-TERMINAL HANDLING ANC STORAGE

6.1 Transport systems

Transport systems are required to bring the cargo from the quayside to the storage area(s), and vice-
versa. These storage areas can be in the open air or under cover in sheds or silos. This transport is
mostlyeffectuated by conveyors, but occasionally by cable ways -a looped steel wire with buckets-,
special rail cars or off-highway trucks. Here, the discussion will be restricted to conveyors.

Most conveyors are belt conveyors which are widely used for handling of dry bulk. In theory, unlimited
distances can be covered, but the use of conveyors is generally restricted, for transport-economic
reasens. to a few kilometres. For longer distances, rail or road transport often becomes more
appropriate, although belt conveyors of more than 100km occur, e.g. for the transport of phosphate from
mine to port in Morocco.

Advantages of the belt conveyor system are:

* simpte construction
* economy of maintenance ,
* efficiency, with low driving power requirements
* adaptability
* complete discharge of handled materials

A disadvantage is the limited vertical angle at which normal belt conveyors can operate. A substantial
difference in height requires a considerabie amount of space.

Conveyor beits tor bulk materials are troughed; flat beits are used for packaged materiais. For special
applications, so-called pipe conveyors and hose belt conveyors have been developed (see figure 17a-b-
c). It are essentially normal troughed conveyors which beyond the loading and off-loading points are
tolded into a U-shape or circle which, first of all, results in an enclosed, dust-free system, and, in the
second place, allows rather narrow curves and steep gradients to be introduced. For the conventional
straight conveyors, transfer of cargo from one belt to another occurs at transfer points, which for dusty
commodities have to be enclosed (see figure 18).

Other types of conveyors are:

* Chain conveyors
This conveyor has a f1ightedchain which moves inside a totally enclosed casing with a partition at
half width. In can be used up to an angle limited by the materIaI characteristics. The process is
dust-free and is particularly suitable for the handling of grain.
* Screw conveyors
This very compact form of handling takes place inside a totally enclosed casing, either U-shaped or
tubular.
* Fluidizing gravity conveyors
The conveyor consists of a sloping trough covered with a porous medium. This type of conveyor is
particularly made for the transport of powders. When air is passed upward through the porous cover,
the powder mass expands and behaves as a f1uid.

dbc.termj1992*Q9 page 19
Figure 17 a. Aero-bande system * b. Tokai system * c. PWH/Conti system
[souree Bulk Solids Handling]

Figure 18 Enclosed transfer point

[souree tref 4}]

6.2 Stacking, storage and reclaiming

Stockpiles must be planned in such a way, that a maximum amount of material can be stored on a
minimum area. The possibility thereto depends on the bearing capacity of the subsoil, the
characteristics of the materials and on the outreach and height of staekers and reclaimers.

dbc.termj1992*09 page 20
If weather conditions may affect the quality of the material. a covered storage wiJl be required. The feed-
in generally takes place from a high belt conveyor, situated along the apex of the building, and
reclaiming occurs by means of a scraperjreclaimer or underground conveyor (see figure 19).

CMSCHARGE GATES .w:Ji

ruNNEL CONVEYOR

.
t=::::::I
SCAL'
,.
Figure 19 Storage shed

The area required for stockpile depends on the following factors:

* height and shape of stockpiles
* size of shipload distribution
* ship arrival distribution
* through-transport distribution
* ship loading and unloading rates
* strategie reserves to be maintained
* relation gross - net area
Both the ship arrival distribution and the through-transport distributlon, in addition to normal stochastical
fluctuations, may weil show seasonal fluctuations. Theretore, no general rules apply, and area
requirements have to be calculated according to the specific local conditions that apply.

Bulk commodities must often be segregated according to their properties. For unloading terminals, each
stockpile must be able to accommodate at least a tuil shipload trom each souree.

When using motortrucks or railcars tor transport from ship to storage, it may be convenient to use a
storage bunker or truck silo in conjunction with the open storage. Special care must be taken toavold
segregation of free-falling material, entering an empty bunker. Specially designed spiral chutes arrest the
tree faUof the material.
The equipment used for bringing the bulk cargo into storage are the so-caUedstaekers, whilst tor
retrieving material from the stockpile reclaimers are used. Staekers are travelling machines with a
stacking boom with belt conveyor. Transfer of the bulk material from the main transport conveyor onto
the stacker conveyor occurs by means of a tripper (see figure 20) which is attached to the stacker and,
thus, can move back and forth along the stockpile.

Reclaimers are similar travelling machines, but equipped with a reclaiming device, e.g. a bucket wheel,
and an intermediate belt conveyor. Sometlrnes, bulldozers are required to push parts of the stockpile
within reaeh ot the reclaimer.

Often, the capabilities of stacking and ot reclaiming is built into one and the same machine, which results
in the weU-knownstaeker-reelaimers (see figure 21).

dbc.termjl992*09 page 21
 Lifllng-<lff sectIO"

Ret"'" pulley

Con"rtll'lg dorectoon

~~-~ Lengt" of aporDach I

Figure 20 Principle of belt loop or tripper

/
L.,F \
I !::t:_
\ I . I _ ....

Figure 21 Stackèr-reclaimer

The above equipment is virtually all bulky and heavy, and requires sturdy and heavy cranetrack
foundations.

6.3 Blending, processing, weighing

Particularly for iron ore and coal, blending of different grades is required before delivery to the
powerplant or steel industry, with rather strict requirements of the homogeneity of the mix. The desired
result can be achieved by specific stacking and reclaiming methods. For example, the stockpile may be
built up in longitudinal layers of different grades, whilst reclaiming is effectuated by transverse scraping
drum reclaimers. A great variety of tailor-made solutions may be found in different terminals around the
world.

Processing of dry bulk is limited in port terminals. It is mostly restricted to bagging of grains, sugar,
cement and similar products.

Bulk commodities must often be weighed immediately prior to loading or after unloading, for payment
purposes or tor checking against shipping documents. Batch weighing methods are employed as weil

dbc.termj1992*09 page 22
as continuous weighing of the material on a moving belt conveyor. Sampling is sometimes required to
satisfy the customer. For obtaining a correct composition of a particular batch, it is essentiaI to take a
series of samples automatically at timed intervals.

Figure 23 gives a bird's eye view of a modem multi-product bulk terminal.

7. CUMATIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

The climatic conditions prevailing at the terminal location may influence the planning of the stockyard
operation to agreat extent. In very cold areas, speciallow temperature steel has to be used for the
construction of the reclaimer equipment, gears have to be heated, and one has to cope with high cutting
forces in frozen material. In rainy seasons, some materials require covered storage.

The same is true where the environment must be protected against dust. Environmental considerations .
begin to play an ever increasing role. As aresuit, provisions like a waterscreen at hopper openings, fully
enclosed conveyor beits, no-spill grabs and partly or fully enclosed storage are common practice at new
installations.

Principal Dimensions of the Vessel

Length between p.p. (m) 239

Width, moulded (m) 38
Depth, moulded (m) 21,5
Draught (m) 15.0
Deadweight (DWT) 96,000

Design Conditions
Cargo Coal, iron ore, grain, gravel, etc.
---.-.------1
Boom ::._Da::_:t::._a
Unloading Capacity Iron ore: 6,000 Vh
Length (m) 82
Siewing (deg.) ± 90 Coal: 5,000 mJ/h
Hoisting (deg.) max. 18 Power consumption
at max. discharging
~acity about 2,200 kW

Figure 22 Self-unloading gear of the MjV WesternjEastern Bridge

[source Bulk Solids Handling]

dbc,termj1992*09 page 23
Figure 23 Swartouw terminal, Rotterdam

dbc.termj1992*09 page 24
REFERENCES
{1} The Principal Dimensions and Operating Draughts of Bulk Carriers, University of Liverpool, Marine
Transport Centre.

{2} Bulk Solids Handling, the International Journal of Storing and Handling Bulk MateriaIs, TransTech
Publications, Germany.

{3} Self-discharging Bulk Carriers - a Market Study, Ocean Shipping Consultants, 1991.

{4} Prins, prof ir G., Stortgoed Terminals, PATO kursus Haven- en Terminal Planning, 1980-1981.

Ref {4} gives an extensive reference list.

dbc.termj1992*09 page 25
 chapter 10.

FISHERY PORTS

1992/12
 FISHERY PORTS

page
CONTENTS
3
1. Introduction
3
2. Types of fishery ports

Simple landing places 3

2.1
Coastal fishery ports 3
2.2
2.3 Near-distance fishery ports 3
Ocean fishery ports 4
2.4

Site selection
7
3.
Fishing vessels
7
4.
Port planning
10
5.
Access channels 10
5.1 11
5.2 Basins and berths

5.2.1 Basin width 11

5.2.2 Acceptable wave action at the berths 11
5.2.3 Berthing arrangements 11
5.2.4 Required quay length 13
5.2.5 Quay apron width 15
5.2.6 Quay level 15
5.2.7 Ship maintenance and repair 15
5.2.8 Fishflow 17
5.2.9 Buildings and other facilities 18

Unloading equipment 19
6.
Fishery port organization and management 20
7.
References 21
8.

page 2
fisheryj1992*12
 FISHERY PORTS

1. INTRODUCTION

Over the years, fish has gained importance as a source of food (protein). While fishing in many waters
is restricted by quotas, most developing countries bordering the sea are -and wil! be- looking for ways to
create or improve their fisheries and are, therefore, involved in fishery port development.

A fishery port can involve, in addition to the unloading, handling and marketing of fish through a
specialized terminal, industrial areas where fish is processed, and also service and maintenance facilities
for vessels, nets and gear.

Fishing activity is dependent on the availability and nearness of fish, and is mostly seasonally influenced.
Therefore, the fishing activity shows peaks and lows with either the majority of the fishing fleet at sea or
almost all of the fleet resting at the port.

It is advisable to separate fishery activities from commercial port activities. First of all, for reasons of
nautical safety, small-craft traffic, including the movement of fishing vessels, should be kept away from
deepsea ports as much as possible. Secondly, waterdepth requirements and, thus, basic design criteria
are totally different for the two types of ports. Thirdly, the smell of a fishing port will often not be
acceptable in commercial ports, whilst, reciprocally. the fishery products may become contaminated by
e.g. ore dust. Fourthly, the type of operations, the equipment used and the mentality of the people
running the ships and the terminals are so different that they do not fit very weil under one and the same
umbrella.

2. TYPES OF FISHERY PORTS

Fishery ports can be distinguished according to the purpose they serve, e.g. as follows:

2.1 Simple landing places

They serve fishermen, bound to a certain location, generally operating on fishing grounds at a short
distance away. It may be that such landing piaces can hardly provide any natural shelter for beaching
and launching of vessels. Sometimes, protection is available when the landing place is located in bays,
rivermouths, estuaries and the like.

In order to improve the effectiveness. the landing place should provide a ramp or small berthing quay,
together with simple facilities for handling of the catch. The provision of some services and facilities for
maintenance and repair will increase its value.

2.2 Coastal fishery ports (see table i)

These are the home-base for small coastal fishing vessels up to some 20m in length. Fishing grounds
may be a bit further away, requiring trips of a few days' duration.

The vessels are equipped with somewhat more sophisticated gear and equipment, compared with those
of the first mentioned group. Hence, more protection is required, and the provision of services, with the
related infrastructure, should be more elaborate.

2.3 Near-distance fishery ports (see table ii)

These will frequently include a number of provisions, required by the smaller coastal vessels, but they
are mainly meant for vessels with lengths from 25m to 4Om. Fishery grounds may be several hundred
miles way, requiring trips of several days to some weeks.

Vessels may be equipped with limited processing facilities on board, e.g. heading, gutting and icing in
containers and, occasionally, with a chilling unit. Navigationàl aids and other mechanical and electronic
equipment belong to their outfit. The ports must, therefore, provide the means to supply, repair and
service these types of equipment in addition to the normal port services.

fisheryj1992*12 page 3
2.4 Oeean fishery ports (see table iii)
Such ports are used as home-base by the large, modern factory-type fishing vessels. These vessels are
equipped to make long trips on the ocean, and they have agreat flexibility as to the location of its home-
base. When fishing at faraway locations, they may stop at ports of call for discharging purposes and for
taking provisions. Sometimes, servicing takes place at advanced bases and even transhipment can be
established to enable the vessel to remain a langer time on the fishing grounds. Processing of the fish
takes place on board, such as deepfreezing, canning, etc.

The port has to be fully equipped to handle and maintain these types of ocean going vessels, and to
deal with the large, but already processed catches. In consequence, normal commercial port facilities
are aften used by these vessels.

IITEM CHARACTERISTICS IREQUIRED FACILITIES COMMENTS

I
I
IFacilities for Different types of fish are lined uplHandling sheds
catches one by one, then auctioned off. I
I
I
Fish is kept fresh, packed in ice
and shipped off inmediately.
Ice-storehouses
I(Freezer warehouses) I

I1 Iseabream and other high-price fish ILive fish-tanks Ispecial live-fish transport
are often shipped live. I Ivehicles are necessary to
I I Iconvey live fish to consuni ng
1
.. I Idistrict.
I
IFacilities forlStorage warehouses and repair areas IFishing gear warehouse I
Ifishing boats will be necessary when nets and IFishing gear drying areal
land gear simi lar fishing gear items are USed'l
When located away from neighbour 10il storage tank
I ports, the need will exist for fuel (Oil supply equipment)
Ioi l suppl ies at home port. I

I For small boats, it will be easier Slipway

to use the s lipway than the wharf. I
It will also be possible to perform I
I
I
maintenance and repair work, such as
lbarnacle removing and painting.
I I I
Facilities forlAreas for gathering, discussions, IFishing village centre
Ipeople training and other activities by
I llocal people are a must. I
I I
Fishersmenls unions are organized tolFishermenls cooperative
I Iensure smooth fisheries operations. office

ITable Coastal fishery characteristics and required functional facilities

fisheryj1992*12 page 4
 ITEM CHARACTERISTICS RECUlRED FAClllTIES COMMENTS
Facilities tor Fish landed is sorted by type, Handl ing sheds Catches are sometimes
catches boxed, auctioned, shipped. transported directly trom thel
whart by truck.
I
large fish volumes mean large IFish boxes I
amounts of fish boxes required. IStorage areas
I
I IFish is handled fresh, with the IRefrigerators
I Igreat majority refrigerated or IFreezers I
frozen after landing ICOld storage
I Reefer vehicles I
I I
Iparts of catches will be salted and IProcessing plants
dried, boiled and dried, canned or
processed in similar fashion
I
Iprocessed products are temporarily IPrOCeSSing products
stored in warehouses Iwarehouses
I
Ilarge amounts of polluted water willlWaste water treatment
lbe created by processing and Ifacility
handling areas

IFacilities forlCatches are packed in ice in Ilce·making plants

Ifishing boats Itransport ship storage bins tor [Ice-s tcrehouses
and gear Ihauling to port. Ilce supply equipment
l
I
large amounts of ice are, thus,
Ineeded to preserve freshness
I
I I
voyages vary from '·2 days, with
I0il supply equipment
I
I
Iextended trips 3 weeks in length.
ISteady supplies of fuel oil at
1 Oil
I
storage tanks I
I Istable prices are demanded.
I
I I
I INet fishing gear may need to be IFiShing gear storage andl
I repaired and stowed away. Irepair stations I
I I I I
0ffshore tishing boars are FiSh~ng boar repair 1
1 comparatively large, with special IstatIon
I Ifacilities required for repairs. I I
I I
I
Need to treat waste oil produced by Ilwasteoil treatment
Ifishing boats plant
I
Facil ities forllarge volume and value of catches IAuction building
IpeoPle
lI
attract many fishmongers and
middlemen.
10ffi.ces

I
comparativelY large size of offshorelFishing port
fishing ports creates need for ladministrative office
Icomprehensive port administration.
I I
IOesirable to separate fishing port
I
IPark

II Ifrom the cities.

Ipublic transportation to and from

IGreenbelt

IBus service
Ithe port. I

Table ii Offshore fishery characteristics and required functional facilities

fisheryjl992*12 page 5
 CHARACTERISTICS RE~UIRED FACILITIES COMMENTS
ITEM
Sometimes done by ship's
rFacilities for Large catches: mechanical unloading. Cargo handling equipment derrick crane
jCatcheS
and storage space
(mobile cranes, fork-
jlifts, conveyor belts) 1
I
I 1 I
Landed catches are auctioned, IHandl ing sheds \Catches are pl aced " by onej
shipped.

I
j
Direct transfer to cold storage
facilities in many cases.
I Refrigerating/freezing
plant
\-40.C to -50·C I
I Processing done on board or in port Processing plants Need for treatment facilities
for resulting polluted
where landed.
I
rFacilities for Fuel oil costs account for large
10il supply equipment
process water

IAmple oil storage capacity if

fiShing boats percentage of fisheries costs, need 10il storage tanks space allows
and gear for stable prices through storage.
j 1 1
IClothing and food storesl~rocurement from local shops
I
I
ILOng voyages create need for
Iprocurement of clothing, food, etc. I In most cases I
I INeed for electric power supply from
Ishore when boats docked in port.
IElectric power outlets
I
INormal power and water
Isupplies used if adequate \
I ILong voyages create need for IDrinking water out let I I
I large volumes of drinking water. letc. ' I
II Scrupulous repairs and checks are IFishing boat repair INeed for facilities inCludingl
vital; boat or equipment breakdown Istations IdOCkS I
at sea could mean disaster.
I IRadio stations I
Need for information on shifting
market prices to boats at sea. I I
Weather reports are also vital.

Facilities for Soats carry 20-30 crewmembers, and ILodging

lpeople Itravel long distances; family I
members often send off or greet
I lfishermen when beats set sail or
Ireturn.
1
I
I I 1
IHealth care for fishermen is vital. IClinics
IOffices, banks, auction
I IHigh volume and value of products
handled attract many traders and
middlemen.
Ibuilding

II Ports are large which requires a

IIFishing port
comprehensive administration. ladministrative offices
I
I IsurrOUnding areas are usually
Ideveloped cities; desirable to
Iparks
IGreenbelt
I se~r~t~ fishing port from lifestylel
actlvItIes.
I
Ipublic transportation to and from
IISus service
I Ithe port. I
Table iii Distant fishery characteristics and required functional facilities

page 6
fisheryj1992*12
3. SITE SELECTION

Generally, fishermen establish settlernents near to existing fishing grounds, even if Iittle or no natural
shelter can be found for beaching and launching of vessels. If possible, a fishery port should be
developed at a site where, in addition to favourable natural conditions, fishing activity already takes
place. Fishermen are usually reluctant to change. Fortunately, fishermen usually settle in locations
where some protection against nature is already available (bays, rivermouths, estuaries).

At potential sites for port development, surveys, including hydrographic, hydraulic, meteorological and
sub-soil investigations, should take place. Table (iv) gives an idea of the required information at each
site. Some of th is required information is common to all ports. Other items are specifically related to
fishing ports. Preliminary lay-outs and cost estimates should be prepared for comparison. In an
economic analysis, the expected catch volumes, the composition of the fishing fleet, distance to fishing
grounds and to fish markets should be considered. A1so, the presence of a labour force should be taken
into account.

Fishing techniques change. Since in future developments bigger vessels may be introd uced , it is
advisable to select locations where later on a deepening of the port and its ac ce ss from the sea appears
technically and economically feasible.

ISEA ILAND

ITides IVessels 1Access

* ampl itude 1* type, size and nlllÎ:)er 1* road
1* type * peak landing volumes * rail
1 1* trend forecast
WindS 1 ISettlement
* directions IDistance to fishing grounds 1* size
I* durations
1* storms
* fishermen
INearness to commercial portsl* labour

1 Waves
* types
1
lExpansion possibility IAvailable
* water
services

I * height and period distributionslNatural shelter

1* dominant directions 1
* electricity
* fuel
* workshops
1Bathymetry 1
1 1 1Topography
1Area l photographs 1
Isub-soil profiles
Currents 1
* at different tide stages IAvailability or nearness to constructionl

SUb-SOil profiles
I 1materials
* tinber
I
1 * gravel
I*Coastal conditions
littoral drift
I * rock
1 * sand
1
1
* expected siLtation, erosion
* dredging I 1 1
ITable iv - Site information to be considered

4. FISHING VESSELS

The fishing vessels, method and gear used, depend on the kind of fish caught, whether pelagic (close to
surface, moves fast) or demersal (close to bottorn. moves slowly) and, in general, on the state of
development of the fishing industry in a country. The number and characteristics of the vessels as
related to the catch determine the required facilities to be provided by the fishery port.

fishery
/1992*12 page 7
Smal! coastal vessels, with a length of 3m to 15m, operating with inboard or outboard motors, sails or
rows, are mainly made of wood (nowadays also of re-enforced plastic), whilst vessels from 15m to 25m
length are, more aften, made of steel. Hold capacity in this category is usually between 0.5 and 20 ton,
whereas the bigger vessels can go up to 60 ton in special cases. Catches are substantially lower when
fish is caught for direct human consumption in comparison with catches for processing into fishmeal.
Draught of the farmer vessels is in the order of 1m to 2m, whilst the larger ones have draughts up to
3.5m. Typical draughts are shown in figure 1.

...... __ . __ . _ a_ . -------

....... ''''''l'''~~ _...

·A'r ~~
___.~~- .".

.
21/ .
SO 100 ISO 200 2S0 300 3S0 400 450 500 SSO

+ dreught Cm) ... tons

.......... _ _. ':":':':'
3 J:'-'-I"'"
'ti~~-
.......... J,.;'-~~ ....- ..
2 V~ .....
,~~
...
~v .
1~~--~~--~~~~~~

OL__L __ L__L __ L_-L~L--L~

10 20 30 40 50 se 70 80 90

+ drllught Cm) • tons

Figure 1 Fishing vessel draughts

The fishing cycle of the smaller coastal vessels is 1 or 2 days, and up to a week for the larger vessels
using ice of salt to preserve fish. Smaller vessels generally use gilinets, Hnesand traps for fishing, while
the larger vessels make use of purse seining or trawling1. The use of ice onboard and boxing at sea is a
measure for the state of development of the fishery.

Big coastal vessels, ranging trom 30m to 40m length, have a draught up to 4.5m, and can carry up to
500 ton of fish, with 1 to 2 weeks autonomy. Usually, fish is refrigerated or iced on board. Same Hmited
processing can take place onboard, like heading and gutting.

1purse seining using a large fishing net that hangs vertically with floats and the top and weights at the
bottorn. the ends being drawn together to enclose fish as it is hauled aboard
trawling using a large wide-mouthed fishing net dragged along the bottorn of the sea

fisheryj1992*12 page 8
High-sea vessels, ranging in length from 25m to BOm, have up to about 3,000 ton fish hold capacity and
an approximately 1 month autonomy. Fish is iced, refrigerated, frozen or processed on board. Tuna
vessels fall in th is group.

Factory ships have tonnages and draughts similar to smaller commercial vessels, and are often supplied
with fish by smaller vessels. Generally, these ships utilize commercial port facilities, since the investment
necessary for accommodating them in a fishery port is economically unattractive.

The dimensions of fishing vessels and, particularly, the relations between the dimensions vary according
to vessel types, climatic and sea conditions, construct ion materials and local traditions. Figure 2,
therefore, gives only the approximate relations between beam [B], depth [0] and length overall [LOA] of
the vessels.

'. I

ii'
-
-f _
i :
f
.
T
lé'
oL
.......

..
c ..
~ ~
", V
1'" V
~ V _- ~-
V !/\, -v- V
L' ft' ~ f-'"

"'V

1.04,,,,,,;_

Figure 2 Beam and depth of fishing vessels

The graph has been drawn as an average tor trawlers and purse seiners. For these types of vessels, the
depth is generally 0.5 times the bearn. For longIiners -and other angling boats- the beam should be
decreased by 10% and the depth should be decreased by 20%.

The gross tonnage [GT] is commonly used to classify fishing vessels for administrative purposes.
However, the method of the tonnage measurement differs considerably from country to country. 2.83m3
(100 cubic feet) of enclosed space is considered as 1 gross ton. One method of calculating the gross
tonnage is based on the cubie number of a vessel, which is the product of length, beam and depth.
This method necessitates the introduction of a bloek eoeffieient [C] to take the streamline of the vessel
into account. This block coefficient ranges from 0.5 to 0.65 for the smaller fishing vessels when the
cubic number of the vessel is based on length overall. The gross tonnage then ranges from 0.18 to 0.23
times the cubic number.

As a first approximation, the following formula can be used:

GT = 0.2 x LOA x B x 0
Figure 3 gives the average cubic number for trawlers and purse seiners.

The fish hold capacity of the various types of fishing vessels varies so greatly, that not even average
figures can be given, but only average maximum and average minimum values. Figure 3 gives these
averages for purse seiners and trawlers.

fisheryj1992*12 page 9
 JO DO
./:4-
"••, ~
,ol: 'IQ'I
••
, /~ I
oe
Iv I
/, !P I ',...
or
J (.; .~cr
/ ~P;'~
V ;
t.' ~ ~~~~
Itt

•o ~:~ I
\ 10 1\ 10 n lt ]\ c
.. U \0 U .0

Figure 3 Cubic number and fish hold

capacity of fishing vessels

5. PORT PLANNING

5.1 Access channels

Width
Access channels should have a width in accordance with the required number of lanes. Figure 4 gives
an idea of the required width. Approach conditions to the port should be taken into account, regarding
wave action, currents and wind and extra margins near hard obstacles like breakwaters. The channel
width is also influenced by the ease and the accuracy with which a navigator can determine his vessel's
position with respect to the centre line. As such, the width is effected by factors like the horizontal
movement of channel marker buoys due to tidal and other currents.

Iship I 'bank
IClearancel manoeuvring 1_ IClearance
'--I ,,
outer ,
,
'3
'2
B
B jrner
,
chamel 3 B
2 B , , chamel , 1.5 B
1.5 B

.... 14 ..

Figure 4 Channel width

fisheryj1992*12 page 10
 An overall minimum value for the channel width would be about 30m to 4Om, applicable to srnall
indigenous vessels and favourable nautical conditions. However, usually widths vary from gom to 200m.
For an outer channel for two-way traffic, as a rule of thumb, the minimum width is about 10 times the
beam of the maximum size vessel. For an inner channel, 8 times the beam of the maximum size vessel
willdo.

Depth
The minimum depth of an ent rance channel is determined by the following factors:
* maximum draught of the maximum size vessel
* ship motions due to waves
* variations in waterlevels due to tides and wind
* sinkage of the vessel due to squat
* minimum keel clearance
* channel bottom topography
* character of the bottom material (also of importance for side slope)

No rules ot thumb can be given, as particularly the wave response may vary greatly trom one case to
another. Reference is made to the relevant lecture paper.

5.2 Basins and berths

5.2.1 Basin width

The basin width should be sufficient for easy manoeuvring and turning around of the biggest vessels,
while others are moored to the quays. This signifies that for a maximum ship size of 30m, the basin
width should measure approximately 160m to 170m, Le. 5L to 6L.

The basin should provide unloading, resting, mooring, manoeuvring and servicing areas for the vessels.

5.2.2 Acceptable wave action at the berths

Acceptable wave action at the berths depends on height and period of waves, and whether vessels are
berthed parallel or perpendicular to penetrating waves. For periods under about 6s, small coastal
vessels can be unloaded with a significant wave height Hs up to O.3mwhen berthed perpendicular to
approaching wave crests, or about 0.15m when berthed parallel.

Bigger vessels can be unloaded and serviced up to about H. = O.5mand Hs = 0.25m respectively, tor
abovementioned wave approach directions. For the latter vessels and wave periods over about 6s, an
Hs up to O.3m and O.15mfor perpendicular and parallel berthing respectively, is acceptable.

Acceptable wave heights are given for normal unloading procedures with a small crane or derrick, and
are not valid tor special unloading devices.

5.2.3 Berthing arrangements

Berthing can take piace:

* Parallel to the quay (figure 5)

This is advantageous tor unloading, since fish can move directly from the vessel into the terminal.
Consequently, high unloading speeds can be attained, but the required quaylength is large. Along
such a 'marginal' pier, services like fuel, water and ice, are usually only provided over part of its
length. However, tor bigger fishing vessels which generally make only a brief stop tor unloading,
refuelling and crew change, services should be available over the tuil length of quay.

fisheryj1992*12 page 11
Figure 5 Ouaylength * Parallel berthing

* Oblique berthing (figure 6)

This reduces required quaylength and can be advantageous, provided that there is only little variation
in the size of the vessels, in case of a 'saw tooth' quay shape. In case of a straight quay, vessel size
variation is not 50 important a factor.

(a)

~ = 2B

"" .

t, = 0.75 L

(b)

Figure 6 Ouaylength * (a) oblique & (b) saw-tooth berthing

* Perpendicular to the quay (figure 7)

Berthing can take place either head-on or stern-on. Required quaylength is considerably reduced.
This type of berthing, however, virtually limits the unloading possibilities to manual operations.

fishery /1992*12 page 12

 [J
,v, La I
I
L" = about 1.3 B

Figure 7 Ouaylength * Perpendicular berthing

* Fingerpiers perpendicular to the quay (figure 8)

This is a variation of perpendicular berthing, but one which requires transport equipment from the
unloading point to the storage zone in order not to limit the unloading capacity too heavily. An
advantage of the fingerpier is that both sides can be utilized for berthing. It thus minimizes the
required quaylength.

Figure 8 Ouaylength * Fingerpiers

5.2.4 Required quaylength

Factors, influencing the required quaylength for unloading, are:
* the number of vessels, based at the port
* the quaylength required per vessel while berthing, which depends on the berthing arrangement
* the time that vessels spent unloading in relation to the time spent resting and at sea (fishing cycle
periods)
* the influence of fishing seasons and peak periods (fishing vessels normally operate between 150 and
240 days per year)
* non home-based vessels, using the port
* the accumulation of boats inside the port, e.g. befare national holidays
It is hardly possible to set up a calculation system which is valid for all types of situations, keeping in
mind the many factors involved. If the behaviour pattern is reasonably predictable, average values can
be used, and an irregularity factor can be introduced to compensate for the essentially stochastic
character of the different parameters. If sufficient statistical data are available, or if an intelligent guess
can be made of the different probability density distributions, quaylength can be optimized with the aid of
alogistic simulation model.

fisheryj1992*12
page 13
A first estimate of the required unloading quaylength can be made with the following formuia:

L = a (I + s) t, / r.h

whereL quaylength
a total peak daily discharge in the ports
r main unloading rate per vessel per hour
h number of unloading hours in a day
I main vessel length
s space between vessels
f, irregularity factor for the vessels (between 1 and 2)

Resting quay or jetty length, as an aiternative to mooring for unloading, can be estimated with the
following formulae:

t, = Nb (I + s) / R
where L, required berthing quaylength for resting of vessels
R number of vessels abreast (2-3)
Nb number of vesseis at rest = Nn (d,+d,)/c f2
Nn total number of vessels
d, resting days in a cycie
d, unloading days in acycIe
C number of days comprising a fishing cycle
f2 irregularity factor

In case of the resting quay, flexibiiity can be found in berthing vessels more than 2 or 3 abreast. In
special situations, it is possible to berth up to 6 abreast, which gives a considerable increase in capacity
(figure 9).

normal situation

special situation

Figure 9 Beam-on at fingerpiers

fisheryj1992*12 page14
 5.2.5 Quay apron width
Considerations for determining the width of the unloading quay, are the following:
* Exposure of the fish to rain or sunshine should be as short as possible.
* If operations are mechanized, the passage of, e.g., service trucks should not be hampered too much.
* When mobile transport equipment sueh as forklift trucks or lorries are used, adequate space should
be available for turning and passing.
* When transport is mainly perpendicular to the quay, the required width can be less than when there is
also parallel transport.

A number of these considerations are, however, contradictory among themselves. For each case, an
appropriate compromise should be sought.

As a first approximation, the following values can be given for the width of a marginal quay apron:
* for manual operations, with or without help of ships gear : 1.5m - 4m
* for operations with shore-based cranes and conveyors or roller tracks: 4m - Sm
* for operations with forklift trucks andjor lorries : Sm - 20m

The width of fingerpiers can vary up to 15m. Sometimes, the reception shed is located on the fingerpier
if the available land area is very restrieted.

5.2.6 Quaylevel
Quay platform level is determined by adding tide, waveheight and construction height above waterlevel.
For big tidal differences -say, 5m to 6m or more-, doek harbours may be made to facilitate unloading
and to avoid high and expensive quays. However, the construction and operation of the necessary ship
loek wil( generally only be economically justified for relatively large fishing centres (see figure 10).

5.2.7 Ship maintenance and repair

For vessel repair and maintenance, a conventional slipway or simple Iifting device is usually sufficient
(figure 11). Where larger vessels are involved, synchrolifts may be required. Vessels up to 250 ton can
be handled by mobile straddle carrier-type ship lifts. The capacity of repair and maintenance facilities
can be determined on the basis of 5 to 15 days per ship per year, depending on the efficiency of the
facility and the skill of its labour force.

In tidal ports with sufficient tidal range, repair and maintenance work is sometimes carried out during low
tide, whilst the vessels rest on keelblocks in front of the quay.

In addition to the haulingjlifting facilities, workshops wil( be required (mechanical, woodworkinq,

electrical, electronics, etc.) as weil as storage sheds to hold repair materiais, e.g. timber and steel
elements. A problem, especially in developing countries, is the difficulty of obtaining spareparts due to
the lack of standardization in the fishing fleet, absence of a local service agency, restrictive foreign
exchange policies and import Iimitations.

fisheryj1992*12 page 15
 and .
PilOCageforccast.
ther
stations

slipway

Drydocking arrangements

fishery/199 2*12 page 16

 5.2.8 Fishflow
Fishflow through the port, as from the ship's hold, can comprise all or some of the following activities
(figures 12 and 13): unloading, washing, sorting, boxing, weighing, icing, marketing, distribution,
storage. It requires a goOO organization and a terminal lay-out enabling a smooth commOOity flow.

I
I
I

Ö1
1
Q
,
I 1

'.--c:>- - --C>- ------C>- ---C> - --_/

EJ
Unl,,?ding
Y/CJsi"c;. ~i'1. Baxing REPA IR AllO RESOlNG
Mork.Ung Oilled Sterag"
I_,,! AREA
Lcodins ïn.6's
SHED

~ 1
Prot.!"",s;r,gConsulT'p!ion

Figure 12 Vessel cyclus and fishflow

SIMPLE OFERATION

l'
I
II ~s ..

~
L ~ee:~
SORTJNG
UNUlAOING -WASHING _ - MARKEilNG - LOACING - O!SOii!St./TICN
- 8:lXING

CHILLED STO~AGE

MORE[Q:-tttEX OPERATICN

Note Washing, sorting and boxing of fresh fish is sometimes performed in this
zone to permit direct transport to inland consumers.

Figure 13 Fish handling procedure

fisheryj1992*12 page 17
5.2.9 Buildings and other facilities

Market hall or shed (figure 14)

After unloading the catch from the vessels, fish for direct human consumption is usually brought into a
market hall or shed, where it is sold to merchants who take care of the onward transport and distribution
of the fish. The various activities which may all or partly take place in the market hall or shed, are the
following: cleaning, sorting, grading, weighing, re-icing, boxing, display, auction, packing, discharge.
Facilities may further have to be provided for boxes and equipment storage, internal transport, temporary
cold storage, auction room, offices, amenities, merchant stalIs.

The lay-out arrangement and the total space requirements for market halls depend very much on the
types and quantities of the catch, the extent of preparation betore sales, the system of display, the
auction system and the number of auctions, the destination of the catch and the distribution system.
Depending on the above factors, the total space requirements may range trom 6m2/t to as high as
25m2/t per auction. As first approximations, the following figures can be given:
* preparation of the catch before sales : 4m2/t per auction
* display and auction, varying types and qualities 12m2/t per auction
* display and auction, uniform products 6m2/t per auction
* storage of boxes and equipment and temporary storage of products: 4m2/t per auction
* offices and merchant stalIs 4m2/t per auction

SORnNG '"
~
~
GRADING ~~ ....«
WEGiING ~g
CoC(
'"....
z
«
:r

r
BOXES
EQUIPM J"'-
.n:_
u
~

I
1
C
Z
I oC(

1
,
e: '"I:!
LU

E
,., u.
,., ~'
I.L
0

Figure 14 Possible lay-out of market hall

fisheryj1992*12 page 18
For access to the hall, lifting doors extending along both sides of the hall between structuraI columns,
are the most flexible solution. The floor of the shed should not consist of ordinary concrete, but must, in
one way or another, be provided with an anti-skid surface. In the shed, electric power and lighting and
running water must be available. The water supply is often separated in a fresh- and a sea-water supply.
The latter should be a high-pressure system (4 to 5 bar) for cleaning purposes. The installation of the
electric wiring, receptacles and switches requires special care, because of the very wet and corrosive
environment. The electric lighting should not change the naturaI colour of the fish.

lee factory
In the initial port planning stages, it may not be required straight-away to plan an iee faetory in detail, but
it is strongly reeommended to allocate a eertain area of land for the establishment of sueh an iee faetory
in future. Ice is not only required for the preparation of fish on board the vessels, but it is also required
for preparation of the fish for public auetion and for onward transport.

There are two main types of iee faetories:

* bloek-iee factories (bloeks from 10kg to 150kg)
* small-iee factories
A eharaeteristie differenee in the lay-out of these types of factories is that bleek-lee factories have a
horizontal transportation system, while small-iee factories usually work vertically, with the iee faffing from
the iee proclueing machine into the storage silo underneath.

Spaee requirements for block-ies production range from 10m2 to 20m2 per ton of iee per dav capaeity.
Bloek-iee stowage factor is 1.4m3/t. Blook-lee storage requires some 1.5m2/t.

Spaee requirements for small-iee production range from 1m2 to 6m2 per ton of iee per dav capaeity. For
some types, a building height of up to 1Om ma~ be required. Small-iee stowage factor is 1.6m3/t to
2.1m3/t. Small-iee storage requires some 0.5m /t to 1m2/t.

Cold storage
Fresh fish is mostly stored, whife being ieed, in a so-called 'chili room' whieh is eooled to a few degrees
centigrade below zero. Frozen fish is stored in a frozen storage room with a temperature of -20°C.
Spaee requirements can be estimated to range from some 0.5 /t to 1.5m2/t, ineluding aeeess spaee and
the relation gross building area over nett eold storage areas.

Offices, canteens, rest rooms

Spaee requirements depend entirely on the type of fishing port, the number of people involved in fishing
operations, port rnanaqernent and administration.

Other facilities
These inelude:
* net drying and repair
* fire-fighting
* supply stores
* fuel storage
* gear sheds (maintenanee and repair)
* waste and waste water treatment
* drainage
* roads and parking lots
Example lay-out
Figure 15, in addition to figure 10, gives an example of the lay-out of a fishing port, namely the port of
Kalajoki in Finland.

6. UNLOADINGEQUIPMENT

Sometimes, vessels use on-board equipment, but more often quay-side cranes, derricks, etc., are used
for unIoading. The unloading teehnique further depends on whether the fish arrives un-boxed or boxed.
A number of unloading deviees are available, sueh as pneumatic systems, vertical and horizontal
eonveyor beIts, bucket elevators, pumps, etc. (see figures 16 and 17). In eaeh case, it should be very
carefully eonsidered what is the most eost-effeetive equipment.

fisheryjl992*12 page 19
 \ _ .. _------
--
_. a __ ._

\ \
\
~
\
\,
-=--
\ (0 \..==-
\ .'f
\ \
\ . \
\

1 Entrance ehannel
2 Harbour basin
3 Wharf for fastening the
fishing vessels
4 Discharging wharf
5
6
Discharging erane for fish
Suction apparatus for fish
and ehain conveyor
S... ,i., 11911 - -
-l.SD
7 Slipway for pulling the
boats ashore
8 Fish refinery
9 Faetory for erushed iee
10 Service faeilities for
the fishermen
11 Incoming road

_.
_---
_-
ICALl

Figure 15 Lay-out of the fishing port of Kalajoki, Finland

7. FISHERY PORT ORGANIZATION ANC MANAGEMENT

Various organizational systems exist:

* privately owned
* autonomous port or port trust
* municipally owned
* state owned
In all instanees, a port manager or port director is in charge of the proper functioning of the port. The
port captain or harbour master will control all vessel movements inside the port to ensure a proper
utilization of the quays as weil as to ensure the nautical safety. The port engineer will deal with
maintenance and repair of the structures and facilities, and will propose extensions and improvements
and supervise development works. An administrator will keep a record of statistical data on landing
operations and catch rates. He will also be in charge of the usual administrative functions.

page 20
fishery/1992*12
 OEI'!R!eK~ . CR~~
In.L.ER nU.eK. - C()jV:YO«~

Figure 16 Unloading operations

Other services such as unloading, sales, ice supply, cold storage, water and power supply, waste
treatment, security, fire-fighting and the provision of repair facilities may form part of the port
organization's activities and, as such, require separate offices. But, it mayalso be that a number of
these actlvities are dealt with by fishery organizations or private owners under the general regulations of
the port authority.

In case of smalt ports, the organization can be reduced to a one-man administration force with some
clerical and technical assistante.

8. REFERENCES
[1 J Gobée, ir M.H., Draft Lecture Notes, 1987.
[2J PIANC recommendations presented to UNCTADfor revision of the handbook 'Port Development',
Brussels, 1980.
[3J FAO, Conference on Fishing Ports and Markets, Bremen, 1968.
[4J Moor, ir R., Guia para el diserio de puertos pesqueros, Lima, 1976.
[5J Bottemanne, C.J., Principles of Fisheries Development, North-Holland Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, 1959.

fisheryj1992*12
page 21
 TUBS and CHUTE SHIPBOARD BUCKET ELEVATOR

'tSM eOIfVlTCII
TO SttOllt

IUC.ET CL(VA'OII
TO IE .~ '·CV':':",",!
ANC' S'TC~,Q CH
WH .... '

'lSM ,!Cl: .. A'"

SHOREBORNE BUCKET ELEVATOR BASIC AIR UNLOADER

Figure 17 Unloading equipment

fisheryj1992*12 page22
 chapter 11.

MARINAS

1992/11
 MAR INAS

CONTENTS page

1. Yachting and yachts 3

2. General lay-out of the port 5

3. Basins and berths 6

4. Port structures 8

References 9

marinasj1992*11 page 2
 MARINAS

1. Yachting and yachts

Yachting covers so many different aspects, that a very thorough analysis of the requirements to be met
must take place before port development can be initiated. It stands to reason that the facilities to be
built and the services to be put into operation are closely dependent on the specifications of the ships to
accommodate and on the way they are operated. This varies according to:

* The origin of yachtsmen (Iocal people living more or less near the harbour and using their boat
during weekends or holidays, tourists staying in a resort in the port vicinity, charters, etc.).
* Their tastes (sailing, ocean cruising, yacht races, fishing, water-skiing).
Thus, the facilities to develop can fit into the pattern of the development plan of a whole maritime
waterfront oriented at yachting or, conversely, they can simply complete the hotel or para-hotel trade. It
cannot be overemphasized that such options should be duly considered, since the blind transfer of
'patterns' that were successful elsewhere, may give rise to great disappointment.

The structure of the fleet that enables to deterrnine the lay-out and the size of berthing facilities is a
factor of major importance for the preliminary survey. The diagram of figure 1 shows that, from port to
port, the assumptions that have to be taken into account for the drawing up of plans vary quite a lot. The
disparities would certainly be bigger if one was considering the actual frequency of ships' visits at these
very ports.

\
19 \ I I I
la
17
16
IS
Rr
l\ \ ~\I

\
I\,
II

,\
·1I
-. I
"R_ t,__I
I
I
I
I
I

I
I

I
"\l
t3 I 'I:", I "J
12 \\\ \<r-. j~ I I I
tt '\" \ ['~~Ä,,~ I
en -';~'~, ~E')-'~ ~!~
... I I I I
.... 10
111 ' I'~~ c:: ' "'"
1) ~~ ~
~_ ~'~..I, ~~:;;(~?:.;~
vJ~~
E ~ ...~~~ 1-_ ~-t- __ .J
.s e ..., ~J:'hI/<; ,.---.::_ , ,-

~c: 7 I ~~~.L;:-r--
l~,-::.::.J_,,"
~ 6 "=f:--::-'--,-~~7b
- - .I
. -._cÀ,,c,v~ ij
~~
- .... <$'"
-. I" t:1!,!
.
5 - ...
..,.,.(~
(!
(l1l,q_]
4
:5 I
:2 I I I
I i I
I I I I
o 10 20 30 40 50 &0 70 80 90 100%

Figure 1 Percentage o! ships exceeding the given lengths

marinas/1992*11 page 3
The port structure is directly connected with the characteristics and operating conditions of beats, viz.:

* The general design of the entrance fairway and its dimensions depends. to a large extent. on yachts
that caUat the port. which hug the wind by less than 45° (at least.smaU-sizedbeats having na
auxiliary engine).
* SmaUcraft can -and aften have to- be put ashore. their launching taking place on ramps or by means
of forklift trucks. Weather conditions can even entail a quasi-permanent lay-up of big craft under
shelter.
* Craft making cruises require. during their stops. accommodation facilities related to life aflaat.
* Incorporation of maintenance and repair operations on more or less large craït, requires the
development of special facilities (yards. dry-docking facilities).

Sizes of yachts are given in figures 2 and 3.

breadth (m) MOTOR BOATS

~5

5,0

4,S

~5

3fJ Width of berthing front

= breadth of the ship +
+ side clearancefor fenders
2,5

10 lS 20 length m

Figure 2

marinasj1992*11 page 4
 (1) width af berthing front
d.pth(m) SAILING BOATS
~5
br.adth (m)
(2) mean width af ships

,,0

~5
(3) depth af 'MJterta b. pravided at
low tide in (shelt.r.d)anchoring
3,0 areas (d.pth of dr.dging to b. planned )

(4)mean draught
2,5

2,0

\5
fll f'I Width of the berthing front =
= ship's width + side clearance for fenders
\0 (figures do not allow for multi-hulls]

'" '" Are not included in the statistical figures

0,5 50/50 center board boats and multi-hulls

l.ngth (m)
2 5 10 15 20 25

Figure3

2. Generallay-outof the port

What a yachtsman expects from a marina, is a series of services given in a pleasant environment:
* adequate shelter from high seas
* docking services: periodical maintenance of his boat at reasonable prices and without undue waiting
* mooring and watching of ships
* seasonal storage ashore of srnall ships in open yards or in sheds
* parking for yachtsmen's cars
* quick execution of incidental repairs
* marketing of new and used beats
* administrative or private services (harbour master's office, weather forecasts, customs, clubs, medical
needs, etc.)

The choice of a site for a marina, if not dictated by existing facilities which have to be integrated in the
new project, should result from maritime and nautical considerations, with a view to simplifying the
nature of the works to be carried out, and to lowering the cost. It should also depend on environmental
considerations in accordance with rules, standards and regulations that locally apply. Lastly, the
integration of the port into a" other developments in proqress or being planned ashore. has to be
ensured.

marinasjl992*11 page5
For masterplanning purposes, the most important factor usually concerns wave conditions. Along open
coasts, marinas must generally be protected by gra'lity-type breakwaters. In more protected areas,
other systems can be considered, e.g. ftoating breakwaters, though the greatest care has still to be taken
in this field.

Ports often comprise an outer harbour in which waves are still somewhat rough, and an inner harbour
-better sheltered- in which the actual berths are located. When the tidal range is smalI, the inner harbour
can be designed to provide a sufficient depth of water to keep boats afloat at all times. When the tidal
range is big, it is often accepted that the berths fall dry at LW. If not, a relatively expensive shipping lock
has to be provided.

Access conditions to the harbour have to be carefully considered. The lay-out, of course, will have to
ensure an adequate protection of the entrance channel against wave action and against siltation.

Furthermore, the lay-out should be such that sailing ships can enter or leave the port without
systematically putting the engine on, which implies that channels shall be wide enough to tack, whenever
needed. Moreover, ships' movements must be able to continue without undue problems, even during
rush hours.

The above implies that the entrance channel must be properly oriented, and should have a width of 40m
or more.

3. Basins and berths

In port zoning or basin designation, distinction is usually made between:

* basins in ports of call that do not require large back-up areas (no car park), and around which the
harbour master's office, administrative offices (customs, border police, weather forecasts, etc.) and
different service facilities (lavatories, showers, information, post office) are set up.
* basins assigned to yachts registered at the port, surrounded with big car parks.
* basins for maintenance which, in addition to floating repair berths, comprise lifting equipment and a
general technical area, including yards tor boats to be dry-docked, workshops and laying-up sheds.

The size of the basins, or zones, will have to be determined according to the particular requirements of
the port. As a first estimate, their total area can be taken as equal to SOx the total capacity of the port, in
terms of number of yachts that can be accommodated:

S(mz) = aoC
Mooring facilities are oriented in such a way, that ships will be moored in the eye of the prevailing wind.

The scheme adopted for the position of the different berths, and, especially, the clearance between the
piers and berths, depends on several factors that have to be carefully weighed in every case. Any port
characterized by high tidal range and, consequently, by strong tidal currents, or by frequent and strong
winds, will require larger manoeuvring areas in-between piers (and shorter piers) than a sheltered port at
which the tidal range is small.

Figure 4 shows the spacing E [in m] between piers and the gross water surface W [in m-] used per boat
with respect to its length L, when the most favourable conditions of current and wind prevail. Figure 5
shows an example of the lay-out of a large marina.

The size of car parks to be developed, depends mainly on the kind of utilization of the boats
accommodated in the harbour. The number of vehicies to park can range from a few units to twice (or
even 2.5 times) the number of boats laying in the harbour. Taking into account the high cost and all
environmental inconveniences of car parks at the seaside, the trend is towards minimizing facilities in the
port and transfer of the parking lots to inland locations. Boats carried on road trailers have to be
provided with ordinary launching equipment (usually a ramp, at least when the tidal range is not too big)
and close to a vast parking lot for boats and, if need be, for cars. This applies, in any case, to ships
laid-up ashore.

marinasj1992*11
page 6
 TYPE A TYPE 8

.,'t- .;'·r p
r-
c J
i-
(
>
'J ,eO.'
+< )
• - f.
-
b+l
. .T" 0.5
~~
L__ .,._&::.Ji2.._...·I--I·_Jl~_+',p fo L 1 l.5L-1.j' L ,.0.5
E E

pier without catwalks pier without catwalks

boats moored fOlWard boats moored at pUes

w= I:!...L{b+1)orE= 4l
2
E = 3.5 L + 2

thus W=-'-(4l+pH b+l) W=+ (3,5l+ p+2) (b+1)

2

TYPE C TYPE 0

r- r- tr ft
e=:::>:t
c=:=:.>
f
~
c:=:>
c:::::>
c==:::>
==>
==::> +F c:::::> c=:==>
, Q..r--l I 1.SLI .,. l ~.\. • 0,5
:t--Ltlf.. L • 1. 1.H:tZ ~
.!.~1l-~ I
~-
E E

plers wlth catwalks pier wlth catwalks

2 boats per catwalk 4 berths per catwalk

E = 3,5 L
E=S,5l+5
W=-'-( 3,Sl+p) (2b+f+O,5) W=~ (5,5L+p+5)(3b+f+l)
4

Figure 4a-b-c-d

_uk.dril!

Figure 5 Lay-out marina Lake MichiQan [souree ref 1]

marinasj1992*11 page7
4. Port structures
Jetties and breakwaters generally represent a big share of the total cost of the marina. Thus, they
deserve a thorough design eftort.

The breakwaters should be designed to prevent wave overtopping -at least, when there is no outer
harbour-, since pleasure craft riding at anchor can only bear very small waves (amplitudes of 30cm, at
the utmost, with respect to the comfort of people living aflaat, or 60cm with respect to safe mooring).
Such requirements entail high crest levels for breakwaters, but which cannot be acceptable in some
cases. Environmental considerations can, indeed, require that, e.g., the breakwaters do not screen the
landscape and horizon for people walking around the port area. One is, therefore, led to lower the crest
of the breakwater through such means as a seaside berm, a spilling basin or a very flat slope. THe most
commonly used types are rubble-mound breakwaters. However, vertical or composite breakwaters are
sometimes used in deeper waters.
Quays and stationary jetties are only found in marinas in which the tidal range is low (Iess than 1.50m),
tor the level of the baat deck must stay close to that of the berthing facility to facilitate embarkation and
disembarkation. The design should take into account vertical loads of 400kg/mz and horizontal loads
due to wind forces on the berth and on the boats, and due to berthing impacts.

The wind force may be assessed from the formula:

F = Vz 11.63
in which F (wind dynamic pressure) is expressed in Nim', and V (wind speed) in mis. This pressure
applies to the above water part of the berth and to ships. We often find pressures of 1,OOONper linear
metre of mooring front.

Flaating berths are often used, even in tideless waters, because of their low cost. They need well-
sheltered marinas and can hardly receive beats more than 15m long.

marinas/1992*11 page 8
REFERENCES
(1) Report on small craft harbours, American Society of Civil Engineers, Manuals and Reports on
Engineering Practice, nO.50,1969.

(2) Symposium papers 'Pleziervaart en Verkeerskunde', KIVljRWS, Utrecht 1978.

[3] Final Report of the International Commission for Sport and Pleasure Navigation, PIANC,
Supplement to Bulletin no. 25, 1976.

[4] Standards for the construction, equipment and operation of yacht harbours and marinas with
special reference to the environment, PIANC, Supplement to Bulletin nO.33, 1979.

[5] . Design of breakwaters for yacht harbours, PIANC, Supplement to Bulletin nO.38, 1981.

[6] Dry berthing of pleasure baats, either for maintenance or complementary to wet berthing, PIANC,
Supplement to Bulletin nO.37,1980.

[7] The provision of navigation aids for pleasure craft, PIANC, Supplement to Bulletin nO.62, 1988.

[8] Guidance on facility and management specification of marine yacht harbours and inland waterway
marinas with respect to user requirements, PIANC, Supplement to Bulletin nO.75, 1991.

marinas/1992*11 page 9
 chapter 12.

PORTS AND TERMINALS

FOR INLAND WATER TRANSPORT

1992/11
 PORTS AND TERMINALS
tor
INLAND WATER TRANSPORT

CONTENTS page

1. Location and lay-out of IWT ports 3

2. The vessels 3

2.1 General 3
2.2 The european scene 3

3. Types of ports 6

3.1 Open river ports 6

3.2 Closed river ports 8
3.3 Canal and river ports: lay-out and dimensions 10

4. Terminals 14

4.1 IWT cargo terminals 14

4.2 Cargo handling 15
4.3 Storage 17
4.4 IWT jetties on rivers with a large seasonal hydrograph , 17
4.5 Design criteria for a simple IWT canal berth 22
4.6 Inland passenger terminals 24
4.7 Seaport terminals for IWT vessels and light~rs 24

References 26

porttrm.iwt/1992*11 page 2
 PORTS AND TERMINALS
for
INLAND WATER TRANSPORT

1. Location and lay-out of IWT ports

An inland water transport port can vary in scope trom a sophisticated multiple basin complex with up-to-
date handling equipment, to a one-berth terminal on the bank of a river where, now and then, some
goods and/or passengers are transhipped. But, a commercial IWT port always is an inter-modal node of
land-based and water-borne transport.

In addition to the commercial ports, one can distinguish along rivers and canals:
* harbours of refuge, providing shelter to ships during floods or ice drift
* night stop ports, where ships without night navigation aids may lay overnight
* service harbours tor contractors' equipment, survey launches, etc.

But, this paper will be restricted to a discussion ot commercial ports. Among these commercial ports
can be distinguished:
* The general-purpose port which is a multi-user interface between IWT and other modes of transport
(road, rail) and which, generally, offers storage facilities.
* The dedicated container or other port terminal, sometimes multi-user, sometimes single-user.
* The industrial port which is, in general, the end of the line of IWT, and directly unloads raw materials
and loads (half-)finished products.

2. The vessels

2.1 General

The type and size of vessels used for inland navigation varies widely trom one region or river basin to
another, and is often the result of historie developments and of specific local conditions as available
waterdepth, current velocities, type and volume of the commodities to be carried and degree of techno-
economic development. On rivers, coastal canals and 'backwaters' in India, one can still observe a
multitude of small wooden ships with sail-assisted human propulsion [the so-called 'country craft'], next
to motorized barges. Wooden canoes cut from a single tree and either punted or provided with an
outboard engine, depending on the affluence of the owner, may be found from Surinam to Kalimantan
and from Thailand to Ecuador. They all play an essential role in the local transport of goods and
passengers.

At the other end of the line are the huge push-barge convoys, carrying up to 50,000 tons, travelling up
and down the Mississippi river in the USA, and the sea-going vessels plying up the Amazon as far as
lquitos in Peru.

2.2 The european scene

In Europe, self-propelled vessels and barges for push-tows have been standardized and divided in
classes which correspond with waterways with a given minimum waterdepth and width. The
classification has been recently modified; the new version is given in figure 1.

Nowadays, the self-propelled vessels form the majority of the craft plying the european waterways.
Occasionally, they can be seen pushing or side-towing a dumbbarge to increase their carrying capacity.

At present, a number of cargo vessels are being converted, and new ships are being built, to carry
containers which, at long last, have found their way in numbers to waterborne transport. This is not
surprising as, except for the short distances, IWT is quite competitive. From Rotterdam to the middle
Rhine area, the current tariff is about Dfl 280fTEU for loaded containers, and Dfl 170 for empties,
exclusive of handling charges at the terminals (about Dfl 70 at the IWT terminal, and Df! 120 at the sea

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 3
,.

terminal). A special feature, although not new, is the retractable wheelhouse needed tor goed visibility
over the stack of containers in tront.

a
e ~
":>
g
8 8 ~ 8 8 82
... '"
..
'" ~
~~
g
1-1-
0 I- ......
_ N

Cl E3 - Cl > '"
>

~II!:IJIJ 1~')M.u.L ')1;113 JO IC_:] u.l

.
.. ~ -
-:
~H3.1 ~I' .. ~nO.1 V ~f::J.1 ~I" 1$:1.1 v
3:JNVLUOdWIïVNOJ.LVNU3LNI:J0
t~ (.
"i ~~~
.= .=
:DNVLUOdJII((TVNOID!nI!iO TVNOLLVNlIau-J1
~lI~l.a

Figure 1

porttrm.iwt/1992*11
page 4
Eventually, roä-on/roll-off carriers for trailers, as used on the Danube, may find their way on the Rhine to
relieve road congestions on the long hauls. Quite common are already the heavy-load ro/ro barges,
specially designed to transport odd-sized equipment for powerplants, chemical industries and offshore
platforms.

There is a big fleet of tankers ranging in size from 300 tons till over 3,000 tons, plying all the navigable
waterways. Since the first inland tanker was constructed in 1903, their technical outfit has been
gradually improved and adapted to the various POL' products, of which the safety requirements form an
important aspect.

The majority of the tankerfleet consists of self-propelled vessels, occasionally pushing a tank dumbbarge.
Other more specialized tankers carry chemical products and liquid gases, and are provided with
extensive and expensive safety devices. But, skill and knowledge of crew and operators form the basic
ingredients for a safe transportation and handling of dangerous products.

Traditionally, the coasters used to penetrate deep inland with their overseas cargo. However, their
manoeuvring characteristics are not exactly what is required for navigation in confined and shallow
waters. Often, a dangerous situation or accident occurred when coasters merged into the inland traffic.
Nowadays, the 'Rhine coaster', a new type of sea-river vessel, is growing popular for this purpose of
linking inland ports with overseas destinations without transhipment. Based on the lines of modern
inland vessels and adapted to sea-going requirements, they operate successfully and safely.

Push-barges have grown in size from 1,200 tons at 3.00m draught till 2,700 tons at 4.00m draught by
increasing length as weil as beam. Consequently, the tow sizes grew from 5,000 tons in a four-barge
convoy till over 10,000 tons. Nowadays, the maximum size convoy on the Rhine consists of 6 barges,
carrying 15,000 tons and needing all of the 6,OOOhpinstalled in fourth-generation pushers. These 6-
barge push-tows were formally accepted after a long period of tests and trials in the seventies and early
eighties.

In 25 years, the installed push-coat power has dramatically risen from the initial 1,200hp on 2 screws till
the said 6,OOOhpon 3 propellers. However, the rising fuel prices have somewhat dampened the ideas of
this unrestricted expansion. Often, it can be noticed that big pushers sail at lower than normal cruising
speed with throttled power.

In the present conditions, the 4,500hp pusher may turn out to be the optimum size, considering also the
economie speed in restricted water. A draught of 2.4m (pusher) is more or less the maximum for year-
round commercial navigation in the Rhine catchment area.

Self-propelled cargo vessels have grown substantially as weil, carrying up to 4,000 tons. Whereas the
principally private owners of these vessels did not dare to think of ships bigger than 1,300 tons some
time ago, they now have also fallen for the economy of scale. Still, a great number of the 300 tons
'Penishe' cia ss vessels are in operation, and all sizes in between.

Passenger vessels have shown a remarkable development as weil, but on the Rhine these vessels are
commercially operated in the summer season only.

All of the IWT fleet makes use of the available waterway infrastructure of which, in average, the cost per
tanker is quite low compared to other modes of transport; see the table below:

'Petroleum Oil Lubricants; in general: oil products

porttrm.iwt(1992*11 page 5
I IAmsterdam- IMerWedelFriSianl~aal
IRhine CanallCanal [canat
I I I
IRiver
I
maintena~ce coSt110-15 4-5 \20 \8-10
per year

loperating staff 100 60 1150 170 140

tons per year 40*106 2*106 15*106 \140*106\10

km 175 125 1100 1100 1130
1
Ilabour costs
. 1 I I I I
12.5
15 17.5 13•5
*50,000/y 13
1 1 I I I I 1
Itatal costs
per year
. 115-20 17-8 128-30 112-14 114'17
1
1
I

Icasts/ton. km·· 11
...mln Dfl I

cents per ton.km

[source, ref 17]

3. TYPES OF PORTS

3.1 Open river ports

Open ports on rivers with a confined flood plain may be located either in that flood plain, Le. in between
the river and the HW dike, or beyond the flood plain outside the dike.

If inside the HW dike (figure 2):

* To keep quays dry, the area must be reclaimed above HW. This may obstruct the river discharge
during floods.
* The entrance channel wil! also disturb HW current patterns, and ships will be hindered by cross-
currents when entering or leaving the port basin.

Figure 2 Riverport and reclamation inside dike; flooded

during HW; possibly flow obstruction

If outside the HW dike (figure 3): The entrance channel cuts through the dike. so the port must be
enclosed by new dikes andjor quays with a deck level equal to the crest level of the dikes.

porttrm.iwt/1992*11 page 6
Figure 3 Riverport outside original dike with open connection

Main advantages and disadvantages of open ports are:

Advantages Disadvantages
* always accessible * variabie water level
* full-width entrance channel available * wave disturbance from the river
* expensive berths due to water level
difference
* low cargo handling efficiency due to
relatively much vertical transport
* siltation
* expansion often difficult
Some open ports have a second river connection upstream (figure 4). This second connection must be
closed by means of a retaining lock to avoid short-circuit currents. Advantage and disadvantages of
such a system are:

Advantages Disadvantages
* flushing of basin possible * expensive
* time saving and easier manoeuvring for part
of the traffic

Figure 4 Riverport outside dike with

second entrance

porttrm.iwt/1992*" page 7
3.2 Closed river ports

Closed river ports are provided either with a retaining loek or a ship loek.

River port with retaining loek (figure 5): The retaining loek serves as an HW defence, and can be
closed when the river exceeds a certain level. This etosure blocks all traffic.

Figure 5 Riverport outside dike with ship retaining loek

Main advantages and disadvantages are:

Advantages Disadvantages
* less expensive berths than for open port * periodically, vessels are locked in (including
* easy expansion those with dangerous goods!)
* loek width limits ship size
* upgrading means new loek
* pumping required when loek is in use
(seepage and leaks)
* when open, same as for open port
* construction, operation and maintenance
costs of loek

An example is the port of Cuyk on the river Meuse (figure 6). The retaining loek is closed during a few
days per year only. It limits ship widths to 14m.

River port with ship loek (figure 7): Main advantages and disadvantages are:

Advantages Disadvantages
* constant water level * loss of time due to locking
* sheltered mooring (against waves from * loek width limits ship size
other vessels) * pumping needed
* minimum vertical transport of cargo * in case of calamities, difficult evacuation
* relatively cheap berths * construction, operation and maintenance
casts of loek
* waitinq berths needed for loek

An example is the port of Oss on the river Meuse (figure 8).

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 8
 Retaining loek

HW dike

Figure 6 Port of Cuyk

\
\

Figure 7 Riverport outside dike with ship loek

porttrm.iwt/1992*11 page 9
 _,;;....-===-_='0 Ir.".,

\
Figure 8 Port of Oss

3.3 Canal and river ports: lay-out and dimensions

Figures 9 to 20 show same examples of shapes and dimensions of IWT ports, which are self-
explanatory.

porttrm.iwtj 1992*11 page 10

Figure 9 Riverport entrance to be in line with fairway axis

.112 6tLO
---., t-
~ .

----~
!l~ 1-100 ,'-----------
\ ~ ~ I

Figure 10Commercial harbour basin along canal (smallest size)

Ai
f~1(Xl'~ _Jl Q)~ J
-----~.~~~~,~ ~~--------~ i

Figure 11 Commercial harbour basin along canal

Figure 12 Multiple harbour basins along canal

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 11
 L_ •• " 10.It'IÎDS~

Figure 13 Multiple harbour basins along canal, adapted to

pushtows

L ••• '& 10 ~ lenqC'tS i

••••.• 1.,.1.1•••1.1... ...,1 .... ,·1.1.

Figure 14 Multiple harbour basins along river

,'I ......_'\!D~
'"
~I

...::-A~~-IT~
________~~~1oà~--------------------------
\ I

Figure 15 Training wall partition between harbour basin an

canal, minimum size

• t , ••·'__ , ~l
<(->-=-1f--, -------,,1 T~
--------~/f~~I~-------------------------

Figure 16 Training wall partition between harbour basin and

canal, maximum size

porttrm.iwt/1992*11 page 12
 _. ~ HW_~--,rC?:;;'===-=-=====:-::=====i:-'
. ~~ I -0 '"
I ~l
AI

~".,
---
.. ,<,<" ~.,' ,., .... :.', . .-, •• :-"""":";1' TAl
,.,"J:

.... 1.1 1 tl.I! I.' '.'

--
t.t.!.1
I It.!. ':J::

Figure 17 Training wall partition betweenharbour basinand

river

Figure 18 Quaywallalong widened section of canal

_- ---
,';k

g::::::J.' ?

1,1. 1,\ ,\,\.1 ,\.:

-,1.1,I,\.j l.j.(,1 ,1".1,:,111.\,1.1,1,1,),1,1 1,ltU
D,''!

Figure 19 Quaywallalong river

Figure 20 Triangular basin along canal

porttrm,iwt/1992*11 page 13
• The port entrance for river ports should preferably be oriented in an upstream direction, Le. in such a
way, that the majority of the loaded vessels can enter against the current. Occasionally, vessels may
come loaded from an upstream origin; they may have to turn in the river before entering the port.

Whenever possible, river ports will be located on an outer curve of the river to benefit from available
natural water depth, and to minimize siltation problems.

The angle between the river channel and the port entrance should be as srnall as possible, Le. the
entrance alignment should be as much as possible tangent to the channel to facilitate navigation and
to ensure good visibility (see figure 9). This visibility of the port entrance from the river, as weil as
visibility of river traffic by vessels intending to leave the port, is of great importance for safety reasans.

If, due to local constraints, a port entrance has to be designed at a significant angle with the river
channel, a vessel entering port will start veering when the fore-part of the ship is in -more or less-
current-free water, whilst the aft ship still experiences the river (cross-)current. Ta avoid ship
groundings, alocal widening of the entrance will have to be made.

Port entrances should be sufficiently wide for ships to pass each other. A minimum value for
european conditions is 6Om. If push-tows frequently visit the port, the minimum value is som.

• Special provisions tor barge traffic may have to be made. Ot course, it is operationally the most
convenient if an entire push-tow can enter the port basin, but, particularly tor smaller ports, this would
result in toa large and expensive lay-outs. In that case, a special mooring berth has to be provided
near the port entrance, where the pusher and the different barges can be disconnected.
Subsequently, the barges are towed to their loadingjunloading stations bya small harbour-tug. For a
4-barge push-tow, the mooring berth has to measure 225x25m.

• Depending on seasonal and stochastical fluctuations in ship arrivals in a port, the situation will arise
with a certain frequency that not enough cargo handling berths are available tor all ships requesting
to be serviced. In this connection, waiting berths will have to be provided to moor ships sately until
loadingjunloading berthage has become available. A waiting berth may consist of simple dolphins
and a catwalk to the share.

• Within the port, a turning basin or turning space should be available with a diameter ot, at least, 100m
at full depth.

• Ships with dangerous cargo require special treatment. Since the inland water transport ot mineral oil
products and liquified gases increases rapidly, this issue constitutes a point of special concern tor
many IWT ports. Whenever possible, these vessels should be in tully current-tree water in basins,
exclusively reserved for these cargos and which can be easily sealed off by floating booms in case ot
spills or other accidents.

4. TERMINALS

4.1 IWT cargo terminals

When cargo is moved over the waterway from an inland terminal to a seaport terminal, and vice versa,
or between IWT terminals, suitable provisions should be present tor cargo handling, tor storage and tor
interchange with other modes ot transport. The main component at an inland terminal's infrastructure
will be a quay or jetty, where vessels can sately moor at any water level, and where loading and
unloading can be performed efficiently. Quays will often be used for terminals in closed river ports.

Jetties for terminals in open river ports can be either fixed or floating. A choice between the two is
dependent on the method of cargo transfer that will be applied (manualor mechanized), but also on the
water level variations to be expected as weil as the configuration of bank or embankment at the selected
site tor a terminal (see also section 4.4). A fixed jetty has the advantage that it can be constructed
rigidly and stabie, even allowing heavy equipment and trucks to drive on it. A serious handicap is that,
even with limited water level variations, the jetty platform rises high above the vessel's deck during the

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 14
 low water stage. Thls can be met by the construction of a number of jetties for various levels, but the
costs involved could easily turn the balance in favour of floating jetties.

Another disadvantage of fixed jetties is that they can seldom be moved to other and more suitable
locations, when a changing configuration of the river bank or a changing transport pattern would require
so. A floating jetty has the flexibility to be moved at any time, but the weak polnt is often the
construction of a land-connecting footbridge or ramp. This is particularty so when this bridge has to
span a considerable length of shallow water or mud along the bank. A floating jetty must also be
secured against lateral movements, either by anchors, moorings or guide poles. Especially during high
floods, the force of the current against the pontoon and a pack of vessels moored alongside, may be
considerabie.

4.2 Cargo handling

In developing countries, the most common way of cargo handling is, and will remain for a long time, the
traditional manual handling. Apart from the fact that this is often the cheapest and most reliable method,
it also serves an important social objective: employment which, in the circumstances locally prevailing,
is of greater interest than handling speed or efficiency. Nevertheless, some form of mechanization, or
partial mechanization, can also be observed on different terminals in the developing wortd.

From an engineering point of view, mechanization of cargo handling has a considerable impact on the
design of an inland terminal and, especially, on the design of a jetty. The jetty is the crucial part of the
process of cargo transfer trom vessel to land, and vice versa. There, a substantial amount of vertical
transport takes place, combined with horizontal transport over the jetty to or from truck, wagon or
storage shed (figure 21).

When the cargo is handled manually, the jetty platform should preterably be level with the vessel deck,
but there remains a notabie vertical lift trom the vessel's hold onto the deck. Some sort of lifting gear,
preferably on the jetty itself, will faciJitatethis part of handling, and will also eliminate the problem of a
jetty towering above the vessel during low water stages. This Iifting gear can range from a simple (hand-
operated) derrick to an electric hoist, or even a more sophisticated piece of equipment as a mobile
crane. With this equipment, further mechanization is within reach when additional trucks, flatcars or
forklift trucks are used for horizontal transport. But, it will require stabie and not too sloping jetty
platforms as weil as metalied roads or railtracks for through-transport.

In case of a floating jetty, connected to the bank by a footbridge or ramp, a part of the vertical and
horizontal transport can be achieved with conveyor beits, provided that, in general, the slope does not
exceed 25° to 30°. The conveyor belt, being a very versatiIe piece of equipment for cargo handling, can
also be used on a fixed jetty with large water level variations. This installation is not only perfectly suited
for the transfer of bulk cargo as sand, gravel, rock and coal, but also for bags, small bundies, cartons
and small crates. Bulk cargo should preferably be carried on flat-top barges, from where it can be easily
shovelled onto the conveyor belt.

Other methods of mechanized cargo handling include the use of overhead ropeway systems, cable-
suspended drag buckets, various types of grab or continuous barge unioaders, and the like, which are
usually designed for applications in industrial ports or terminals.

IWT container terminals require one or more container cranes with a lifting capacity of about 40 tons.
Since the beam of IWT vessels or barges is less than tat of sea-going container ships, the crane's
outreach from the quay edge can be appreciable less than that of cranes of deep-sea terminals. Also,
the trolley and hoisting speeds are mostly lower, resulting in lower investment cost. Nevertheless, a
capital outlay of some Ofl 3 million, or over, is still a big investment in IWT terms.

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 15
 barge

(a)
fleating fixed Jetties in tidal reaches for
manual cargo handling

(b)
Fixed jetties with a cargo
handling derrick or crane

' ...... /.:

1.-
---~-- - ---::-_:__

(c)
Conveyor belt, used
on a fleating jetty

.- ---~-------
revetDent

(d)
Conveyor belt, used
on a fixed jetty

Figure 21

porttrm.iwtf1992*11 page 16
4.3 Storage

At the landside of a terminal, ample room tor storage sheds should be provided as close as possible to
the terminal jetty. For calculation of area requirements, reference is made to the lecture paper on
'Genera! Cargo Terminals'. Whereas the shed floor, if possible, is level with the jetty platform, this shed
floor should be about 1m above the roadway at the bankside to facilitate loading ot trucks and wagons
in case of manual cargo handling.

Many commodities can be stored in the open, when the risk of pilferage is limited and when the
commodities are not sensitive to rain. Also in the dry period, when in tropical countries the majority of
the cargo wiil be transported, sheltered storage need not be necessary for many commodities. For this
reason, ample open-air storage space tor bulk commodities, but also tor stacks of bags or crates, should
also be provided.

4.4 IWT jetties on rivers with a large seasonal hydrograph

The considerable investments in the construction of a terminal capable ot coping with large water level
differences must be justitied by the throughput. As long as that throughput is not guaranteed, the
investments should be kept to a minimum. aften, a share connection with planks on floats, e.g. empty
drums, wil! allow loading and unloading with alocal workforce. But, when the cargo flow is growing, a
more permanent tacility wil! be needed. Once a feasibility study shows that the investment in a jetty is
justitied, the design of a jetty adapted to the local conditions can start.

Figure 22 shows a schematic share cross-section and a hydrograph.

\--- -_. hydrograph--- - --- . _. -

Figure 22 Translation of HHW and LLW in adapted jetties

It seems logical to design one jetty for HHW and one tor LLW, and, if desired, one -or more- in between.
But, in practice it is aften not done so tor the tollowing reasans:

* For an appreciable period of time, the water level is in a zone where the lowest jetty is toa low and
the middle one too high.
* HHW is exceptional and lasts tor a short period only (e.g. 1 week every 10 years) and, therefore,
does not justify the investment in a jetty. Furthermore, during such exceptional high levels, the
current wil! reduce shipping to a minimum, and road andjor rail connections are probably flooded.
* During the period that a jetty is flooded, but not yet enough to float a barge over it, the terminal is
hard -if not impossible- to use (figure 23). The water levels, projected on the hydrograph,
demonstrate that th is situation can last for several months per year.
* Even when the three, or more, jetties are constructed staggered along the shore, the solution is not
attractive because the lowest jetty is used more than twice as long as the others combined, and,
therefore, should attract more than half of the investment.

porttrm.iwt/1992*11 page 17
 ~~

I I HW

I . 2 • J . ~ .

HTOROCaJ.,.H Jon.- Dec..

Figure 23 Interruption of terminal operations

In general. a floating jetty is the cheapest solution (figures 24 and 25). It allows trucks to come near the
barge and, thus, reduce carrying distance for the doek labour. The road should not be constructed too
steep (maximum 1:15) to allow a loaded truck to negotiate it without undue eftort. Along the road, rails
or channel irons should facilitate movement of the connecting bridge or ramp when it has to be raised or
lowered. The ramp must be connected to the pontoon with solid hinges. This allows the use of the
anchor and mooring winches of the pontoon to move the ramp. If required. a winch near the top of the
slope may be needed to help pull the ramp upward.

( f I

Figure 24 Pontoon terminal

Bollards or mooring rings should be installed along the slope for fixing strong mooring wires. The
anchors should be provided with enough shackles of heavy chain to resist current and mooring forces.
An additional advantage of this kind of jetty is the possibility to move the floating part to another site
once the terminal becomes obsolete.

Some examples are given in figures 26 to 28. Figures 26 and 27 show terminal facilities in Bangladesh
for relatively low water level fluctuations in the lower reaches of the BrahmaputrajGanga river system.
Figure 28 shows port facilities at Iquitos on the Amazon in Peru, designed for a water level difterence of
10.0om. Certain navigable river stretches in China sustain level fluctuations of as much 30m for which it
becomes quite difticult to design good terminal facilities.

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 18
Figure 25 River terminal cross-section AA

~~----------------~~------~~~~--~-------------~
~ ~=*~~~ __~~~ ~~ __~lo~oL'
~I~O~O~I __ ~

"""
.......
a-~
1~
1j~1 ~h
I I ~i
~41d _.."..10

-
m
,

~
::.
= t...-jI F'
.JI l- ~\
..........
_~ ~ I

/ 1---..... ~.,..,
I' . t ! j j5ïîiiLP " .;
/ _ A"':-
10' j
----~~~----~~~----------------~~~~

i!È~
6,.1 LiO"
~------~-----+----~----~
C::l.OSS-SE.CTlON

Figure 26 Barisal, design of floating launch station with anchors [souree ref 13J

porttrm.iwt/1992*11 page 19
 ...ro.
I
<:.\~ ...:r:/
..
•1
\

'!'J~~_j
.... NO

Figure 27 Aoating landing stage moored to dolphins [souree ref 13]

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 20
 DNIec:D L-.cD
......
'AQLll'tC. lUIT .. '6CII,.1?.w

c==:7 I Ei
..u__:"'_'-'___I
I " I

IE' ffi~m_"ill..,~"_~
DIIT"'~
COvl:"n
ü $TOlt"'
f"KtUTl(S

fff.. CCHIEMll ST1)IIACL BCR..l1'tD

aIIlE.A • .0..1.

ec.••

"MAZON HIVEH

EL. 119.15
MAX. WL. ~L."8.60

SECTION
10
EL. 119.15
MAX. WL. EL . 1/8.60

SECTION 2-2

1-location of an old dock

2-part of an old dock incorporated into 10-depressed inshore mooring cables
the new pier 11-offshore mooring cables
3-new pier 12-anchors
4-access bridge 13-land-based piled deadmen
5-bridge support pontoon 14-winch
6-ramp between bridge and pier 15-upstream floating log
7-ramp between two parts of a new pier 16-downstream navigationalaids
8-inshore mooring cables 17-concrete bloek
9-bridge keeping prestressec cables 18-slope protection

Figure 28 Port of Iquitos on the Amazon river, Peru: generallay-out and typical cross-
sections [source ref 14]

porttrm.iwtjl992*11 page 21
4.5 Design criteria for a simple IWT canal berth

For a simple fixed berth along a canal, some design rules have been developed in the Netherlands. First
of all, it is stated that such berths should not be situated along canals with busy traffic, because it
hampers the throughput capacity of the canal itself: at the terminal, all passing ships must temporarily
slow down to prevent breaking mooring ropes, etc. (traffic rule). The minimum dimensions are
presented in figure 29, from which it is clear that the berthed ship remains entirely out of the canal cross-
profile.

~gtn ~ 1.1ls
.~ ~ quay -wa.1I •

----E-f-~~~~~~ i
o.c : canal centr e une - - - - - - --
________ - __ I __ - - - - -
'"
lil

[,1J~~-----__'--------------------------~r,Lr
-0'
0·-: o
L-
.c ~ I
U

Figure 29 Main dimensions of terminal along canal

A berth may be a quaywall, a fixed jetty or a floating jetty. Whatever it is, the structure must be capable
to carry the verticalloads of cargo, trucks, people, cranes, etc. (see figure 30). In addition, it must
withstand the horizontal loads.

~hip Impacts

,
mooring torces

wa terpres sure

Figure 30 Design loads for quaywalls

The indicated forces may fluctuate considerably, so a thorough analysis is needed. Particular attention
should be given to sudden change of the water pressure caused by passing ships.

Ship impacts may be considerable, e.g. in case of a failing manoeuvre (kinetic energy to be absorbed).
In this respect, a very subjective criterion plays a role, namely how rough a berthing manoeuvre is still

porttrm.iwt/1992*11 page 22
 considered 'normal' or 'acceptabie'. For quaywall designs, the -concentrated- design laad (acting on
0.5m2) is taken as shown in figure 31.

·1

Displacement of ship (m3 or tons)

Figure 31 Design laad on quaywalls and bollards

The given values of design laads on quaywalls and bollards apply to stift structures (sheetpile walls). If a
good f1exiblefendering is provided, the impact loads will decrease. One should check if a design load
for the quaywall can really be exerted, considering the desiqn ship's own strength.

Bollards should be situated near the quay or jetty edge, so that a deckhand can put a mooring line
directly over the bollard when the ship approaches the berth. The design load depends on the mooring
lines on board of the ships. The rule of thumb for the mooring forces is the same as for the
aforementioned collision loads: so, for inland vessels about 10 to 30 tons. These forces may act both in
a longitudinal and a lateral direction. Spacing between bollards should be about 10 to 30% of the
design ship length (figure 32). This will also fit for many smaller vessels. The shape and size of the
bollards on the jetty are very important to prevent unnecessary wear and to avoid lines slipping over the
bollard's top.

Figure 32 Spacing of bollards

Near a berth, ships will often be manoeuvring. Consequently, the risk of concentrated screw-race
erosion is relatively high, and should be given due attention (figure 30). To prevent stability problems,
possible sheetpiling should be given some overdepth.

The external forces acting on a jetty (figure 33) are much alike the forces on a quaywall. Special
stiftening will be needed to withstand the longitudinal forces exerted by a moored ship which is aftected
by passing ships andjor regular flow in the canal, Attention should also be given to the risk of screw-
race erosion, because it is very likely to attack the bank slope. Damages of that slope may not be
noticed in time, and a serious bank slide might be the result. Repair of the slope revetment under the
jetty will be very troublesome. '
,
For a further discussion of design aspects and relevant guidelines, reference is made to ref 4.

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 23
Figure 33 Forces. acting on a jetty type terminal

4.6 Inland passenger terminals

Even at a pure passenger terminal. a certain amount of cargo has always to be handled. ranging from
personal luggage and unaccompanied baggage to crates and barrels for local stores. depots and shops.
This sort of cargo is usually light and limited in volume. and is not to be compared with regular treight
movements to and trom tactories or with transport of agriculture products, bulk commodities and the
Iike. Hence. the design of a passenger terminal must not be mixed with the completely different criteria
applying to a cargo terminal.

Both types of terminal have in common that the jetty. or landing stage. is the most important
component. For apassengers jetty. the prevailing requirement is to have a landing platform which is.
more or less. level with the vessel's embarkation deck. In most cases, this wiJl result in the choice for a
floating jetty. This is certainly the case for stations where substantial seasonal level variations do occur.
In most tidal areas, a fixed jetty with stepped levels may be used.

4.7 Seaport terminals for IWT vessels and lighters

Of all types of terminals. suitable for handling of inland vessels, seaport terminals will. norrnally, be the
most expensive ones. This type often stands model for future terminals that will be built on a smaller
scale, also at locations far in the hinterland. A typical lay-out is given in figure 34.

Lighterage cannot be successfully performed without a special terminal where lighters. or barges. can be
loaded or unloaded in an efficient way. Such a terminal can be part of the original port complex. tor
instanee. where shallow berths or space restrictions make the location less suitable to receive any more
sea-going vessels. But, more often, a lighter terminal will be located away from the original port site,
where new links with the hinterland can be created that bypass congested areas around an old port.

Similar to the seaport's IWT complex, but on a smaller scale, the lighter terminal is an intricate set-up
where rail, road and water transport modes meet. and where transfer of cargo has to be performed,
often complicated by intermediate storage. The throughput capacity of a lighter terminal may range
from 1,000 to 2,500 tons of cargo per year per meter of quay length, depending on the type of
commodities and the efficiency with which they will be handled. The above figure is based on an
effective working time of 75% out of the maximum available hours per year, or 0.75x24x365 = say, 6600
active hours.

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 24
Mechanization is the key to achieve high output per meter quay. Maintenance of equipment is important
to maintain a high level of output. A well-equipped workshop, skilled mechanics and a sufficient amount
of spareparts and spare moving stock (usually 25% of the total) should be available.

containers general cargo handling

empty barges
09 ,I
-~~
I • ~
:TRAHSIT sloleo 11';
~ '--If1- - sr - J
12. : TRA ....
SIT SUEI>.

'__~J I .._ __ ' J L_

, V_ _ _ _
TRUC.t< LOAPINClo ~ReA gg 10 jo lW
country craf!
RAIL SIPIHG
§
AEJEltvep ""~EA
FUTU R~ 2)tPAN.s'ON
PA~t!I~Ci
c.ONrIlIHnlll
J.
OPEN
10 j'"--:;
00,·
cO"
:: .: cr;
'a
~

.J~RP:. :: 1~
1 customs 7 workshop , ·1
2 shedmaster 8 share I· ·1
,•. t
3 weigh bridge 9 emergeney generator
4 fuel station 10 trucks !.._..!
5 canteen 11 forklif! trucks
6 toilet & shower 12 container storage
scale tem = lOm

Figure 34 Example of the lay-out of a seaport terminal for the handling of inland barges
[source ref 15)

porttrm.iwtjl992*11 page 25
REFERENCES
(1) Verkerk, ir H., Binnenhavens, TU Delft, Afdeling Civiele Techniek, 1983.

(2) Arndt, B., Erzumschlag in westdeutschen Binnenhäfen, HANSA, 1970/12/1021.

(3) Bumm, H., Die technische und betriebliche Entwicklung in den deutschen Binnenhäfen,
1962/1963/241.

[4] Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses 'Ufereinfassungen' der HTG für Steigleiters (EAU), Wilhelm
Ernst & Sohn, 1985, Bertln/München/Düsseldort,

[5] Technischer Ausschuss Binnenhäfen, Empfehlungen für die technische Planung von Binnenhäfen,
Gemeinsamer Ausschuss des Bundesverbandes öffentlicher Binnenhäfen und der
Hafenbautechnischen Gesellschaft, Nürnberg, 1982 (draft).

[6] Magazine: HANSA, Zentralorgan für Schifffahrt-Schiffbau-Häfen.

(7) Magazine: Zeitschrift für Binnenwasserstrassenund Binnenhäfen.

[8] Magazine: Schuttevaer.

[9] Press, H., Binnenwasserstrassen und Binnenhäfen, Wilhelm Ernst & Soh, Berlin, 1965.

[10] Rosen Jacboson, R.R.M., et al, De aanleg van de industriehaven te Oss, Polytechnisch Tijdschrift,
1969/7 maart/180.

[11) Krietemeijer, Binnenscheepvaart, lecture notes S3, TU Delft, Afdeling Scheepsbouwkunde, 1974.

(12) Krietemeijer, Binnenscheepvaart, lecture notes S4, TU Delft, Afdeling Scheepsbouwkunde, 1966-
1967.

[13] Nedeco, East Pakistan Inland Water Transport Authority, Report on the design of terminal facilities
in the inland ports of Khulna, Chandpur and Barisal, The Hague, 1962.

[14] Tanner, R.G., et al, Modernization and upgrading of the dock and associated facilities at Iquitos,
Peru, Proceedings of the Specialty Conference on Ports, 1983, ASCE, New Orleans/USA.

[15] Guide to Inland Water Transport Development, PIANC PCDC 2nd Seminar, Surabava/Brussels.
1992.

[16) PIANC, Bulletins and Congress Papers of the 4-yearly congresses, Section I, Inland Navigation.

[17] ESCAP IWT Seminars, the Netherlands, 1988 and 1991.

porttrm.iwtj1992*11 page 26
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