COMMUNICATION SKILLS

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through
objective and systematic analysis.

What are the Objectives of Research?

The prime objectives of research are
(1) to discover new facts (2) to verify and test important facts
(3) to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship (4) to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and
understand scientific and nonscientific problems
(5) to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and
(6) to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life.

What Makes People do Research?

This is a fundamentally important question. No person would like to do research unless
there are some motivating factors. Some of the motivations are the following:
(1) to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like
better employment, promotion, increment in salary, etc.
(2) to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university
or become a scientist in a research institution
(3) to get a research position/jobs (4) to solve the unsolved and challenging problems
(5) to get joy of doing some creative work (6) to acquire respectability
(7) to get recognition (8) curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event
(9) curiosity to find new things (10) to serve the society by solving social problems.

Importance of Research
Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems,
events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable solutions
and suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to
undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and applications.
Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena.
Some important avenues of research are:
(1) A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community
or an industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a
theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible
solution. (2) Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and
applications of them. (3) It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for solving
problems. (4) Research provides basis for many government policies. For example,
research on the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet
the needs helps a government to prepare a budget. (5) It is important in industry and
business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the quality of products.
(6) Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in
them. (7) It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living

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things, new stars, etc. (8) Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new
and novel phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been
discovered only through research. (9) Social research helps find answers to social
problems. They explain social phenomena and seek solution to social problems.
(10) Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.

Criteria of Good Research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is
that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One
expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES.

Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in research.
They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical
approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a
problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected
facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. Research methodology
is a systematic way to solve a problem. Essentially, the procedures & techniques by which
researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research can be classified into various categories:

1.1 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomenon. It

aims at helping us to understand the world in which we live in and why things are the way
they are. It is concerned with the social aspects of our world and seeks to answer
questions about; Why people behave the way they do; How opinions and attitudes are
formed; how people are affected by the events that go on around them; how and why
cultures have developed in the way they have; the difference between social groups among

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others. Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which
begin with: why? how? and in what way? (Hancock 2002, p. 2; Kothari 1990, p. 4 ).

1. 2 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable

to phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of quantity (Kothari, 1990, p. 4). It includes
designs techniques and measures that produce discreet numerical or quantifiable data.
Qualitative research is concerned with questions about; how much, how many, how often,
and to what extent (Hancock 2002, p. 2)

1.3 Basic Research

The basic type of research (also referred to as “pure” or “fundamental” research) is

conducted for the purpose of contributing to theory. It focuses on fundamental structures
and processes with the goal of understanding them. The primary concern of basic research
is to add to the universe of scientific knowledge. Another focus of basic research is to
generate new knowledge in order to refine or expand existing theories. Much of the
research done in universities to advance knowledge in physical sciences, social sciences
and humanities can be described as basic.

1.4 Applied Research

This is research designed to study problems of more immediate application. This research
focuses on developing knowledge that is directly useful to practitioners. Applied research is
concerned with practical research questions – questions based on the desire to know in
order to be able to do something in a better or more efficient way. For example in
education, it can be done to test the effectiveness of educational methods to gather data
that will be useful in educational decision making and to validate the effectiveness of
programs, teaching methods and tests used in schools. Applied research therefore provides
information for planning. The research is carried out before a project is implemented.

1.5 Action Research

Susman and Evered (1978) as quoted by Ngecu (2004, p. 4) define action research as a
process consisting of five phases:

(1).Problem identification or definition. (2). Consideration of action alternatives

(3). Evaluation of the consequences of actions (4). Extractions of lessons learned

Action research is conducted with the intention of solving specific, immediate and concrete
problem in a local setting. The purpose of action research is to solve a localized problem
within a local setting by applying the empirical method. It intends to address a given
situation and not to contribute to general principles. For instance in human resource,
action research would be aimed at improving the performance of the staff, addressing
sexual harassment in the work place or addressing substance abuse among the employees.
Action research is popular with business organizations and development practitioners for
it improves business practices. The outcome, results or findings of action research are used

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to improve performance of ongoing business activities, skills, projects, programs and
practices.

1.6 Evaluation Research

This involves the need to compare the relative worth of two or more alternative action. It
is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to make decisions. The
decisions could be whether a particular action should be maintained, modified, cancelled or
improved. Evaluation research is therefore concerned with measurement of efficiency and
effectiveness of a product, activity, outputs, outcomes, results, in order to make decisions
and judgments. Evaluation research informs practitioners, users, stakeholders, consumers,
producers, manufacturers, among others about the values or worth of what has been done,
is being done, and will be done.

1.6.1 Needs Assessment

A needs assessment refers to different kinds of assessments that are undertaken to identify
and forecast problems that need the attention of policy makers; establish perceived
priorities among problem areas in communities and organizations; study the scope of a
problem; and estimate the extent to which a program will be used to address appropriate
needs.

In a human resource management setting for example, the training manager will be
required to do a need assessment in which he will analyze information about:

1).The organization and its goals and objectives (2) Jobs and related tasks that need to be
learned (3).Desired competencies and skills to perform the job (4)Individuals who are to
be trained

The result of the needs assessment will guide the training managers on (1) who needs the
training (2) what training is needed.

1.6.2 Formative Evaluation(s)

These are evaluations that focus on assessing program quality, implementation and impact
to provide feedback and information for internal improvement without external
consequences. Formative evaluation therefore is a method of judging the worth of a
program while the program activities are happening.

1.6.3 Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the
program activities. The focus is on the outcome. Summative studies are evaluations
designed to provide information on program impact to external agencies. Summative
evaluation findings are usually reported through formal written reports usually coming
together in a final report.

1.7 Descriptive Research

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This kind of research describes existing conditions or the state of subject being studied. A
descriptive study objectively reports things the way they are. Descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. The researcher can make
descriptions of people’s attitudes, values, characteristics and opinions towards a given
subject as ceremony, a personality, or an organization.

1.8 Experimental Research

This is an experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable, and

controls/randomizes the rest of the variables. The aim of experimental research is to
investigate the possible cause and effect relationship by manipulating one independent
variables measuring the effects of the manipulation by some statistical means. By
manipulating the independent variable, the researcher can see if the treatment makes a
difference.

1.9 Causal-comparative Research

Comparative research is used to explore relationships between variables. The purpose of

causal comparative research is to determine reasons or cause for the current status of the
phenomenon under study. An example is whereby a study could compare the achievement
of a group of students who are classified as “highly anxious” and group classified as “hardly
anxious” whatever the achievement result, the “cause” (anxiety) has not been manipulated
as in this case anxiety is a natural trait.

1.10 Correlation Research

Correlational method describes the degree to which variables are related. It involves
collecting data in order to determine whether and to what degree a relationship exists
between two or more quantifiable variables. In other words the aim of correlation research
is to establish relationships or lack of them between variables. For example the
relationship between alcohol abuse and absenteeism at work place.

1.11 Survey Research

A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine

the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables. A means for
gathering information about the characteristics, actions or opinions of a large group of
people. Survey research therefore is a self-report study which requires the collection of
quantifiable information from the sample.

1.12 Historical Research

This involves a study of past events. The purpose of historical research is to arrive at
conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of past occurrence that may help to
explain present events and anticipate future events. The aim is not to find out what is
already known and tell it but to discover new knowledge or to clarify correct or expand
existing knowledge.

1.13 Observation Research

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It is a study in which the current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking
questions but by observing. The purpose of observation research is to collect objective
information. The information is objective because the researcher observes the behavior
rather than relying on a self-report as the basic source of data. For observation report to be
objective, it must be guided by clearly defined hypotheses or objectives.

VARIOUS STAGES OF A RESEARCH

Whenever a scientific or social problem is to be solved there are several important steps to
follow. The problem must be stated clearly, including any simplifying assumptions. Then
develop a mathematical statement of the problem. This process may involve use of one or
more procedures. Next, the results have to be interpreted to arrive at a decision. This will
require experience and an understanding of the situation in which the problem is
embedded. A general set of sequential components of research is the following:

• Topic should be suitable for research. • The researcher should have interest in it.
• Topic should not be chosen by compulsion from some one else.
Some sources of identification of a research topic and problems are the following:
(1) Theory of one’s own interest (2) Daily problems (3) Technological changes (4) Recent
trends (5) Unexplored areas (6) Discussion with experts and research supervisor

Research problem
State the problem in questionnaire form or in an equivalent form
• Specify the problem in detail and in precise terms • List the assumptions made
• Remove the ambiguities, if any, in the statement of the problem
• Examine the feasibility of a particular solution
A researcher can ask a series of questions on the problem. Some are:
(1) Is the problem really interesting to him and to the scientific community?
(2) Is the problem significant to the present status of the topic?
(3) Is there sufficient supervision/guidance?
(4) Can the problem be solved in the required time frame?
(5) Are the necessary equipments, adequate library and computational facilities, etc.
available?

Literature survey and reference collection

One can survey
(1) the journals which publish abstracts of papers published in various journals,
(2) review articles related to the topic chosen, (3) journals which publish research articles,
(4) advanced level books on the chosen topic, (5) proceedings of conferences, workshops,
(6) reprint/preprint collections available with the supervisor and nearby experts working
on the topic chosen and (7) Internet.

Literature survey helps us

(1) sharpen the problem, reformulate it or even leads to defining other closely related
problems, (2) get proper understanding of the problem chosen,
(3) acquire proper theoretical and practical knowledge to investigate the problem,
(4) show how the problem under study relates to the previous research studies and

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(5) know whether the proposed problem had already been solved.

The following are some of the new challenges for the researcher:
• Problems of sampling. • Reliability and accuracy of the obtained data information.
• The ethics of conducting research into online communities. • Physical access and skills
required to use the technologies involved. • The changed chronology of interaction
resulting from asynchronous communication.

Some of the potential advantages of online questionnaire are:

• Low-cost delivery and return. • Wide potential coverage. • Ease of completion. •
Submission and data capture. • Appropriateness to particular populations. • High
respondent acceptance for some groups.

Potential difficulties include:

• The scarcity of methodological literature. • Appropriateness to research aims.
• Target population. • Technical difficulties. • Sampling and response rates.

Formulation of hypotheses
Hypotheses are scientifically reasonable predictions. They are often stated in terms of if-
then sentences in certain logical forms. A hypothesis should provide what we expect to find
in the chosen research problem. That is, the expected or proposed solutions based on
available data and tentative explanations constitute the hypothesis. Hypothesizing is done
only after survey of relevant literature and learning the present status of the field of
research. Mugenda and Mugenda(2003) define hypothesis as a researcher’s anticipated
explanation or opinion regarding the result of the study.

Hypotheses describe in concrete terms that a researcher expects will happen in their study.
Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory. A study
can have one hypothesis or, where the study includes several variables, multiple
hypotheses can be formulated. Each hypothesis will usually express a predicted
relationship between two or more variables or concepts.(Mugenda and Mugenda 2003)

A hypothesis develops from a question a researcher wants to answer through data

analysis.It is stated in the form of a declarative statement.

For example: Research question: What is the effect of training programs on employee
performance? Possible hypothesis Training programs have no effect on employee
performance

A simple hypothesis expresses relationship between two variables. In this case the two
variables are training programs and employee performance.

Simple hypothesis is one that expresses an expected relationship between one independent
and one dependent variable.

Complex hypothesis is a prediction between two or more independent and or two or more
dependent variables.

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 Example1: Training programs and good salary increase employee motivation and
performance at the workplace.

1.2 Purposes of Hypothesis

Mugenda and Mugenda(2003) give the following as the purpose of hypotheses:

(1)Hypotheses provide direction. They bridge the gap between the problem and the
evidence needed for its solution. (2). Hypotheses ensure collection of the evidence
necessary to answer the question posed in the statement of the problem (3)Hypotheses
enables the researcher to assess the information he has collected (4). Hypotheses sensitize
the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are relevant regarding the problem
at hand. (5). Hypotheses permit the researcher to understand the problem with greater
clarity and use the data collected to find solutions to problems. (6). Hypotheses guide the
collection of data and provide the structure for their meaningful interpretation in relation
to the problem of investigation. (7). Hypotheses form the framework for the ultimate
conclusions and solutions. Researchers usually base their conclusions on the results of the
tests of their hypotheses.

1.3 Sources of Hypotheses

i. A theory -A hypothesis can be derived from or based on an existing theory.

ii. Literature -Findings of other studies reported in the literature can be sources of
hypotheses
iii. Personal observation -Certain relationships often can be observed in a work setting
and such observations frequently lead to more formal hypothesis.
iv. Pilot studies -Pilot studies precede the formulation and refinement of the hypotheses

1.4 Types of Hypotheses

1.4.1 Null hypothesis (Designated by Ho)

It is also known as statistical hypothesis.It states that no real relationship or difference

exists, and any relationship between the two variables or difference between groups is
merely due to chance or error.

Example: Ex.1: There is no relationship between training and employee performance

1.4.2 Alternative (Designated by H1)

Also referred to as research, substantive, deductive, declarative or scientific hypotheses.

Alternative hypothesis is considered an operational statement of the research hypothesis.
It is the expectation based on a theory, for example, if related literature points to the
findings that a certain technique of training is effective, a researcher assumes the same
prediction, usually, it is what one believes is true.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

According to Kumar (2005), good hypotheses should have the following features

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1. Hypotheses should be simple, specific and conceptually clear. (2).Good hypotheses
should be capable of verification. (3). Hypothesis should be related to existing body of
knowledge. (4). should be operationalisable, in that it should be expressed in terms that
can be measured. (5). Hypotheses should be consistent with common sense or
generally accepted truths (6). Variables stated in the hypotheses must be consistent
with the purpose statement, objectives and the operationalized variables in the method
section. (7). Hypotheses must be stated in such a way that its implications can be
deduced in the form of empirical operations with respect to which relationship can be
validated or refuted.

Research Questions

Identify research questions

A researcher should start formulating research questions about the area of interest that is
to be researched. Research questions provide focus that will:

1. Guide literature search 2. Guide in deciding what data you need to collect

3. . Guide in data analysis 4. Guide in writing-up data

5. Confine one within the research topic i.e. it prevents one from going off in unnecessary
directions

Research questions should exhibit the following characteristics:

(1). They should be clear, precise, grammatical and intelligible. (2).They should be
researchable (3). They should be connected with established theories and research (4).
They should be logically linked to each other so as to develop a valid argument in
dissertation (5). They should hold out the prospect of being able to make an original
contribution (6). They should neither be too large neither too small;

Research design
For a scientific research one has to prepare a research design. It should indicate the various
approaches to be used in solving the research problem, sources and information, time
frame and the cost budget. Essentially, the research design creates the foundation of the
entire research work. The design will help perform the chosen task easily and in a
systematic way. Once the research design is completed the actual work can be initiated.

The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information; (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher
and his staff (if any); (iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining
information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection; (iv) the time
available for research; and (v) the cost factor relating to research.

More explicitly, the desing decisions happen to be in respect of:

(i) What is the study about? (ii) Why is the study being made?

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(iii) Where will the study be carried out? (iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found? (vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design? (viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed? (x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Actual investigation/ Data collection Techniques

Actual investigation should lead to original contribution and not involve objectionable
duplication. Originality is the basic credit point of any research. A researcher should
develop new ideas and obtain deep insight into the problem in order to get story and new
results which are the characteristics of a good research.

(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of

investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information
obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past
behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an
expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As
such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.

(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews.

The chief merits of the interview method are as follows/Advantages:

(i) More information in greater depth can be obtained. (ii) Interviewer by his own skill can
overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; (iii) There is greater flexibility as their
is opportunity to restructure questions especially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers. (v) Personal
information can as well be obtained easily. (vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. (viii)
The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used. (ix) The
language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person
interviewed. (x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the
respondent’s personal characteristics and environment.

Among the important weaknesses/Disandvantages, mention may be made of the following:

(i) It is a very expensive method, especially when large and widely spread geographical
sample is taken. (ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that
of the respondent; (iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or
executives or people in high income groups may not be easily approachable (iv) Relatively
more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large (v) The presence of the
interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extent
that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting. (vi) The
organisation required for selecting, training and supervising the field-staff is more complex
with formidable problems. (vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic

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errors. (viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would
facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.

(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves

contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it
plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the
survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.

The chief merits/Advantages of such a system are:

1). It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method. (2). It is faster than other methods
3). It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; (4). Recall is easy; callbacks are simple
and economical. (5). There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing
method; (6). Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily. (8). At times, access can be gained to
respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other. (9). No field
staff is required. (10). Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

But this system of collecting information is not free from demerits/Disadvantages.

1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; (2). Surveys are restricted to
respondents who have telephone facilities. (3). Extensive geographical coverage may get
restricted by cost considerations. (4). It is not suitable for intensive surveys where
comprehensive answers are required to various questions. (5). Possibility of the bias of the
interviewer is relatively more. (6). Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are
difficult to handle.

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires:. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a

request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in
various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study
for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the
questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may
prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.

The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:

(1). There is low cost even when the universe is large (2). It is free from the bias of the
interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words. (3). Respondents have adequate time
to give well thought out answers. (4). Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can
also be reached conveniently. (5) Large samples can be made use of and thus the results
can be made more dependable and reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

(1). Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; (2). Bias due to no-response (3).
It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating. (4). The control over
questionnaire may be lost once it is sent. (5). There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the
difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been despatched. (6). There
is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies (7). It is difficult to know

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whether willing respondents are truly representative. (8). This method is likely to be the
slowest of all.

(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given
training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These
enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the
schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends
upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional
field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work. This method of data
collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are
being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.

REPORT WRITING

Research reporting is an oral or a written presentation of important and useful aspects of

the research work done. A report helps the researcher get feedback from other researchers
and experts working in the same field. It also evaluates the success and originality of the
researcher’s work. A report essentially conveys the outcome of a research work to
interested persons.

Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date
followed by acknowledgements and abstract. Then there should be a table of contents
followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and
an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope
of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

Characteristics of a Good Report

(1) good presentation (2) good organization of various chapters/sections

(3) accuracy (4) clarity (5) free from contradictions and confusion.

Citations and Referencing

The most important thing when citing and referencing is to be consistent. Different
subject areas have different requirements when it comes to referencing, and so it is

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essential that you consult your programme handbook to see which referencing system is
used within your discipline.
The Harvard system is the system adopted by many (but not all) departments in the
University. It is important that you check which referencing system is used by your subject
area, as it is likely that it will be the only system that is acceptable for any work submitted
within the subject area.
Citation:
This is where you refer to a particular piece of work within the main body of your text. Any
statements, opinions, ideas, or conclusions that are taken from another person’s work must
be acknowledged, whether the work is directly quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. If you
quote directly from a particular text then you must include the page number after the date
separated by either a comma or a colon. E.g ‘(Smith and Jones, 1999: 12)'
Referencing:
This is the process of creating a consolidated bibliography at the end of your dissertation.
At the end of your dissertation, you should have a single alphabetical list of all the items
that you have cited. It should not include any texts that you have not cited within your
dissertation. The purpose of the bibliography is to enable readers to access the material
that you have used and, therefore, the reference list includes all the information that the
reader will need to find the texts that you have cited.
Copying of material without acknowledgement is plagiarism and is regarded extremely
seriously by the University.

What is and why referencing is important

Referencing is a vital part of the academic writing process as it allows the reader of your
work to:

 find the sources of quotations, theories, data or other information that you have
referred to in your writing
 follow the intellectual contribution other authors have made to the development of a
concept or argument you are putting forward
 see that you have read and understood concepts put forward by other writers while
developing your own ideas
 check the integrity of your work in terms of plagiarism

The importance of referencing

(1). It gives readers information needed to locate the sources. (2) It gives an author credit
where credit is due. (3). It helps in verifying quotations. (4). It supports researcher’s
arguments by demonstrating to readers that the researcher is aware of the relevant
literature on the subject. (5). It nurtures researcher’s writing skills through admitting how

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the work of others contributes to one’s own work. (6). It symbolizes researcher’s humility
and discipline in pursuance of academic knowledge.

References can be to books, journal articles, newspapers, websites, diagrams or any other
sources you have used. If you quote or make use of another writer's work in your academic
writing, you must ensure that it is properly referenced in your work.
 Referencing Styles
American Psychological Association (APA) style

Harvard referencing style

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEE) reference style.

Council of Biology Editors (CBE) referencing style

Modern Language Association (MLA) style

According to Mathooko, et al., 2007 American Psychological Association (APA) style and
Harvard Referencing style are most commonly preferred styles by scholars and
professionals. (Mathooko, et al., 2007) is an example of APA style. Harvard Referencing
style for the above author will be: (Mathooko et al 2007).
Steps involved in referencing

1. Record bibliographic details from which the information is obtained.

A). In case of a book record the author(s), year of publication, title, edition, volume number,
place of publication, and the publisher.

B). In case of a journal article record the author of the article, year of publication, title of the
article, title of the journal, volume and issue number of the journal and page numbers.

C). Cases of all electronic information, include details needed in books and journals, plus
the date that the information was accessed and the database name or website address.

2. Insert the citation at the appropriate place within the text

3. Provide a reference list at the end of your work.

Basically the reference list has four elements, author(s), title, date, and publication
information.

Author(s)

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List author(s) by last name, a coma and a space, first initial, and if included, middle initial
placing an ampersand (&) or and before the name of the last author. If using APA style,
separate initials with a full stop.

Date format

Mathooko, et al., 2007 the year of entry always follows one space after the full stop
concluding the author element. For APA style, it is enclosed in parenthesis, followed by a
full stop and a space. If the date of publication is unavailable use initials ‘n.d’ for (no date).

Title

Cite full title of the work, with subtitles separated from the title by a colon and a space. The
first letter of the title, the first word after the colon and all proper nouns should be in
capital.

Publication information

Use abbreviations p. and pp. only for articles in books and newspapers and when listing
discontinuous pages: pp. 20-24, 34-45.

Problems Encountered by Researchers

1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great obstacle. As such,
efforts should be made to provide shortduration intensive courses for meeting this
requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side
and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the
other side. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for
better and realistic researches.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in
supplying the needed information to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the
confidence that the information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and wastes away resources. Due attention should
be given toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied
science which are of immediate concern to the industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and inter-
departmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code of
conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the
completion of research studies. University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in
solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the
time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc.,
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rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem
is felt more in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus,
efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications
to reach our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country.
10. There is the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of
data collection and related things.

REFERENCES

Kerlinger, F. N. and Lee, H. B. (2000) Foundations of Behavioral Research 4 th Ed. Australia:

Cengage Learning.

Kinoti, H. W. (1998) A Handbook of Social Research Methods. Nairobi:The National Council

of Churches of Kenya.

Kothari, C. R. (2004) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques 2nd Rev. Ed. Delhi:
New Age International.

Cooper, D. Schindler P. (2006) Business Research MethodsNew Delhi, Tata McGraw Hill

Kothari C.R. (1990) Research Methodology, Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, New Age

International (P) Limited, Publishers.

Kumar, R. (2005) Research Methodology; A Step By Step Guide ForBeginners, Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Marlow R.C. (2010) Research Methods for Generalist Social Work, Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Mugenda A., Mugenda O. (2003) Research Methods, Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

Nairobi, ACTS Press.

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