Homework 3

Problem 1 (50 p)
Consider a particle in the infinite potential well:
(
0 (0 ≤ x ≤ a)
V (x) =
∞ (otherwise)

• Write the time-independent Schrödinger equation in the distinctive three regions of x.

• Considering the boundary conditions, solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation

and find the energy eigenvalues, En , and the corresponding (normalised) eigenstates
Ψn (x).

• Show that the energy eigenstates with different energies are orthogonal.

Problem 2 (50 p)
Consider the harmonic oscillator
mω 2 2
V (x) = x . (0.1)
2
1. Show that the Hamiltonian can be written as
 
† 1
Ĥ = ℏω â â + ,
2
where r   r  
mω p̂ † mω p̂
â = x̂ + i and â = x̂ − i (0.2)
2ℏ mω 2ℏ mω
are the annihilation and creation operators, respectively.

2. Using the following commutation relations,

 †
â, â = 1
 † 
â â, â = −â
 † 
â â, ↠= â†

derive
√
â|n⟩ = n · |n − 1⟩ ,
†
√
â |n⟩ = n + 1 · |n + 1⟩, (0.3)

where |n⟩ is the eigenket of the number operator N̂ = ↠â.

1
 3. What is the allowed values of n? Find all energy eigenvalues.

4. The ground state (the lowest energy state) |0⟩ is defined by

â|0⟩ = 0 .

In the Schrödinger representation, this is a differential equation. Solve it and find the
normalised ground state wave function, Ψ0 (x) = ⟨x|0⟩.

5. The first excited state can be obtained from the ground state as (see Eq. (0.3))

|1⟩ = ↠|0⟩

Calculate the right-hand-side in the Schrödinger representation and find the wave func-
tion of the first excited state, Ψ1 (x) = ⟨x|1⟩.

6. Using the same strategy, find the wave function of the second excited state, Ψ2 (x) =
⟨x|2⟩.

Problem 3 (0 p)
This problem can be skipped.
Consider the eigenstate of the annihilation operator

â|Ψβ ⟩ = β|Ψβ ⟩ .

The eigenvalue β is complex, β = reiθ , as â is not Hermitian. We prepare the state |Ψβ ⟩ and
place it in the hermonic oscillator potential Eq. (0.1) at t = 0. (See the lecture note 8 to work
on the following problems).

1. We write |Ψβ ⟩ = |Ψr,θ ⟩, interchangeably. We expand |Ψβ ⟩ in terms of the energy

eigenstates |n⟩ as
∞
X
|Ψβ ⟩ = cn |n⟩
n=0

Show that
βn r2
cn = √ e − 2
n!
2. Show that the time-evolution of |Ψβ ⟩ is given by
ω r2 † ∗ (t)â
|Ψβ (t)⟩ = e−i 2 t · e− 2 · eβ(t)â · e−β · |0⟩
(↠)n
with β(t) ≡ βe−iωt . (Hint: En = ℏω(n + 12 ) and |n⟩ = √ |0⟩)
n!

2
 Quantum Mechanics - Prof. Kazuki Sakurai

Homework 3 - Solution
University of Warsaw - Faculty of Physics
Juliana Márquez Bustos

August 14, 2023

Problem 1

Figure 1: A particle is subjected to an nfinite potential well

• From the general equation of the Hamiltonian

p̂2
Ĥ = + V̂ (x)
2m
And using the Shrödinger representation, we can write
 2 2 
−ℏ δ
Ĥψ(x) = + V (x) ψ(x) = E · ψ(x)
2m δx2
So Schrödinger’s equation for the particle can be written as:
 2 2 
−ℏ δ
lim + M ψ(x) = E · ψ(x) (region 1)
M →∞ 2m δx2
 2 2 
−ℏ δ
ψ(x) = E · ψ(x) (region 2)
2m δx2
 2 2 
−ℏ δ
lim + M ψ(x) = E · ψ(x) (region 3)
M →∞ 2m δx2

For regions 1, 2 ad 3, respectively. Observe that the equations for regions 1 and 3 are equal.

3
 Quantum Mechanics - Prof. Kazuki Sakurai

• Let’s solve Schrödinger’s equation for regions 1 and 3 first:

 2 2 
−ℏ δ
lim + M ψ1 (x) = E · ψ1 (x)
M →∞ 2m δx2

The most logical solution would be to consider that the particle is in a bounded state, otherwise its
energy would be infinite. To allow for a finite energy, it is implied that ψ1 (x) = 0. Now, the solution
to S.E in region 2:
√
δ2 ′′ −2m 2mE
ψ2 (x) = ψ2 (x) = 2
E · ψ2 (x) = −k · ψ2 (x), k = ∈R
δx2 ℏ2 ℏ
The solution to this equation is of the form ψ2 (x) = A · sin kx + B · cos kx. To find the constants A and
B, consider the following boundary conditions:

ψ1 (0) = ψ2 (0) (I)

ψ3 (a) = ψ2 (a) (II)

Then,

A · sin 0 + B · cos 0 = A · 0 + B · 1 = 0 =⇒ B = 0 (I)

A · sin ka = 0 =⇒ ka = nπ, n ∈ Z (II)
nπ
So the solutions are given by kn = a with n = 1, 2, 3, ...
√
2mE
Considering that k = ℏ , it is possible to find the corresponding discretized energy eigenvalue En
as:
kn2 ℏ2 π 2 ℏ2 2
En = = n
2m 2ma2
2 2
π ℏ 2
Observe that E1 = 2ma 2 , and that subsequent energy eignevalues can be simply denoted as En = n ·E1

(eg. E2 = 4E1 , E3 = 9E1 and so on). This means that measuring the energy of the particle (if it is
located inside the described potential well) will result in one of these discrete energy eigenvalues.
Additionally, each of these eigenvalues correspond to an eigenstate, and because these eigenstates are
static (do not evolve in time), they can be used to describe the wave function of the particle at any
given moment. These eigenstates are given by ψn (x) = ⟨x|En ⟩ = A · sin (kn x). The constant A can be
found via the condition for normalization of quantum states
Z ∞
|ψn (x)|2 dx = 1
−∞

Hence: Z  a r
a
2 2 2 x sin 2kn x  2 a 2
|A| · sin kn x dx = |A| −  = |A| · 2 = 1 =⇒ A = a
0 2 4k 0
And the eigenstates are given by:
r
2
ψn (x) = · sin (sin (kn x)x), for n = 1, 2, 3, ...
a
Also, we can write one solution to the Schrödinger’s equation as:
(
0, if x < 0 or x > a
ψ(x) = q 2
a · sin kn x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ a

4
 Quantum Mechanics - Prof. Kazuki Sakurai

However, a superposition of waves

r
X 2
cn · · sin kn x, where cn ∈ C
n
a

will also solve the equation (where the particle is inside the potential well, since outside of it the wave
function is still 0).

• Now, consider what would happen if you had the product of two eigenstates ⟨En |Em ⟩:
Z ∞ Z a Z a
∗ 2
⟨En |Em ⟩ = ⟨En |x⟩⟨x|Em ⟩dx = ψn (x) · ψm (x)dx = |A| sin (kn x) · sin (km x)dx
∞ 0 0

So the integral to solve is Z a

2 πn πm
x · sin
sin x dx
a 0 a a
R∞
For the case in which n = m, the expression corresponds to −∞ |ψn (x)|2 dx, so ⟨En |En ⟩ = 1. For the
case in which n ̸= m:
     a
a sin π(n−m)x
a sin π(n+m)x   
2 a a  2 a sin (π (n − m)) a sin (π (n + m)) 2
· −  
a 2π (n − m) 2π (n + m)  = a · 2π (n − m) −
2π (n + m)
− 0 = ·0 = 0
a

0

Observe that the product behaves like a Kronecker delta, so energy eigenstates with differents energies
(different value of n) are orthonormal to each other.

5
 Quantum Mechanics - Prof. Kazuki Sakurai

Problem 2

Figure 2: A potential generates a quantum harmonic oscillator

1. First, consider that the hamiltonian of the harmonic oscillator corresponds to the following expression:
p2 mω 2 2
Ĥ = + x (1)
2m 2
Where the first term comes from the movement of the particle, and the second corresponds to the
generating potential. Now, consider the left hand side of the given equation:
    
1 mω p̂ p̂ ℏω
ℏω ↠â + = ℏω x̂ − i x̂ + i +
2 2ℏ mω mω 2
   
mω 2
p̂ p̂ p̂ 2
ℏω mω 2
(x̂p̂ − p̂x̂) p̂2
ℏω
x̂2 − i x̂ + ix̂ + + = x̂2 + i + 2 2 +
2 mω mω m2 ω 2 2 2 mω m ω 2
   
mω 2
[x̂, p̂] p̂ 2
ℏω mω 2
iℏ p̂2
ℏω
x̂2 + i + 2 2 + = x̂2 + i + +
2 mω m ω 2 2 mω m2 ω 2 2
mω 2 ℏω p̂ 2
ℏω p 2
mω 2 2
x̂ − + + = + x
2 2 2m 2 2m 2


Which is the right hand side of equation 1. Therefore we can say that Ĥ = ℏω ↠â + 21

√
2. • To derive the equation â|n⟩ = n · |n − 1⟩, lest’s re-write its left hand side as:
â|n⟩ = −[↠â, â]|n⟩ = −[N̂ , â]|n⟩
−(N̂ â − âN̂ )|n⟩ = âN̂ |n⟩ − N̂ â|n⟩ = n · â|n⟩ − N̂ â|n⟩
=⇒ N̂ (â|n⟩) = (n − 1) · â|n⟩

Since |n⟩ is an eigneket of operator N̂ . However, |n⟩ is not necessarily an eigenket of â, so we
write â|n⟩ = c1 |m⟩ (with n ̸= m, in general).
N̂ (â|n⟩) = (n − 1) · â|n⟩ =⇒ N̂ (c1 |m⟩) = (n − 1) · c1 |m⟩
N̂ |m⟩ = (n − 1)|m⟩ =⇒ m|m⟩ = (n − 1)|m⟩

6
 Quantum Mechanics - Prof. Kazuki Sakurai

But ket |m⟩ belongs to the same space as |n⟩. Therefore, it is also an eigenket of operator N̂ (but
with eigenvalue m). From the above equation, we can write m = n − 1. Now, consider the norm
of the ket formed by the operation â|n⟩:

|â|n⟩|2 = |c1 |2 ⟨m|m⟩ = ⟨n|↠â|n⟩ = ⟨n|N̂ |n⟩ = n⟨n|n⟩

√
|c1 |2 = n =⇒ c1 = n
√
Thus the equation â|n⟩ = c1 |m⟩ can be rewritten as â|n⟩ = n|n − 1⟩

√
• Similarly, to derive the equation ↠|n⟩ = n + 1 · |n + 1⟩, consider the commutation relation
[↠â, ↠] = â†

↠|n⟩ = [↠â, ↠]|n⟩ = [N̂ , ↠]|n⟩ = (N̂ ↠− ↠N̂ )|n⟩ = N̂ ↠|n⟩ − n · ↠|n⟩
=⇒ N̂ ↠|n⟩ = (n + 1)↠|n⟩

Considering ↠|n⟩ = c2 |l⟩ :

N̂ ↠|n⟩ = (n + 1)↠|n⟩ =⇒ N̂ (c2 |l⟩) = (n + 1) · c2 |l⟩

N̂ |l⟩ = (n + 1)|l⟩ =⇒ l|l⟩ = (n + 1)|l⟩

Following the justifcation given in the prior item, we conclue that l = n + 1. Now, the norm of
the vector ↠|n⟩ = c2 |l⟩ will be given by:

|↠|n⟩|2 = |c2 |2 ⟨l|l⟩ = ⟨n|â · ↠|n⟩

⟨n|(↠â + [â, ↠])|n⟩ = ⟨n|(N̂ + 1)|n⟩ = (n + 1)⟨n|n⟩
√
|c2 |2 = n + 1 =⇒ c2 = n + 1
√
Thus the equation ↠|n⟩ = c2 |l⟩ will be re-written as ↠|n⟩ = n + 1 · |n + 1⟩.

3. The energy eigenvalues are those En which satisfy Ĥ|n⟩ = En |n⟩.

   
1 1
Ĥ|n⟩ = ℏω N̂ + |n⟩ = ℏω n + |n⟩
2 2


Hence, the energy eigenvalues are En = ℏω n + 21 . But what are the allowed values for n? Consider
the following equation:
|â|n⟩|2 = n⟨n − 1|n − 1⟩ = n
Knowing â|n⟩ is an element of the Hilbert space, where the kets have postive norm, we deduce n ≥ 0
(the norm is 0 if the ket is the null ket). Additionally, applying the creation operator to the lowest
possible energy state (n = 0) results in the following:
√
↠|0⟩ = 1 · |1⟩ = |1⟩
√ √ √
Applying the operator again would result in 2|2⟩. A third time, in 2 · 3|3⟩ √ = 6|3⟩, and so on.
Using the creation operator n consecutive times on the null ket will result in n!|n⟩, from which we
conclude that n can only take integer values. According to this, all the energy eigenvalues will be:
 
1 1 3 5
En = ℏω n + (for n ∈ Z+ or n = 0) = ℏω · , ℏω · , ℏω · , ...
2 2 2 2

7
 Quantum Mechanics - Prof. Kazuki Sakurai

4. Let’s find the wave function that describes the ground state, Ψ0 (x). In the Schrödinger representation,
R⟨x|â|0⟩
∞ ′
= â⟨x|0⟩ = âΨ0 (x) (this is easily proven by multiplying the expression by the Identity operator,
−∞
|x ⟩⟨x′ |dx′ , and remembering that the Dirac delta is written as f (x)δ(x − x′ ) = ⟨x′ |f (x)|x⟩). Then:
r  
mω p̂
âΨ0 (x) = x̂ + i Ψ0 (x) = 0
2ℏ mω
 
(−iℏ) δ −mω
x+i Ψ0 (x) = 0 =⇒ Ψ′0 (x) = x · Ψ0 (x)
mω δx ℏ
2
=⇒ Ψ0 (x) = N · e−αx /2

Where α = mω ℏ Rand N is the normalization factor of the function. Since we know that the function is
∞
normalized, as −∞ |Ψ0 (x)|2 dx = 1:
Z ∞ Z ∞ r
αx2 αx2 2 π
|N |2 e− 2 · e− 2 dx = |N |2 e−αx dx = |N |2 =1
−∞ −∞ α
 α 1/4
=⇒ N =
π

1/4 2
Therefore, the complete wave function for the ground state is Ψ0 (x) = απ · e−αx /2 .
5. Now, to find the first excited state, we compute |1⟩ = ↠|0⟩ in the Schrödinger representation:
r  
† mω p̂
Ψ1 (x) = â Ψ0 (x) = x̂ − i Ψ0 (x)
2ℏ mω
r    
α (−iℏ) δ α 1/4 −αx2 /2
Ψ1 (x) = x−i · ·e
2 mω δx π
 
α3/4 ℏ (−α · 2x) 2
Ψ1 (x) = √ x− · e−αx /2
2π 1/4 mω 2
   3 1/4
α 3/4
1 2 α √ 2
Ψ1 (x) = √ x + (α · x) · e−αx /2 = · 2x · e−αx /2
2π 1/4 α π
√
=⇒ Ψ1 (x) = 2α · x · Ψ0 (x)

6. Following the same procedure one more time will result in calculating the wave function for the second
excited state:
r  
mω p̂
Ψ2 (x) = ↠Ψ1 (x) = x̂ − i Ψ1 (x)
2ℏ mω
r    3 1/4
α (−iℏ) δ α √ 2
Ψ2 (x) = x−i · · 2x · e−αx /2
2 mω δx π
 5 1/4  
α 1 ℏ δ 2
Ψ2 (x) = · √ · x− x · e−αx /2
π 2 mω δx
 5 1/4  
α 1 1 2
Ψ2 (x) = · √ · x − (1 − α · x ) · e−αx /2
2 2
π 2 α
 5 1/4  
α 1 1 2
Ψ2 (x) = · √ · 2x2 − · e−αx /2
π 2 α
1
=⇒ Ψ2 (x) = √ · (2α · x2 − 1) · Ψ0 (x)
2