DETERMINANTS FOR POST-HARVEST LOSSES IN MAIZE PRODUCTION FOR

SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN NAROK COUNTY

BY

BOR JOSEAH

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Science and Technology in the Partial Fulfillment for

the Degree of Agriculture and Rural Development of Kenya Methodist University

August, 2023
 DECLARATION AND CERTIFICATION

Student’s Declaration

I declare that this research thesis is my original work and has not been presented in any other

university/institution for consideration of any certification. The thesis has been complemented by

referenced sources duly acknowledged

Signature.…………………………………. Date…………………………….

BOR JOSEAH.
REG. NO.: AGR-1-0010-1/2021
Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Kenya Methodist University

Supervisors’ Certification

We confirm that the work in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision as

University supervisors

Signature.…………………………………. Date…………………………….

Prof.

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Kenya Methodist University

Signature.…………………………………. Date…………………………….

Dr.

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Kenya Methodist University

 COPYRIGHT

This thesis is copyright protected by the Berne Convention, the copyright Act 2001 and other

intellectual property, national and international enactments. It may not be reproduced by any

means in full or in part except for short extracts in fair dealing for research or private study,

critical scholarly review or discourse with acknowledgement, with written permission of the

author or Kenya Methodist University.

 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Bor.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My heartfelt appreciation goes to Kenya Methodist university administration for giving me the

opportunity to pursue my Bachelor’s degree. I would also wish to thank the university teaching

staff for imparting in me knowledge that has led to the development of this thesis. I also

sincerely thank my supervisors: Prof. and Dr. for having time to guide me in this journey. Lastly,

I thank my colleagues with whom we had academic discussions and any other persons not

mentioned by name.
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENT
LIST OF APENDICIES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 overview

This chapter introduces the topic under study by giving some background to the study, the

statement of the problem and outlines the objectives of the study as well. It also states the

research questions, justification and significance of the study, the scope, limitation, assumptions,

theoretical and conceptual framework.

1.2 Background of the study

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most important grain crop in most sub Saharan country’s and is

produced throughout and under diverse environments. Successful maize production depends on

the correct application of production inputs that will sustain the environment as well as

agricultural production. These inputs are, inter alia, adapted cultivars, plant population, soil

tillage, fertilization, weed, insect and disease control, harvesting, marketing and financial

resources (Senbet & Simbanegavi, 2017). The economy of most of the sub Saharan county’s

highly depending on agriculture which is considered to be the key and main employer of the

country’s labour force as it employs approximately 70 percent of the population. Currently the

maize production at the world level stands at 10.14 billion metric tons (FAO, 2018). Moreover,

about 30% of the world maize production comes from the United States followed by China

(21%), Brazil (7.9%) and Africa (7%) (FAOSTAT, 2014). Two-thirds of all Africa maize comes

from eastern and southern Africa in which Kenya is a part (Shee et al. 2019). Moreover, it is

estimated that, over 80 % of the population in sub Saharan Africa depends on maize for food and

contributes up to 60 % of the total energy in the diets of the consumers (Midamba and Kizito,

2022).
The measures and actions aimed at reducing food losses are contributing factors to enhancing

food security as well as alleviating poverty among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa

(SSA) and, although the global food systems produce sufficient food to feed everyone, still in

2016 about 13.8% of food produced in the world get lost annually either through post-harvest

mishandling, infestation by pests and diseases, or just mere waste at the table (FAO, 2019). Over

30% of the food produced in SSA gets lost through post-harvest along the food supply chain

because of financial, managerial and technical constraints (Shee et al. 2019). Estimates by FAO

showed that post-harvest losses (PHL) in SSA reach up to 20% for cereals valued at US$4

billion, which is equivalent to the value of cereals imported annually in SSA (FAO, 2019).

Despite the steady production of maize over the past three decades and its importance in

ensuring food security, its potential is not being fully realized. This is because post-harvest losses

of maize have remained a significant phenomenon and it account for about 30-40 % loss of the

produced maize in rural areas and this is associated with inadequate post-harvest handling of

maize (Suleiman and Kurt, 2015). Postharvest loss of food crops is a global challenge to

attainment of the sustainable development goals such as zero hunger and responsible

consumption and production. Reduction of postharvest food loss is important for sustainably

improving food and nutrition security. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), post-harvest loss is

particularly important because not only is agricultural productivity low, but about 374 million

people experience severe food insecurity (FAO et al. 2018). A study by Ngowi and Selejio

(2014) reported that maize has the highest PHL (40%) among the cereals in Sub Saharan Africa.

Post-harvest loss (PHL) is defined as grain loss which occurs after separation from the site of

growth or production to the point where the grain is prepared for consumption (Giertz et al.,

2015; Gitonga et al., 2013). FAO, (2019) report describes PHL as a measurable phenomenon
both in quantitative, qualitative and economics of grain loss across the supply chain and on the

other hand, defined post-harvest loss (PHL) to include losses that occur at time of harvest,

though various postharvest operations on farm to the first level of market. Moreover, Amentae,

Tura, Gebresenbet and Ljungberg, (2016) defined PHL as losses in grain both during harvesting

process and during the post-harvest activities throughout the supply chains in the process of

getting the cereal down to consumers.

In the east and southern Africa, maize is the most important staple food and a cash crop for most

resource-poor smallholder farmers (Midamba, 2022). Farmers store the maize to bridge seasonal

supply shortfalls and attendant price fluctuation (Gitonga et al., 2013). However, between 14 and

36% of maize produced in eastern and southern Africa is lost during post-harvest because of

poor handling and improper storage. Of this loss, between 4.3 and 11.2% is lost, during storage,

due to infestation by rodents, insect pests, and mycotoxins which are associated with the lack of

effective storage technology (Giertz et al., 2015; Gitonga et al., 2013). In Rwanda, about 32% of

the total volume was lost because of the lack of capacity in post-harvest handling and storage

(Kathiresan, 2011; MINAGRI, 2018a, 2018b). In response to the high post-harvest maize losses,

the Government of Rwanda launched the post-harvest handling and storage (PHHS) task force in

2010 with the mandate of minimizing post-harvest losses through training of maize farmers in

best practices in post-harvest handling and storage technologies, construction of post-harvest

management systems, and distribution of post-harvest equipment including hermetic storage

technologies (MINAGRI, 2016). As a result, the post-harvest losses in maize fell from 32% in

2011 to 16.4% in 2019 (African Post Harvest Information System, 2018).

The magnitude of farm-level postharvest quantitative losses reported in the literature vary

widely. The African Postharvest Losses Information System (APHLIS) www. aphlis.net uses
locally-contextualized science-based estimates of the losses occurring at each postharvest stage,

estimating that maize postharvest dry weight losses in Kenya from 2008 to 2016 ranged from

17.2 to 23.8%, equating to an annual national loss of between 320,000 and 465,000 t of maize

(APHLIS 2018). By maize postharvest stage, APHLIS estimates harvesting losses of 6.4–16.4%

occurred in Kenya during this period, with a further 4.0% during further drying, 1.3% during

shelling, 2.4% during transport to farm, and 1.2– 5.9% during five to eight months of farm-level

storage (APHLIS 2018). A recent study of maize postharvest losses in Bungoma county,

reported estimates (based on a combination of measurements and farmers’ perceptions) of

quantitative losses of 1.9–4.7% at harvesting due to spillage, 3% at drying, 4% during threshing,

10% during on-farm storage (plus up to 50% qualitative loss due to the presence of aflatoxin

levels >10 ppb), 5% at milling (FAO, 2019). While a postharvest loss perceptions survey with

focus groups of farmers in Trans-Nzoia in 2013, did not report perceived levels of loss by

postharvest activity stage, but identified the perceived major loss-causing factors for maize as

spillage, pests (weevils, moulds and rodents), theft, high moisture content (inherent or wetting),

poor quality (discolouration, broken grains).

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Maize is critical to food security in Kenya and, as the most widely consumed and produced

staple crop, is central to household and national income. However, yields have declined from 2.2

metric tons (MT) per hectare (ha) in the 1990s to 1.74 MT in 2012, largely as a result of low and

inappropriate soil fertilization. Based on population and consumption growth trends, we expect

an increase in aggregate demand for maize from 3.21 million MT in 2013 to 3.48 million MT in

2022. This increment is expected to be generated by county’s producing maize of which Narok

county is amongst.
Despite the significant benefits maize to the Kenyan economy in terms of household food

security and economic development, this crop suffers from post-harvest losses (PHLs).

According to Shee et al. (2019), PHLs in maize occurs during harvesting, dehusking transporting

to their homes, drying, shelling, storage, milling and selling. Shee et al. (2019) further noted that

a higher percentage of PHLs occur from harvesting to shelling when the farmer is in full control

of maize. Abass et al. (2014) confirmed that indeed PHLs in maize production occur in the field,

during processing and during maize storage. Studies conducted have shown that the Per capita

maize consumption is on a steady downward trend from about 90 kilograms in 2003 to 67.5

kilograms in 2020. It is projected to decline further to 56.3 kilograms in 2022, as consumers

increasingly substitute cooking bananas, Irish potato, sweet potato, and cassava in place of maize

as a result of increasing post-harvest losses. In order for Kenya and Narok in particular to be

food secure the post-harvest losses of maize have to be reduced. It is on the basis of this

objective that this study was conducted to investigate the determinants for post-harvest losses in

maize production for smallholder farmers in Narok County.

1.4 Research Objectives

The main objective of this study was to investigate the determinants for post-harvest losses in

maize production for smallholder farmers in Narok County.

1.4.1 Specific Objectives

The objectives of this study were as follows:

i) To assess the farmers’ socio economic and cultural factors that influence post-harvest

maize losses among smallholder farmers in Narok County.

 ii) To establish the perception of environmental factors influencing the farmers’ post-

harvest grain loss among smallholder farmers in Narok County.

iii) To evaluate the farmers’ post-harvest maize management operations that contributes

to maize losses among farmers in Narok County.

1.5 Research Questions

a) How do farmers’ socio economic and cultural factors influence post-harvest maize losses

among smallholder farmers in Narok County?

b) How are the environmental factors influencing the farmers’ post-harvest grain loss

among smallholder farmers in Narok County perceived?

c) How do farmers’ post-harvest maize management operations contribute to maize losses

among farmers in Narok County?

1.6 Justification of the Study

The findings of the study will be of importance to the following stakeholders: The government

and policy makers will benefit in the sense that the study will assist them on developing policies

relating to food security in the country including the choice of appropriate technologies on post-

harvest maize management practices. Farmers will be equipped with the information on how to

improve their management practices in order to reduce maize losses at household level.

Development partners will learn about progress toward meeting Millennium Development Goals

especially on hunger and poverty reduction through the adoption of improved post-harvest grain

management technologies.
1.7 Scope of the Study

The study was undertaken in Narok County Kenya. It investigated the determinants for post-

harvest losses in maize production for smallholder farmers.

1.8 Limitation of the Study

In pursuit of carrying out this study, a few challenges were experienced. One of the limitations

was that some participants were not willing to co-operate or participate in the study which they

perceived as not directly beneficial to them. Farmers especially in rural areas are busy either

attending their land or running their businesses. To overcome this challenge, the researcher

arranged with the respondents, on the appropriate time to engage them. Since the target

population was drawn from farmers, the researcher got help from Agriculture extension officers

and leaders to mobilize farmers and organize for data collection.

Assumptions of the Study

Assumption included; that the respondent’s would agree to participate in the study and they

would answer questions correctly and honestly. The study also assumed that the data collection

instruments were valid and reliable to collect information to answerer the study objectives.

1.10 Definition of Operational Terms

Aflatoxin: Poisonous chemicals produced by certain fungi on foods.

Cereal loss: Refers to the decrease in edible food mass available to households for consumption

throughout the different segments of the supply chain.

Cereal: Any edible components of the grain of cultivated grass. Cereal grains are grown in

greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. For the

study the focus was on maize.

Food security: This is the ability to have physical and economic access to access sufficient, safe

and nutritious food.

Grain: Seeds from a plant, used synonymously with maize.

Harvest: Deliberate action to separate the food stuff from its growing medium.

Pest: This is an insect or small animal which is harmful or which damages crops.

Physiological maturity: This is when a maize kernel has a maximum content of dry matter.

Post- harvest cereal losses: Quantitative and qualitative unintended loss in maize which makes

it unavailable or unfit for human consumption, occurring during any of the various phases of

post- harvest marketing and storage.

Post-harvest loss: can be defined as the degradation in both quantity and quality of a food

production from harvest to consumption

Preservation: This entails keeping something in order to prevent it from being damaged.

Shelling: This is the removal of the grain from the cob.

Winnowing: This is the separation of the grain from the chaff.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The chapter consists of the theoretical framework and review of literature based on the objectives

of the study.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

A theory represents the coherent set of hypothetical, conceptual and pragmatic principle forming

the general frame for reference for a field of enquiry. The study was guided by Everett Roger’s

theory of diffusion of innovation.

2.2.2 Diffusion of innovation theory

This theory was developed by Rogers Everett in 1976. Everett Roger’s theory centre’s on the

conditions which increase or decrease the likelihood that a new idea, product, or practice was

adopted by members of a given culture. Rogers was interested in trying to get farmers to adopt

innovations that could better their lives and make their businesses more productive. Rodgers

(1995) argues that innovation occurs in four stages and the process has been taken to be a life

cycle of innovation. The stages are innovators, early adoptions, early majority, late majority, and

laggards who have different adoption criteria. Karakaya (2015) notes that it is not always the best

technologies that get adopted; it is often the most convenient. The core assumption of the theory

is that innovations do not automatically spread to large segments of a population. Instead, there

are many different types of impediments to the diffusion of innovations. The diffusion of
innovations is a stochastic process involving random probabilities, but it also can be influenced

by strategies that change the odds. To cause innovation to diffuse, an entrepreneur needs to help

the innovation to surmount most of these barriers to diffusion (Nabiswa and Mukwa, 2017).

This theory is relevant to this study since several factors and characteristics have been identified

as influencing the loss of cereals after harvest. Farmers’ adoption of new knowledge and

innovation on cereal loss will be increased if they perceive that the better practice has an

advantage over previous methods. This can be promoted through educating, training and

sensitizing farmers on the factors that lead to cereal loss. Farmers with adequate knowledge are

more likely to make decisions which enhance food security adoption. Through education,

farmers develop positive attitude which often encourage them to learn skills necessary for

implementation and not be reluctant in adoption due to cultural beliefs and norms of society.

Education is also important for the confirmation stage to help a farmer decide whether to accept

and utilize improved methods that reduces cereal losses. This theory is also pegged on how

innovative the farmers are willing to adapt to change and it will be of benefit to the farmers in

the study area since it will inform them on knowledge, persuasion, decision making,

implementation and confirmation of better practices in relation to the factors that influence post-

harvest loss of cereal.

2.3 Socio economic and cultural factors that influence post-harvest maize losses

Postharvest loss can be defined as the degradation in both quantity and quality of a food

production from harvest to consumption. Quality losses include those that affect the

nutrient/caloric composition, the acceptability, and the edibility of a given product. These losses

are generally more common in developed countries (Kader, 2002). Quantity losses refer to those
that result in the loss of the amount of a product. Loss of quantity is more common in developing

countries (Kitinoja and Gorny, 2010). A recent FAO report indicates that at global level,

volumes of lost and wasted food in high income regions are higher in downstream phases of the

food chain, but just the opposite in low-income regions where more food is lost and wasted in

upstream phases (FAO, 2013). Farmers and food sellers have been concerned about losses since

agriculture began. Yet the problem of how much food is lost after harvest to processing,

spoilage, insects and rodents, or to other factors takes on greater importance as world food

demand grows. Cutting postharvest losses could, presumably, add a sizable quantity to the global

food supply, thus reducing the need to intensify production in the future.

Post-harvest losses according to Zorya et al. (2011) are classified into three main categories;

quantitative loss, qualitative loss, and economic or commercial loss. Others classify as direct and

indirect losses. Quantitative loss indicates the reduction in physical weight, and can be readily

quantified and valued, for example, a portion of grain damage by pests or lost during

transportation. A qualitative loss is contamination of grain by molds and includes loss in

nutritional quality, edibility, consumer acceptability of the products and the caloric value (Zorya

et al., 2011). Economic loss is the reduction in monetary value of the product due to a reduction

in quality and or/ quantity of food (Tefera et al., 2011). The past experience with reforms in the

agricultural sector has revealed that programs need to be sensitive to the social economic,

cultural and political characteristic of a society and that the technical and scientific components

of change cannot be divorced from the social context within which they are applied

(Development, 1978). The peoples way of life, be it social, cultural or economic influence how

they carry out their activities and this impact all other aspects. All post-harvest cereal and food

losses occur at a particular cultural and socio-economic environment which has an influence on
its magnitude. In order to reduce this losses measures and techniques adopted must consider both

social and economic factors (Kiaya, 2014) for a successful implementation.

2.3.1The Role of Gender in Household Post-harvest Cereal Loss

Gender is a social factor that affects agricultural activities. It refers to a socially constructed

involvement of men and women, which is fundamental to the organization of farm work and to

decision-making concerning the farm (Riley, 2009). This entails a gender role that defines who

does what. For example men carry out tilling of the land, weeding etc while women do

harvesting, drying and storage. This may influence post-harvest cereal loss and different levels

among the gender. According to Zorya et al. (2011) all aspects relating to post-harvest issues can

be “gendered” (for example their impact on men and women). Thus in the agricultural

management of crop, understanding gender relation is important.

Various studies carried out, indicated that gender is an important variable affecting agricultural

activities, which have a bearing on post-harvest cereal loss. Female farmers have been found to

be more likely to embrace and adapt to changes, which can improve their livelihoods (Newmark

et al., 1993; Dolisca et al., 2006; Bayard et al., 2007; Mzoughi, 2011). However, despite women

ease of adopting changes and access to new agricultural technologies being crucial, gender gaps

leads to gender inequalities in access, adoption and usage of these technologies (Staudt, 1977).

This may influence female farmer’s ability to protect their produce despite being more likely to

adapt to changes aimed to reduce losses and improve food security. In the same region of Ghana,

although based on tomato production, studies showed that gender had an influence on post-

harvest loss (Aidoo, Danfoku, and Mensah, 2014). Female farmers were found to be more prone

to high levels of losses than their male counterparts. According to the study male-headed
households tend to have many manhours available and more time for harvesting and other farm

activities compared to their female counterparts who have household/family responsibilities to

attend to.

In Kenya Staudt (1977) in a paper titled “inequalities in the delivery of services to a female

clientele” observed that, in societies where agricultural production is the mainstay of economic

production, men and women carry out different activities. They also have access to different

resources and benefits, and carry out different gender roles in the production and post-harvest

cycle. She also noted that decision making process in the households, whether inter or intra

regarding the allocation and use of technological resources aimed at reducing post-harvest loss

are influenced by gender. Due to this, female farmers tend to experience high levels of cereal

post-harvest loss compared to their counterparts. The current study aimed to determine whether

gender contributes to post-harvest cereal losses.

2.3.2 Age and Household Post-harvest Cereal Loss

Age is an important variable in agricultural activities because there is a universal increase in the

proportion of older people and a decline in the proportion of younger people living in rural areas

and engaging in agriculture (Sif Heide-Ottosen, 2014). Literature on the influence of the older

population on agricultural activities mainly production has largely been documented. In a study

in Canada Tang and MacLeod (2006) suggested that older farmers are on average less productive

than younger workers and that labor force aging has a modest negative direct impact on

productivity. The study however did not determine the influence of age on post-harvest activities

and specifically losses. The current study diverted from influence of age on productivity and

determined whether age influences post-harvest cereal losses.

In Jamaica where agriculture occupies an important place in the life course of many elderly

people Woodsong (1994) reported that the rural concentration of elderly population has negative

consequences for agricultural production and post-harvest losses. Specifically, age exerts adverse

effect on the employment, not only in agriculture, but also in other areas such as manufacturing,

construction mining and quarrying industries (Siliverstovs, Kholodilin, & Thiessen, 2011).

Agricultural activities; including those that reduce post-harvest losses requires not only labor

input, but also technological development. However, aging has an influence on adoption of

technologies and innovations, which influence post-harvest cereal loss. According to Bokusheva

et al. (2012) in Central American countries, the probability of adoption of improved storage

systems and other innovations to improve production and curb post-harvest losses declines with

the age of the household head. This is consistent with findings of other studies in both

developing and developed countries (Barham, Foltz, Jackson-Smith, and Moon, 2004; Ersado,

Amacher, and Alwang, 2004), which show that older individuals are more reserved and rigid

regarding the introduction and acceptance of innovations due to declining cognitive and learning

abilities and thus influence their agricultural activities as well as post-harvest loss of cereals.

However, Guo, Wen, and Zhu (2015) hold a different view. Agricultural knowledge and skills in

agriculture, such as production, operation, and management, increase with age. The accumulated

knowledge and skills help farmers to maximize the efficient use of agricultural input, such as

pesticides and fertilizers, as well as labor input and overall reduced post-harvest loss.

Due to the accumulated knowledge, older farmers are able to deal with post-harvest challenges

that may lead to post-harvest losses. Zorya et al. (2011a) note that in addition to gender,

communities can be disaggregated by age, wealth, household composition, and health status,

among other. This diversity is important. HIV/AIDs, increasing migration due to population
growth, decreasing land sizes, and high fertility levels, climate change, urbanization, and

associated employment opportunities mean that in rural sub-Saharan there are rapidly growing

numbers of childheaded households, female-headed households, widows/widowers, and elderly

relative looking after grandchildren Zorya et al. (2011). High fertility and consequence rapid

population growth in many sub-saharan countries means that youth now make up the majority of

most of the population. Thus from the foregoing, the influence of age on agricultural activities

and mainly production in developing countries have shown varying and sometimes contradicting

views on the role of age on agriculture. There is no consensus on the contribution of age to

agriculture and majority of the studies done are directed on production. The current study

focused on the influence of age on post-harvest cereal loss.

2.3.3 Education and Household Post-harvest Cereal Loss

Influence of education on agriculture and mainly production has received a lot of attention (e.g.

Appleton and Balihuta, 1996; Jamison and Moock, 1984; Moock, 1981). One of the reasons that

education may influence agricultural activities according to Appleton and Balihuta (1996) is that

education enables individual farmers to follow written instructions such as calculating and

applying correct dosages. This contributes to increased productivity and also reduced post-

harvest losses. Education influences the farmers’ likelihood to adapt to new technologies, which

further influences the level of post-harvest cereal losses. Reviewed literature indicates that

educated farmers adapt to new technologies compared to their non-educated counterparts. For

example, Adegbola and Gardebroek (2007) indicate that farmers who are educated are better to

process information, allocate inputs more efficiently and assess the profitability of new or

improved and easily adapt to changes as compared to farmers who lack education. This indicates
that through the adaption to changes, and the advantages of being educated, reduces post-harvest

cereal loss.

Ali and Byerlee, (1991) and Schultz (1975) found out that education plays a greater role in

modernizing agriculture. This is because education helps farmers to deal with challenges brought

about by technological changes in agriculture. The better educated farmers were found to adjust

more successfully to technological changes than the less educated farmers. In Nigeria Olayemi et

al. (2012) found that lack of education hindered farmer’s acceptance of improved storage

technologies. In other words education facilitates farmer’s adoption of innovations. This lowers

the rate of post-harvest losses among the educated farmers. They revealed that education

positively influenced households to quickly respond to their current low productivity by adopting

improved storage that reduced post-harvest losses, increased household income and their

standard of living.

2.3.4 Alternative Sources of Income and Household Post-harvest Cereal Loss

The influence of alternative source of income on post-harvest cereal loss has been reviewed by a

number of authors. In Ghana adoption of new technologies aimed at increasing productivity and

reducing post-harvest losses of households’ farmers was associated with resources (Morris &

Doss, 1999). The wealthier farmers are better able to bear risks and thus, are more likely to try

new technology. This is in consensus with a study in Zambia by Simatele (2006) which indicated

that alternative source of income in a household can be invested in agriculture, thereby allowing

the farmer to tend to the production needs and measures to curb losses. This leads to increased

yields and food availability within the households.

 In Ethiopia, livestock ownership, which is an alternative source of income has influence on

cereal productivity and post-harvest cereal loss (Heshmati, 2017). In this study, farmers with

more livestock, which could be readily converted to money, were able to buy modern farm

inputs to prevent loss than those who owned fewer livestock units. Similarly, in Uganda,

smallholder farmers with cash savings at the beginning of harvesting and post-harvest periods

had a longer storage period (Omotilewa, RickerGilbert, Ainembabazi, & Shively, 2016).

In an impact analysis study, Gitonga et al. (2013) found major differences in socioeconomic and

other baseline characteristics between adopters and non-adopters of metal silos in Kenya and

they found out that these technologies are still only within reach of the relatively more affluent or

productive farming households.

2.4 Environmental Factors Influencing Post-harvest Loss

Maize is one of the major staple food crops in sub-Saharan Africa, including Kenya. However,

climatic factors and other conditions attract a huge number of factors, which influence post-

harvest loss since they contribute to the destruction of crops (Jones, Duncan, and Hamilton,

1981). Contamination by molds is mainly determined by the temperature of the grain and the

availability of water and oxygen. Molds can grow over a wide range of temperatures, but the rate

of growth is lower with lower temperature and less water availability. The interaction between

moisture and temperature is vital. Maize, for example, can be stored for a period of one year at a

moisture level of 15% and a temperature of 15 °C. However, the same maize stored at 30 °C will

be substantially damaged by moulds within three months of storage (Proctor, 1994).

Humidity as a factor influencing post-harvest cereal losses was studied by Pessu, Agoda, Isong,
Ikotun, and others (2011). According to them there is movement of water vapor between stored

food and its surrounding atmosphere until equilibrium of water activity in the food and the

atmosphere. A moist food will give up moisture to the air while a dry food will absorb moisture

from the air. Dried or dehydrated products need to be stored under conditions of low relative

humidity in order to avoid adsorbing moisture to the point where mold growth occurs (Pessu et

al., 2011).

Rainfall influences both the quantity and the quality of cereal produce leading to postharvest

cereal loss as (Grolleaud, 2002) observe. According to Hodges, Buzby, and Bennett (2011) pre-

harvest rainfall patterns help to proximate the total harvested quantities and humidity conditions.

Rainfall during and after the harvest, has an influence on post-harvest loss of cereal at the

harvesting and drying stages. They further foster early pest infestation and affect the dry matter

content before storage, there increasing post-harvest cereal loss when post-harvest rainfall is

higher (Hodges et al., 2011). The condition is inevitable in sub-Saharan Africa where both small

and large scale farmers rely almost exclusively on natural sun-drying process. Therefore, any

rainfall or damp weather during pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest periods can be a serious

cause of post-harvest cereal losses (Zorya et al., 2011). This is was earlier observed by De Lima

(1987) in a study is Swaziland where rainfall being high during harvesting or close to harvesting

leads to a lot of maize not properly dried and therefore rotting.

A study in east Africa, particularly in Malawi, Uganda, and Tanzania by Kaminski and

Christiaensen (2014) found out that post-harvest loss of cereals particularly maize increases with

humidity and temperature. Hotter and more humid environment foster pest infestations and

rotting. A study in Eastern, Kenya by Recha et al. (2012) identified weather changes as a factor
contributing to post-harvest losses especially during storage. These losses impact on food

security, since quantity is reduced and quality, which is poor makes it unfit for consumption. The

study identified poor drying of grain and excessive rains during harvesting, which dampen the

crop resulting in formation of fungus and high temperatures, and high humidity during drying

that further favors development of fungus. This aflatoxin producing fungi invades all types of

grain and, in eastern Kenya, 50% of grain is lost due to this. The study focused on the weather

changes and their influence on post-harvest loss. The current study focused on the perception of

farmers on the influence of these factors to post-harvest cereal loss.

2.5 Contributes of Management operations on Post-harvest maize losses

2.5.1 Storage system used and post-harvest maize loss

Storage is of imperative in agriculture mainly because production is seasonal while demands for

agricultural commodities are spread through the year. Food insecurity in Africa, which is a major

problem, is caused by post-harvest losses incurred mainly during the storage period according to

the African Ministerial Council of Science and Technology (AMCOST, 2006). The type of

storage used plays a vital role in post-harvest loss of cereals or lack of it. Numerous studies

indicate that maximum losses happen during the storage periods. This is the situation in

developing countries and especially in Africa including Kenya (Hell et al., 2000).

Storage is particularly crucial in agriculture because agricultural production is seasonal while

the need for agricultural produce is spread all through the year. Climate change experienced in

the recent years has added up to the problem. For example, in semi-arid Eastern Kenya, in the

1970s, there used to be planting and harvesting twice a year since both long and long rains were
reliable. However, from the 1980s, rain has become unreliable, leaving the community with one

dependable annual harvest (Recha et al., 2012). Therefore, small scale farmers require storing for

long and mitigation of loss during storage would curb hunger and food insecurity. According to

Adejumo and Raji (2007) in terms of marketing, storage is an imperative activity. It enhances

marketing efficiency by providing utility. It is particularly important in agriculture because

agricultural commodities are not spread throughout the year. Therefore, there is need to meet

average demand by storing excess supply during the harvesting and post-harvest season for

gradual release to the market during off season periods. In the process, stabilization of seasonal

prices can be attained.

Reviewed literature shows that in East Africa, majority of farmers rely on traditional storage

systems, which are not effective leading to post-harvest losses. In Nigeria, farmers use the

traditional methods of storage like storing maize over the fire places, sacks and tins, which are

not effective leading to post-harvest loss of agricultural produce (Olayemi et al., 2012). In

Ghana, farmers experience very high storage losses with estimates ranging between 30-40

percent. This is due to poor storage methods resulting to invasion of the cereals by destructive

pest of stored maize. They include larger and smaller grain borer which turns maize into powder,

causing high losses to farmers and threatening their food supply and income (Boxall, 2002).

Similar occurrence is observed in Togo by P. Smith et al. (1994) where the main cereal grown is

maize 95 percent of which is produced by small scale farmers who suffer substantial post-harvest

losses because of insects and mildew due to poor traditional storage methods.

In Kenya, maize is the most important cereal and staple food for over 90% of the population.

Maize accounts for more than 20% of all agricultural production and 25% of agricultural
employment in Kenya (Republic of Kenya, 2007). However, grain losses contribute to food

insecurity and low farm incomes. According to Odendo, De Groote, & Odongo (2001), on farm

maize yield and later losses due poor storage facilities leads to low food available to keep up

with the rate of population growth. These lead to serious food insecurity and poverty. In Eastern

Kenya, Recha et al. (2012) reported that at least 95% of small scale farmers rely on traditional

storage facilities such as baskets, cribs and gunny bags that do not guarantee protection against

the larger grain borer, which causes over 30% of the losses in the area. Maize loss due to poor

storage poses a recurrent problem in the country, which is most acute among poor farmers. This

creates the necessity to address the issue.

2.5.2 Knowledge and awareness of improved storage systems

In developing countries, imperative information dissemination through different media, practical

hands-on experience, better direction and awareness are lacking most of the times in the

agricultural and food sector where farming is highly concentrated among rural farmers (Sokoya,

Alabi, and Fagbola, 2014). The farmers lack necessary awareness on modern strategies that can

improve farming method, marketing and food storage. Clear information flow among the farmers

to create awareness is likely to improve productivity making and abundance of farm produce

available all year round. The current study aimed at determining the level of awareness of

improved storage systems and whether it has an influence on post-harvest cereal loss.

In Nigeria, Olowu (2008) reported that majority of the country population 68% are illiterate and

living in rural areas engaging in agriculture. The farmers rely on old traditional ways of farming,

their information needs are not met and lack relevant strategies and tools for improved and

modern storage systems. Adomi, Ogbomo, and Inoni (2003) observed that this category of
farmers lack necessary information and awareness for better storage facilities and

implementation strategies that can help in providing food all year round. In addition,

Onemolease (2005) reported that lack of awareness of the improved storage methods lead to corn

farmers in Nigeria to experience serious post-harvest losses particularly due to grain rot.

Majority of the farmers claimed not to be aware of improved storages.

Better knowledge and awareness have considerable implication on farmer’s wellbeing from

production, through to post-harvest activities that impact post-harvest cereal losses. There is need

for knowledge and awareness through good information flow and sharing 38 among agricultural

stakeholders for better management of post-harvest losses, which according to Sam (2011) can

involve researchers, policy makers, and the farmers. This is to enhance agricultural production,

and improve food storage. The present study, therefore, explores how farmer’s awareness and

knowledge of improved storage facilities influence post-harvest cereal loss and food security.

Gitonga et al. (2013) in a study to analyze the difference in adopters and non-adopters of metal

silos in Kenya, found out a number of advantages the adopters had. Adopters experienced almost

the complete elimination of losses caused by insects and pests. Adopters had an increase of 150-

198 kg/household of available maize grain, and an increase in home-based maize consumption

by 1.8-2.4 months, thus a decrease in market reliance. The adopters had an increase in wait time

before selling grains on market (thus economic gain from higher prices received from sales) and

finally a reduction of time associated with food insecurity by one month. It can also be

concluded that, level of knowledge, education and awareness of improved storage facilities will

influence adoption of the technology.

 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the research area, the research design and methodology that were

employed to gather data for the study. In this chapter, the discussions by the researcher are

centered research design, target population, sampling technique, data collection procedure, pilot

testing and data processing and analysis. The explanations here form the basis upon which the

analysis is conducted.

3.2 Research area

Narok County is one of the 47 counties created by the Constitution of Kenya 2010. The county

headquarter is in Narok town, off Narok Nakuru road. The County is situated in the Great Rift

Valley in the Southern part of the Country where it boarders the republic of Tanzania. The

County is named after, Enkare Narok, meaning the river flowing through Narok town. The

Narok County is cosmopolitan with a population projection of 1,130,703 persons as at 2018. The

ratio of male and female is one to one. The dominant tribes are Maasai and Kalenjin. The main

economic activities in the county include pastoralism, crop farming, tourism and trade among

other activities undertaken in small scale. The county has a robust ecological system that

residents depend on for agriculture, tourism, water and many other benefits. The main crops

grown in the county are wheat, barley, maize, beans, Irish potatoes and horticultural crops.

Administratively, Narok County is divided into six sub- counties namely; Transmara West,

Transmara East, Narok North, Narok South, Narok West and Narok East. The sub-counties are
further sub- divided into 16 divisions. For the purpose of this study, the study was conducted in

the maize producing sub-counties.

3.3 Research Design

Research design refers to the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a

manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure

(Kothari and Garg, 2014). The study used a cross-sectional research design in conducting a

research survey for the collection of primary data on maize losses and households’

characteristics. The cross-sectional design was selected because the researcher wanted to collect

data related to PHL of maize at one point in time from the maize small farmers in Narok County.

3.4 Target Population

Mbizi et al. (2013), defines population as an entire group of persons or elements that have at

least one thing in common about which one wants to make inferences. Additionally, the authors

divulge that all members or subjects that exhibit similar characteristics make up a population.

The target population for the study included farmers made up of their households’ resident.

3.5 Sampling, Sample Technique and Sample Size

Sampling is the process of selecting the right individuals, objects or events for study. Sampling

design is the way of selecting a sample. A sample is a subset of the population and it comprises

of the same members selected from it (Taherdoost, 2016). Sampling techniques are the strategies

applied by researchers during the sampling process (Kabir, 2016). The multiple stages sampling

procedures were employed in the selection of the sample size whereby in the first stage, sub

counties and wards were purposely selected in which Dodoma and Songwe regions were
involved due to their potential in maize production and high level of PHL compared to other

regions. Then, two districts (Mbozi and Kongwa) were also purposely selected and from each

district, two wards were selected making a total of four wards for the two districts. The selection

of districts and wards was based on their production potential of maize, quantity of maize

produced and proportional of PHL. At the second stage, two villages from each ward were

randomly selected making a total of 4 villages namely, Igamba and Ihanda for Mbozi district and

Hembahemba and Dosidosi for Kongwa district. In the third stage, 60 household heads from

each village were randomly selected using the systematic sampling technique making a total of

240 small householder farmers (120 and 120 farmers for Mbozi and Kongwa districts

respectively).

3.5.1 Sample Size

The sample size was derived using Raosoft (R) software with a 95% confidence level for social

sciences and a margin error of 5%. The Raosoft(R) sample calculator is an automated software

program that generates the sample size of a research or survey. For the current study the sample

size was 343 households. Once the researcher identifies the total population to be studied, the

software provides a field where you feed the figures. The software provides a margin error which

is the amount of error that you can tolerate. If 90% of respondents answer yes, while 10% answer

no, you may be able to tolerate a larger amount of error than if the respondents are split 50-50 or

45-55. It also provides the confidence level which is the amount of uncertainty can be tolerated.

Higher confidence level requires a larger sample size. The sample size is automatically

calculated once you input the target population. It thus provides the researcher with the minimum

recommended size for the survey (Raosoft(R), 2004). It is from the 343 households sampled that
343 respondents were identified and interviewed. Figure 1 further elaborates on the sample size

calculation.

Table 3.1: Target population

Ward No of HH Sample size Kthnumber

Ilkerin

Mogondo

Kaspsasian

Ololmasani

Keyian

Kimintet

Kilgoris
 Lolgorian

Angata

Mara

Ilmotiok

Loita

Naro sura

Ngareta

Melelo

Naikara

Oloropil

Melili

Narok East

Keekonyokie

Ildamit

TOTAL 500

Source: Department of Agriculture Narok County

3.6 Data Collection Methods and Instruments

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in an

established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate
outcomes. The aim of data collection is the gathering of information to serve or prove some

facts. Both primary and secondary data will be collected (Kothari and Garg 2014). Data

collection instruments on the other hand are the tools for data collection (Zohrabi, 2013).

Structured and semi- structured questionnaires were administered in gathering primary data on

PHL from the maize producers in Mbozi and Kongwa districts. In addition, personal observation

was used for gathering information which was not easy to quantify. Focus Group Discussion was

also conducted at the village and district level with key informants. The key informers included

village officers, transporters, district officers, traders and extension officers to supplement

information collected from questionnaire. Secondary data was collected from published sources

such as the books, library articles, and documents, semi-official publications, research journals,

and reports done by other scholars.

3.7 Pilot Testing

Before a survey is carried out, all aspects of the questionnaire and other instruments to be used in

data collection should undergo a pilot test. A pilot test is conducted to detect weakness in design,

instrumentation and to provide proxy data for the selection of probability sample. A pilot test

also enables the researcher to examine the reliability and validity of the instruments (Nashwa et

al. 2017). Pilot testing was undertaken in the sub counties that were not involved in the study.

3.7.1 Validity Testing

According to Kothari and Garg, (2014), validity is the degree to which results obtained from the

analysis of the data represent the phenomenon under study. The items of an instrument and

questions should cover a full range of the issues or attitudes being measured (Mugenda, 2008).

These types of validity tests include; construct validity, criterion validity and content validity
(Haradhan, 2017). The judgment that an instrument is measuring what it is supposed to be is

primarily based upon the logical link between the questions and the objective of the study. To

ensure validity is achieved, a panel of experts was used to critically examine the items for their

representativeness.

3.7.2 Reliability Testing

Reliability is when a research tool is consistent and stable, predictable and accurate. A test is

seen as being reliable when it can be used by several different researchers under stable

conditions, with consistent results and the results not varying. Reliability reflects consistency and

replicability over time. The greater the degree of consistency and stability in an instrument the

greater its reliability hence a scale or test is reliable to the extent that repeat measurements made

by it under constant conditions will give the same results (Oluwaseun et al, 2019). One of the

methods that will be used to test reliability is by performing a repeated measurement test which

is concerned with measuring the ability of the instrument to measure the same thing at different

times (Haradhan, 2017). The most direct way to estimate reliability is by performing the

Cronbach Alpha test (Cronbach, 1951). Cronbach’s alpha is computed by correlating the score

for each scale item with the total score for each observation, and then comparing that to the

variance for all individual item scores (Hair, Sarstedt, Hopkins, and Kuppelwieser, 2014). A

Cronbach alpha of 0.7 is a minimum level of acceptance (Zikmund et al. 2010).

The formula is denoted as follows:

Where:

N = the number of items.

c̄ = average covariance between item pairs.

v̄ = average variance.

3.8. Data Analysis and Presentation

Data analysis is the application of reasoning to understand the data that have been gathered to

determine consistent patterns and summarize the relevant details revealed in the investigation

(Boru, 2018). Data processing entails editing, classification, and tabulation of data collected so

that they are subjected to analysis (Kothari, 2010). Data entry converts information gathered by

secondary and primary methods to a medium for viewing and manipulation. This study collected

both qualitative and quantitative data and both was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively

respectively.

Kothari (2014) points out that after questionnaires are received back, raw data should be edited

for any errors or omissions and corrections made where possible. This is aimed at ensuring the

accuracy and consistency of data collected with other gathered facts. Coding and classification

was done for efficient analysis of the data. This study used both descriptive and inferential

statistics to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics was used to describe and summarize the data

in a meaningful way using charts, tables, and bars while inferential statistics was used to

conclude the analyzed data thus help in generalization. The coded data was entered into a

computer and the SPSS package used. Here percentages to depict population characteristics were

obtained. The Tobit model was used because of being a binary response model. The choice of the
Tobit model against Probit or Logit model was based on the fact that with it, the intensity of loss

as it relates to each loss causing factors (independent variables) can be easily determined.

3.8.1 Model specification - Tobit Model

The Tobit model which expresses the observed response (Y), in terms of underlying latent

variable (Y*) was employed. In this case, the post-harvest losses of maize were measured as

latent variables relating to socio-economic factors determining the PHL as independent variables

to measure the latent variable. The latent variable Y* was established which measures the level

of loss that the ith farmer experience from post–harvest handling activities. The variable Y*

takes the value of 0 if Y ≥ 0 and Y* = 0 when Y= 0.Tobit model is one of the limited dependent

variable models where there is a limit or boundary on the dependent variable and some of the

observations hits this limit. The limits could be upper or lower. But in this study, the values of

maize post-harvest loss for a rational farmer relating to particular believed cause of maize loss

never go beyond zero. Therefore, the Tobit model with lower limit censoring at zero was

expressed as:

Y= β0+ xβ+µ,µ/x  Normal (0δ2) …………………………………………… 1

Y= Max (0 Y*) ……………………………………………………………….2

However, before running the Tobit model, multicollinearity and autocorrelation problems were

tested and results proved that, data were free from such problems of multicollinearity and

autocorrelation. In checking for multicollinearity problem, a simple regression matrix diagnostics

was done. The results indicates that, average Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was 2.4 which is

less than 10, implying that variables in the model had no serious multicollinearity (Damodar,

2004). In addition, Durbin Watson test (DW) was employed to test for serial autocorrelation
which could occur due to omission of explanatory variables and misspecification of the

mathematical model. The average value of DW was 0.61 which also indicate no autocorrelation

problem among independents variables in the model.

3.9 Ethical Considerations

For any research work to be successful, the researcher needs to seriously consider ethical issues

such as integrity, confidentiality, openness, respect for intellectual property carefulness, social

responsibility, non-discrimination, respect for colleagues and protection of human subjects

(Shamoo & Resnik, 2015). The researcher had to ensure that confidentiality and anonymity of

the participants by the maintaining the use of codes to ensure nobody could link data to a specific

person. The researcher also presented the findings and interpretations in an honest and subjective

manner by avoiding untrue deceptive and decorated results. Several ethical considerations were

underscored in order to protect the rights of the respondents and the researcher in the process of

conducting this study.

 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter comprises of the questionnaire return rate, background information, research

findings, interpretation and discussion. The research findings were discussed under thematic

subsections and were hinged on the objectives of the study which were;

i) To assess the farmers’ socio economic and cultural factors that influence post-

harvest maize losses among smallholder farmers in Narok County.

ii) To establish the perception of environmental factors influencing the farmers’

post-harvest grain loss among smallholder farmers in Narok County.

iii) To evaluate the farmers’ post-harvest maize management operations that

contributes to maize losses among farmers in Narok County.

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

The demographic characteristics that were considered in this section included: gender, age, the

level of education of the participants, religion affiliation and size of land under cultivation. This

gave an insight on understanding the relationship between the variables under study. Table 4.1

. A total of 343 respondents participated in this study. Out of 343 respondents interviewed (145)

42% were male while (198) 58% were female. This findings show that majority of the people

who participated in the study were females as compared to men. This shows that females engage
more in post-harvest activities and farming in Narok County. The age of the respondents was

also determined. From the findings it is clear that the age was evenly distributed. Most of the

respondents were in the age group of 60years and above 36%, respondents 40-49years followed

with a percentage of 34 with those 39 years and below constituting 30%. Religion proved of

essence to the respondents since none lacked a religious affiliation. The field survey revealed

two main religious affiliations, Protestants and Catholics. Majority of the respondents were

Protestants 304(89%) and Catholics 37(11%). Only 1% of the respondents were Muslims. On the

size of land used for cultivation most of the respondents had below three acres of land. Majority

189(55.1) having less than 3 acres. This is in line with the average landholding among farmers in

Narok according to government of Kenya which ranges from 0-3hectares. Only a few of farmers

have a larger land holding. Majority of the respondents had only attained primary level education

220(64%) which indicate that education levels of respondents is generally low.

4.3 Socio Economic and Cultural Factors That Influence Post-Harvest Maize Losses among

Smallholder Farmers in Narok County.

This sub-section provides the results of the socioeconomic factors that influence post-harvest

loss of maize. First, the sub-section deals with the nature of post-harvest maize loss in the study

area. It provides the information on whether there is maize loss or not in the study area. Second,

it gives results on the influence of gender, age, level of education, alternative source of income

and marketing of cereals and their contributions to post-harvest cereal loss.

4.3.1 Status of Post-harvest Cereal Loss of the study area

Respondent were first asked whether they experienced any post-harvest cereal loss and the

results are displayed in Table 4.2. The table reveals that, majority of the households (63%)
experienced some form of post-harvest cereal loss (mainly maize) with 37% reporting that they

did not experience any cereal loss. Some experienced loss more than others. While some

experienced loss of almost half of their production or incurring economic loss through selling at

low prices to cater for other households needs. The mean total loss of households experiencing

loss was 25.6kgs.

Table 4.2: Whether experience post-harvest maize loss

Maize loss Frequency Percentage

Experience loss 215 63

Don’t experience loss 128 37
TOTAL 343 100

Source Researchers: Field survey data (2023)

A respondent provided a sample of her infested maize and reported that this was a recurring

problem since the pest seems not to respond to the pesticides she uses. From the observations the

effect of infestation was immense.

The findings were further confirmed by female discussants who narrated that: Maize, which

almost everyone grows and stores to provide food in the future, is infested by weevils. One of the

weevils we call “Osama” (to denote how destructive it is) consumes everything and makes maize

look like flour. It could not be established whether it is the pesticide bought from the local shops

that is expired or what could be the cause. To avoid loss by pest, farmers opt to sell their maize.

However, the buyers take advantage of this and lower the prices. They agree with each other and

no matter where you go to sell the maize the price is the same. We also sell our maize to cater for

our basic needs. An agricultural extension officer in confirmed the foregoing by observing that

majority of the farmers experience loss of maize mainly because of infestation by weevils and
pests. This is partly because of the types of storage and the pesticides they buy from local shops,

which do not protect their produce. Some of the farmers cannot afford the pesticides and just

store their cereal and this aggravates the magnitude of post-harvest cereal loss. Other farmers

lack the knowledge on how to apply the pesticides and their cereals end up being infested.

The Director Narok Farmers Development Center, confirmed the afore mentioned findings by

indicating that irrespective of low production due to unfavorable climatic conditions and

drought, the small produce the farmers get are lost due to pest infestation and failure to adopt

change such as new ways of cereal storage. Thus farmers are forced to sell their cereals when

prices are low occasioning economic loss.

4.3.2 Education of Respondents and Household Post-harvest Loss of Cereals

The study sought to establish whether academic qualification of respondents had any impact on

post-harvest loss of cereals. In view of this, respondents were asked to state their highest level of

education. Findings of this study reveal that majority (64%) of the farmers had only attained

primary school education, 19% had attained secondary school education while just over 7% had

attained tertiary level. Ten percent of the population had not received any education. Field

observation confirmed the findings about the low level of education, where many of the farmers

could neither read nor write when the questionnaire were provided to them. According to the

results, the association between education and post-harvest cereal loss was significant. The

findings show that the level of education among respondents in the study area is very low which

may contribute to post-harvest cereal losses.

The study findings indicated that the rate of cereal loss increased with decreased level of

education. Majority (72%) of the respondents who had attained tertiary level of education
experienced reduced post-harvest cereal loss while those with high school level education had

50% post-harvest cereal loss. Those who had attained primary education or had no education at

all experienced high rates of loss at 69% and 71% respectively.

A female farmer in one Focus Group elaborated more on the academic qualification. According

to her most of the farmers were not educated since the educated individuals move to towns for

employment. Those who reside in the villages and are educated are the retired or those who

combine both farming and working, for example, secondary and primary schools teachers. The

study established that even though people engage in agriculture as a source of livelihood, they

lack the knowledge and skills of production as well as post-harvest management. The farmers

lack the knowhow, which increases the post-harvest cereal loss. This finding concurs to Amentae

et al. (2016) who claimed that, education has capacity to influence the adoption of new post-

harvest technologies and other factors like management skills, household income, household size

and access to capital, which would all have a positive effect on post-harvest reduction.

4.4 Perception of Environmental Influences on Household Post-harvest Maize Loss

In order to determine whether environment had an influence on post-harvest loss of cereals

respondents were asked whether they experienced any form of environmental change that

affected their maize production. This includes changes in the pattern of rain season during

harvesting and drying and presence of moisture in the maize, which could favour growth of

moulds during storage. To further understand this, farmers were asked whether they had

experienced attack of their maize by aflatoxins. This would provide information on their

perception of environmental factors influence on cereal loss. The findings indicated that majority

(96%) of the respondents perceived not to experience environmental changes in the area that
influenced post-harvest cereal loss while only a few (4%) reported that their cereals were

attacked by afflatoxin.

The study further sought to establish the perception of farmers on influence of the environment

on households’ post-harvest cereal loss. The findings of the study indicated that 38% of the

respondents who said they did not experience any environmental change did not experience post-

harvest cereal loss. A significant number (31%) of the respondents did not experience cereal loss

despite indicating that there were environmental changes that influenced post-harvest activities.

This show that majority of the households among those who had observed environmental change

were significantly affected by the change since 69% of the respondents said they experienced

post-harvest losses. Overall the findings indicate that only a small percent of the respondents

(4%) reported that there were environmental changes, which may have contributed to post-

harvest cereal losses.

However, from the findings it is evident that those who reported environmental changes also

reported a higher post-harvest cereal loss. The area agricultural extension officer observed that

many farmers do not understand how weather contributes to post-harvest cereal losses. He noted

that pests like large grain borer (LGB) thrive in high temperatures. Some farmers also store their

produce in polythene bags, which may encourage growth of moulds. The agricultural extension

officer and the local administrative officers in collaboration provide extension services, barazas

(public meetings), and seminars to advise farmers on the best farming and measures to increase

production. They also provide guidance on the best post-harvest management strategies in order

to reduce post-harvest losses. This would eventually curb hunger and food insecurity.
4.5 Influence of Post-harvest Management Strategies on Post-harvest Cereal Loss

To demonstrate the influence of post-harvest management strategies on household post-harvest

maize loss, both type of storage systems currently utilized and awareness of improved storage

system were assessed.

4.5.1 Type of Storage Facilities Currently Used and Household Post-harvest Maize Loss

The researcher was interested in knowing the type of storage facilities the respondents were

currently using. In view of this, respondents were asked the type of maize storage facilities that

they were currently using. Multiple responses were provided by respondents as illustrated in

Table 4.9. The findings indicate that majority (72%) of the respondents utilized gunny bags

while a small percentage (15%) used sisal sacks as the form of storage. Respondents who had

adopted to improved storage facilities, hermetic bags were few (7%). It was also noted that (6%)

of the respondents used other forms of storage or never used any form of storage systems

because they produced and immediately consumed all the produce through direct consumption

and/ or sale. It is evident from the findings of the study that majority of the farmers in the study

area still use the traditional systems of storing maize. From the findings it is evident that majority

of the respondents farmers are still dependent on traditional storage methods.

It is evident from the findings that the mode of storage contributes to post-harvest cereal losses.

Results from calculated chi-square confirm a significant association between the mode of storage

and post-harvest cereal loss. Although the farmers reported using pesticides to protect their

maize from infestation, losses were still reported to be a challenge. Those who utilized gunny

bags and sisal sacks were more prone to postharvest cereal losses at 66% and 81% respectively.
The other modes of storage were also prone to post-harvest losses with 36% of the respondents

reporting loss. The households who utilized improved form of storage, majority (88%)

experienced no post-harvest cereal losses. A key informant reported that failure to adopt change

and lack of knowledge played a role when forms of storage are put into perspective.

4.5.2 Awareness of the Influence of Improved forms of Storage on Post-harvest Cereal Loss

Knowledge of the improved forms of storage was considered relevant in household post-harvest

cereal loss. The results of the influence of knowledge of improved forms of storage are presented

in table 4.10. The findings indicate that majority (77%) of the respondents were aware of the

modern methods of storing maize especially hermetic bags, in order to avoid post-harvest loss.

Only a few (23%) were not aware of the modern methods of cereal storage. The results further

show that a significant number (65%) of the households that had knowledge of the improved

methods experienced post- harvest loss, which was a bit higher than those who had no

knowledge and experienced post-harvest loss (54%). The results of cross tabulation reveal that

there is no significant association between knowledge of improved methods of storage on post-

harvest cereal loss (p=0.08).

The findings are inconsistent with what would be expected for households with knowledge of

improved methods of storage since a higher percentage of those aware were found to experience

post-harvest cereal loss. Reasons given to explain the lack of positive effect of awareness of

better storage practices from FGDs and key informant interviews are inability to purchase

hermetic bags low purchasing and lack of availability of these modern forms of storage. A

discussant stated that majority of the farmers have had from the radio about modern forms of

storage they did not know where to get them. The local shops and also those in Narok town did

not stock them. These sentiments were echoed by the location chief and assistant chief who
observed that the farmers could not afford to purchase the hermetic bags since majority of them

live from hand to mouth due to poverty and food insecurity.

The agricultural extension officer, however, indicated that the prices were fair and affordable.

This was in comparison to the post-harvest losses incurred by the farmers. One mode of storage

that failed is the metal silos, which were not utilized due to the initial cost, which was high for

the farmers and also considering the usually poor harvest. However, hermetic bags are affordable

and failure to use them could be due to the farmers lack of knowledge coupled with poverty and

the fear of the unknown. The agricultural extension officer indicated that they had invested and

built a communal storage facility in neighborhood. This was aimed at dealing with post-harvest

cereal loss. The communal storage was faced with challenges mainly economic. The farmers

could not store cereals in the warehouse since the cereals were a source of income and needed to

sell in times of need. However, a farmer was in agreement with the area extension officer that

inadequate knowledge was the main reason why the farmers had not utilized improved storage

methods. It was also noted that, , awareness of improved forms of storage did not benefit the

local farmers either because of economic constrains or inadequate knowledge regarding the

modern storage facilities and thus fail to contribute towards reducing post-harvest cereal loss.

Field observations revealed that only a few of respondents had adopted to the use of improved

storage bags despite majority indicating they were aware of them.

4.5.3 Adoption of Improved Forms of Storage and Post-harvest Loss of Maize

The adoption of modern methods of storage and its contribution to post-harvest cereal loss was

assessed. Results on the utilization of improved methods indicate that a majority of the

households (92%), they had not adopted improved methods of storage only a small number (8%)
of the household utilize modern methods of cereal storage. The findings further indicate that a

significant number of respondents (76%) who utilized improved methods did not experience

post-harvest cereal losses compared to (34%) of the respondents who had not adopted modern

forms of storage. However, the results of cross tabulation reveal that there is no significant

association between adoption of improved storage facilities and post-harvest cereal loss. The

results demonstrate that improved storage facilities still influenced post-harvest cereal loss albeit

insignificant. This can be explained by the small intake rate of improved storage facilities.

Adoption reduced post-harvest cereal loss. A female farmer observed that since she learnt about

the improved storage methods from women group she attended and used the hermetic bags there

was no turning back.

 CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 The farmers’ socio economic and cultural factors that influence post-harvest maize

losses among smallholder farmers in Narok County.

This section is in line with the first objective of the study which sought to assess the influence of

socio-economic factors on household post-harvest cereal loss. Analysis of the household post-

harvest cereal loss (maize) in the area of study indicated that a majority of the households (63%)

experienced some form of post-harvest cereal loss while (37%) reported that they did not

experience post-harvest cereal loss. Many households sell their produce immediately after

harvest at very low prices. The effect of pest on stored cereals was confirmed through direct

observations where maize was largely infested by pests such as osama and weevils. Farmers

indicated this was a major challenge. Poor traditional methods of storage were also evident,

which further increased post-harvest cereal losses. This concurs with earlier studies by De Lima

(1987) in Kenya who identified insects and rodents as the main causes of post-harvest losses in

durable crops. The study also concurs with Gabriel and Hundie (2006) who found out that

majority of the farmers (93.3%) perceived an imminent risk of grain lose due to attack by storage

pest and/or other factors if they stored their crops for longer period of time.

As indicated earlier, cereal infestation by pest was a major cause of post-harvest losses. The

findings are in agreement with the World Bank, FAO, and NRI (2011) report in eastern Africa

including Kenya, which indicated that 63% of the total post-harvest cereal losses by

smallholders’ farm households are due to storage-related issues including lack of storage,
infestation by pest and poor quality storage technologies. The findings further concurs with a

study by Mihale et al. (2009) who reported that insects are responsible for between 10-60 % of

the post-harvest losses of grains in developing countries. Other causes included pesticide failure,

poor storage systems and high cost of buying both the pesticides and means of storage, and

presence of moulds in their produce. The findings of this study closely correspond to those of

ANSAF (2016), in Tanzania which showed that 5.8% of the respondents reported moisture,

10.8% reported fake chemicals and 58.9% indicated higher prices of storage pesticides as major

causes of post-harvest cereal loss.

5.1.1 Gender and Household Post-harvest Maize Loss

The gender of the household respondent is an important factor in determining household food

security because it has an impact on decision making, roles or activities assigned to each gender

on farm activities and operations, on who controls and takes care of produced food, which in turn

plays a major role in influencing post-harvest cereal losses. The findings of the study showed

that 58% of the respondents were females while (42%) were male. This does not concur with the

findings of ANSAF(2016) in Dadoma and Manyara Districts in Tanzania which findings

indicated that (57.5%) of the respondents surveyed were female. Similarly study conducted by

Mondiale (2011) revealed that women make up some 55-80% of agricultural labor force in Sub-

Saharan Africa. From findings of the current study it is evident that majority of the household

respondents were female a scenario not typical in most rural areas in Kenya. Male headed

households account for up to 70% while only 30% of households are headed by female

according to KNBS (2007). The varying incidence of male household heads in the study area as

compared to the national proportion was explained by the fact that many male heads had left the

villages for the urban areas to look for employment opportunities in order to provide for their
families. This explanation compares favorably with that of FAO (2003) in sub Saharan Africa,

where it was noted that women were found in the homes where the males move to the cities to

look for employment. This explains why majority of the respondents in the study area were

females.

5.1.2 Age of Respondents and Household Post-harvest Maize Loss

The age of the household respondent was considered an important factor influencing post-harvest

loss of cereals since it influenced farm activities and the likelihood of adoption of improved

modern methods of post-harvest losses control. Findings of this study indicated that most of the

households’ respondents (36%) in the study area were aged 60years and above, followed by

informants between 40-59years (34%). The least number of respondents (30%) were below

39years old. The age distribution shows that young people (age 39 and below) are few (30%)

suggesting not many young people are venturing into farming. Many of the youths have migrated

to urban areas in search of employment while the older people come back after retirement.

Kinsella (2001) found out that the overarching reason for rural population aging is the age-

selective nature of rural-urban migration, whereby younger people migrate to the towns and

cities leaving behind older people. Another contributor is the return migration of older adults

from urban cities back to their rural homes due to among other reasons retirement. The results of

the current study concur with a study in Tanzania by ANSAF (2016) which showed that the

lowest percentage (28%) of the sample in the study area were age 35 and below. The results also

support the study by Ekong (2003) which concluded that farming in sub Saharan Africa (SSA)

including Kenya is dominated by older farmers especially between ages 41-50 years.
This study revealed that the involvement of the young population in agriculture was very

minimal mainly due to young people’s negative attitude towards agriculture as a whole, and

inadequate or lack of policies that make agriculture more attractive to the young and educated.

The older have negative perceptions and attitudes towards any effort to bring change. The young

farmers who are also more educated are more receptive to new ideas and embrace and adopt new

technologies. It is thus necessary and much easier to positively influence young people to use

modern agricultural technologies in order to improve agriculture especially production and

management of cereals to curb loss. Majority (59%) of the respondents above 60 years

experienced higher post-harvest cereal loss. Respondents within age group 40-59 years (48%)

followed while respondents below 39 years experienced the least post-harvest cereal loss (40%).

The comparatively reduced post-harvest cereal loss among the younger respondents’ households

is attributed to their ability to adopt new changes and innovative forms of cereal storage as well

as their economic ability to purchase the best preventive measures since they are able to diversify

their sources of income. The young people are also more educated and are updated of the best

practices to control and reduce post-harvest cereal loss. The majorities of the small holder

farmers in the study area are old and use traditional ways of farming and cereals management,

are reluctant to adopt new innovations and technologies. Advanced age may, therefore,

contribute to households’ post-harvest cereal loss hence food insecurity.

Findings of this study are in consistent with studies by Savadogo et al. (1998) in Burkina Faso

who found age to influence agricultural activities especially embracing new technologies, which

are meant to reduce loss of cereals and improve agriculture as a whole to deal with hunger and

food insecurity. The old are conservative and tend to avoid risks, are reluctant to try out new

technologies and innovations. Thus they rather stick to the traditional way of doing farming,
which may contribute to the amount of cereal loss. The young, on the other hand, are receptive to

new ideas and are energetic and readily adopt modern methods of farming and technologies to

reduce loss of cereals. According to Rogers (2005) theory of adoption to innovation, all stages of

adoption are influenced by age. Knowledge, persuasion, decision making, implementation and

confirmation depend on the age of the adopter. Although according to Greeley (1982) traditional

post-harvest systems tend to be fairly efficient he also attest to the fact that change negatively

affects these systems. It is evident that contemporary production and consumption patterns have

changed and this has rendered traditional systems inadequate. The older people lack the modern

knowledge, are reluctant to take risks and refuse to be persuaded about the advantages of

embracing change and this influences their decision making on adoption of new innovations. On

Rogers’s categories of adopters, the older are classified as laggards who are bound by tradition

and are very conservative. They are very skeptical of change and are the hardest group to

motivate to adopt innovations. They are more so resistance towards innovations and are risk

averse.

5.1.2 Education and Household Post-harvest Maize Loss

Education is an important variable because it improves an individual’s ability to make informed

decisions and choices. It has the potential to influence or hinder the acceptance of improved

storage technologies such as metal silos and hermetic bags. Education facilitates farmers

adoption of innovations Okoedo-Okojie et al. (2009). Findings of the current study show that

majority (64%) of the respondents had attained primary education and (19%) secondary

education and a significant number of respondents (10%) had no formal education. A small

percentage (7%) had post-secondary education. A study done in Kenya by CIMMYT (1993)

reported similar findings that majority of the farmers had primary school education and relied on
traditional farming practices. Formal education is important since it increases household ability

to make informed decisions and adoption of new innovations or behaviors. In addition, the

process of information flow is catalyzed by education, which enables an individual to explore, as

wide as possible, different pathways of getting information about best agricultural practices

(Ersado, 2006). From the current study majority of the respondents that had attained secondary

level of education and post-secondary education reported lower post-harvest losses of cereals

compared to those with no education or had primary level at 72% and 50% respectively. Thus

the findings suggest that education plays a significant role in post-harvest cereal management.

These findings are at variance with the findings of a similar study in Kenya by Ognakossan et al.

(2016) who observe that the level of education does not influence post-harvest maize losses.

However, similar surveys in Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda by Kaminski and Christiaensen

(2014) reported that in households where the household respondent had a post primary

education, they were perceived to have lower magnitude of post-harvest losses. The current

study findings further concur with the findings of Basavaraja et al. (2007) in Karnataka, India

who found out that education of farmers significantly influence the post-harvest losses of grains

at farm level.

The study established that higher education acted as a catalyst for farmers in the study area to

adopt improved methods of post-harvest management. These farmers were able to make

informed decisions, involved themselves in other forms of economic activities, and were able to

use skills to reduce post-harvest loss of cereals. These findings support those of a study by Odia

(2017) in Nigeria who found out that increased agricultural productivity as well as reduced post-

harvest losses depend primarily on the education of the rural farmers to understand and accept

the complex and scientific changes, which are difficult for the uneducated rural farmer to
understand. The findings of the present study are also consistent with previous studies by Kumar

and Kalita (2017) who found out that lack of knowledge contributes to a significant amount of

cereal loss during the post-harvest activities particularly in the developing countries.

The current study support Rogers (2015) diffusion theory where the first three stages, which

include knowledge, persuasion and decision making are considered important in the adoption of

new technologies of post-harvest crop management. Individuals with higher levels of education

are able to acquire knowledge from different sources, for example newspaper, radios and

extension officers but are also able to understand and apply the new knowledge. Those with

education are also open to changes, easy to persuade and, therefore make informed decisions.

Based on the categories of adoption of innovation, education is of imperative. Individuals with

some level of education are classified as innovators, early adopters and to an extent early

majority. The higher the level of education the more the likelihood that an individual adopts to

an innovation.

5.2 To establish the perception of environmental factors influencing the farmers’ post-

harvest grain loss among smallholder farmers in Narok County.

This study explored the impact of environmental factors on post-harvest cereal loss based on

perception of farmers. The findings shows that majority (96%) of the respondents did not

perceive environmental factors as contributing to post-harvest loss of cereals by the farmers.

Only a few (4%) reported the presence of moulds attributed to moisture in their cereals

particularly maize. The foregoing findings echo a study by ANSAF (2016) in Tanzania, which

found that only 5.8% of the respondents in the study area reported that moisture contributed to

post-harvest loss of cereals. There is a possibility that moisture content may negatively affect the
quality of stored cereals. The findings also corroborate those of Ognakossan et al. (2016) which

showed that environmental changes was considered to have minimal impact on post-harvest

losses. In their study, which was carried out in different Agro Ecological Zones of Kenya

including eastern part of the country, the authors found out that only 13% of the 630 respondents

they interviewed across the country reported the problem of moulds and was the least problem

reported by farmers in all Agro Ecological Zones compared to other factors such as insects and

rodents.

The study also wanted to establish the influence of the environmental changes experienced on

households’ post-harvest loss of cereals. Sixty nine percent of those who reported environment

had an influence experienced higher loss compared to those who did not report being affected by

any environmental factor (62%). This indicates that environmental factor though not reported by

many tends to influence post-harvest cereal loss. The agricultural extension officer, a key

informant, indicated that many farmers were affected by environmental factors but were not

aware. As an example he indicated that LGB flourished well in high temperatures. His

sentiments concur with a study by Kaminski and Christiaensen (2014) in Malawi, Uganda and

Tanzania. They noted that hotter and more humid environments foster pest infestations and

rotting causing increased post-harvest cereal loss. Studies in other regions have had similar

findings that bad weather conditions influence post-harvest losses of grains significantly

(Basavaraja et al., 2007).

5.3 To evaluate the farmers’ post-harvest maize management operations that contributes to

maize losses among farmers in Narok County.

5.3.1 Post-harvest Management Strategies and Household Cereal Loss

Effect of the Type of Storage Method Currently Used on Post-harvest Cereal Loss The type of

storage used plays a vital role in post-harvest loss of cereals or lack of it. Numerous studies

indicate that maximum losses happen during the storage periods. This is the situation in

developing countries and especially in Africa Kenya included (Hell et al., 2000). In Narok, the

majority of farmers (72%) utilize gunny bags, a few (15%) use sisal sacks to store their crops.

Only a small number (6%) of the respondents reported using other forms of storage or never used

any form of storage because they immediately used all the produce, through direct consumption

and/ or sale. A small percentage (7%) reported using a form of modern storage mainly the

hermetic bags. The findings of the study are in consonant with the findings of Omotilewa et al.

(2016) in a study in Uganda. They reported that (71%) of their study households use

polypropylene bags with traditional and improved granaries being utilized by only (8%) while

others used off-farm facilities. Only 1% of the respondents from their sample used the hermetic

(airtight) technology. The findings of this study indicate that majority of farmers use traditional

methods of storage. This concurs with Nukenine (2010) who observes that most Kenyan

population use on-farm storage systems for the bulk production of cereals. These systems are

characterized by traditional storage structures. The current study findings confirm another study

in Kenya by Ognakossan et al. (2016) which found that the use of bags (polypropylene or sisal)

for storage of shelled maize were the most common storage practices. They also found out that

there was a very low use of hermetic storage plastic bag technologies in the study area. Similarly
the findings are in line with a study done by Wambugu et al. (2009) in Siaya and Busia in Kenya

on storage practices. They reported that farmers have developed a variety of storage practices,

the most common methods being gunny bags (55%), plastic containers (24%) and hanging over

the fireplace (13%).

In the present study households that utilized gunny bags, sisal sacks and other forms reported

higher losses of cereals. However, the majority (88%) of those who had adopted the improved

storage methods reported not experiencing post-harvest cereal loss. Clearly, poor storage

contributes to post-harvest cereal losses. Field observations showed that the forms of storage

used by respondents were not effective. For example some households stored their cereals on

cemented floor in a corner inside the house Lathiya et al. (2008) have observed that the

traditional storage systems are prone to invasion by agents of stored food losses including pests

and rodents. Their study also corresponds with earlier studies by Ognakossan et al. (2016) in

Kenya. The authors found out that farmers primarily used ordinary bags for storage (99.2%) in a

designated storage room in the living house. Other studies in other parts of the world arrived at

similar findings.

5.3.2 Influence of Improved Storage Systems Awareness on Post-harvest Maize Loss

An assessment of the farmer’s knowledge on improved grain storage technologies revealed that

77% of the respondents were aware of the storage technologies while 33 % were not. This

knowledge is higher compared to a study by ANSAF (2016) in Tanzania, who reported that only

55% of the respondents were aware of modern storage systems in the study area. To further

establish the influence of awareness of improved storage systems on post-harvest loss of cereals,

more analysis indicated that a significant number (65%) of the household respondents that had
knowledge of the modern methods experienced a higher post-harvest loss of cereals than those

who had no knowledge (54%). This suggests that knowledge of improved technology did not

have a positive effect on post-harvest loss of cereals. From the focus group discussions farmers

indicated that despite them being aware they did not utilize them because they were not

accessible and available and/or the cost of purchasing them was high. Similarly, Onemolease

(2005) in Nigeria found out that despite dissemination of information on improved storage

systems some farmers did not utilize them due to reasons such as high costs and non-availability

of resources and technology.

The findings of this study reflects a similar study by Ognakossan et al. (2016) in Kenya who

found out that despite being aware of modern systems of storage there was low use rate. They

indicated that the probable reason for the low rate of use was lack of availability. Ognakossan et

al. (2016) further reported that despite farmers receiving training on grain storage protection

technologies that did not necessarily result in lower post-harvest storage loss as farmers who

received training incurred similar magnitude of post-harvest losses just as farmers who did not

receive the training. The results of the study also concurs with the adoption study by Moussa,

Abdoulaye, Coulibaly, Baributsa, and Lowenberg-DeBoer (2014) of triple layer plastics in West

and Central Africa. Their study showed that a key constraint to farmers’ use of this technology

despite their awareness was local unavailability of the improved technology.

5.3.3 Adoption to Improved Storage Systems and Post-harvest Loss of Maize

Findings of this study indicate that majority of the respondents (92%) had not adopted the

improved storage methods with only a small proportion (8%) of the respondents reporting

utilizing modern methods of storage mainly hermetic bags. The findings are similar to those of
Ognakossan et al. (2016) in Eastern Kenya among other regions studied who observed that there

was very low usage of hermetic storage plastics bag technologies and adoption of the same was

minimal.

From the findings it is evident that a significant number of respondents (76%) who utilized

improved methods did not experience post-harvest cereal losses compared to (34%) of the

respondents who had not adopted even though no significant statistical association between

adoption and cereal loss. The proportion of households experiencing post-harvest cereal losses

was higher for households who had not adopted the improved storage system compared to

households that had already adopted. The findings of this study are consistent with those of

Villers, Navarro, and De Bruin (2010) who observed that hermetic storage was effective in

avoiding post-harvest losses (storage losses of less than 1%), a situation also observed during

long distance (international) shipments. This was also consistent with the findings of Costa

(2014) who carried out an Action research Trial in Uganda and Burkina Faso to demonstrate the

influence of improved post-harvest management practices using new technologies on post-

harvest loss of cereals. The results demonstrated that irrespective of crop or storage period, use

of improved practices and new technologies resulted in a high (about 98%) reduction in post-

harvest cereal loss.

The adoption and usage of improved storage methods among the small scale farmers is

challenged by both production rates and economic ability. In Narok, the utilization of mass/

communal storage system suffered similar fate. The communal storage facilities were built in an

effort to reduce post-harvest loss of cereals due to poor storage facilities and low marketing

power, which resulted in economic loss but this effort faced challenge. The farmers mainly rely

on the cereal production to cater for their basic socio economic needs and emergencies and thus
did not produce enough and surplus to store in the communal storage. The current study findings

confirms the findings of a study in Malawi by Mutungi and Affognon (2013b) where the

utilization of both the metal silos and communal warehouses despite their popularization in the

country is hampered by cultural and socio-economic reasons.

This study is supported by and agrees with all the adoption to innovation stages as propounded

by Rogers (2015). This include knowledge in which the individuals are aware of the innovation

but have no information about it. Then come persuasion where they become actively interested

in seeking the knowledge about it. Decision making is the next stage where individuals decide as

to whether to adopt to it or not by weighing out the innovation advantages and disadvantages.

After that decision is implementation, which is the actual use of the innovation. The final stage is

confirmation. In this study confirmation is done through personal experience of reduced post-

harvest cereal loss, which provides impetus for farmers to continue using the innovation.

5.4 Conclusions

In conclusion, the findings of the study established that social economic factors influenced post-

harvest cereal loss. The findings that women and younger people experienced cereal loss at a

lower percentage is linked to both their acquired knowledge on post-harvest loss management

practices and the younger people being more open to embrace change and adopt better loss

management technologies. The women despite being encumbered with domestic chores had an

advantage compared to men since they acquired knowledge and services from the women

groups. The young respondents who were also households heads were seen to be more

knowledgeable on protective measures. The young people had other sources of income; they

were involved in other income generating activities hence it is safe to conclude that they were
able to purchase and use better storage facilities. However, given that there is evidence that the

majority household heads in Narok were the older category, measures and policies have to put

this into considerations in efforts to curb post-harvest cereal losses, food insecurity and hunger.

Thus gender and age had an influence on the households’ post-harvest cereal loss.

Similarly, it is majority of the farmers with less education and who lacked alternative sources of

income that were more prone to post-harvest cereal loss. These findings reflect the actual

situation where rural households are often the less educated, poor, and composed of the old

members in the society. However, those more educated with tertiary and above levels of

education experienced lower post-harvest cereal loss. The findings further indicate that

marketing of cereals had an influence on post-harvest cereal loss. This was despite the lower

number of households who sold their produce. This is attributable to the lower prices that

farmers sell their cereals particularly soon after harvest, and the farmers exploitation by buyers.

Secondly, in examining the influence of environmental factors on post-harvest cereal loss, the

study found out that weather changes although reported by a few farmers affected cereals

especially during storage. Those who reported the influence of environment in terms of presence

of moulds or aflatoxins on their cereals, also reported a higher percentage of cereal loss.

Although the farmers indicated that they adequately dried their maize in the sun, the agricultural

extension officer a key informant held that environmental factor is much bigger problem that

negatively impacts post-harvest cereal loss. Thus the current study suggests, albeit to a small

extent, that environmental factors have a bearing on post-harvest cereal loss. The farmers

perceptions and influence of environmental factors on post-harvest cereal loss requires in-depth

investigation.
Thirdly, the study assessed the post-harvest management strategies specifically the influence of

storage on post-harvest loss of cereals. The study found out that in Narok majority of the farmers

utilized mainly gunny bags and sisal sacks with the least 104 number using the hermetic storage

bags. Some used the fire smoking method where they store them on top of the fireplace. This is

an indication that traditional storage methods are prevalent in Narok. The study further

determined whether farmers had the knowledge of improved storage system. It was found out

that majority were aware although few had utilized them. This was due to non-availability,

expensive to purchase, rigidity of the farmers who are used to the traditional methods of storage

and other reasons. The use of improved technologies proved useful as one of the ways of

mitigating post-harvest loss of cereals.

5.5 Recommendations

1. The trainings offered in the study area mostly center on women groups. The study therefore

recommends that there should be integration of men and women in the training with the intention

of giving both gender equal opportunities to acquire new and relevant knowledge. This will

enable them to gain knowledge on effective post-harvest loss mitigation practices.

2. On the farmers’ perception of environmental factors influencing post-harvest cereal loss, it is

the recommendation of this study that further research be carried out to determine the extent and

contribution of environmental issues to postharvest cereal loss since the both the farmers and the

extension officer perception differ.

3. On the awareness of post-harvest storage management strategies, it is evident that households’

farmers have some information regarding the storage facilities. However the level of uptake is

low. The study recommends that in addition to providing knowledge on better storage
management strategies, restraining factors should be put into consideration. This involves

availing the facilities and ensuring that farmers are not exploited on prices. The dormant storage

facilities for the communal storage system activation would also go a long way in reducing post-

harvest loss.

Thirdly, the study assessed the post-harvest management strategies specifically the influence of

storage on post-harvest loss of cereals. The study found out that in Narok majority of the

farmers utilized mainly gunny bags and sisal sacks with the least.

4. There are limited extension services in the study area which is linked to inadequate number of

extension staff. Government should post more extension agents to cover more areas to

effectively disseminate trainings on how to reduce post-harvest cereal losses in rural areas.

Similarly private extension services should be encouraged to complement government efforts in

training and educating the farmers.