CHAPTER ONE

IMPACTS, RISKS AND GOVERNANCE OF CLIMATE ENGINEERING

Ritu Yadav and Ravi Yadav

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
1.2 Definition……………………………………………………………………............................................
1.3 .
1.4 Impacts and Risks…………………………………………………………………………….....................
1.5 Governance ……………………………………………………………………………………...................
1.6 A Chinese Perspective……………………………………………………………………………..............
Conclusions
……………………………..............................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

Climate engineering is a potential alternative method to curb global warming, and this
discipline has garnered considerable attention from the international scientific community
including the Chinese scientists. This manuscript provides an overview of several aspects of
climate engineering, including its definition, its potential impacts and risk, and its governance
status. The overall conclusion is that China is not yet ready to implement climate engineering.
However, it is important for China to continue conducting research on climate engineering,
particularly with respect to its feasible application within China, its potential social,
economic, and environmental impacts, and possible international governance structures and
governing principles, with regard to both experimentation and implementation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Climate change is real and of critical importance. There is a 95% chance that global climate
change has attributed to human factors (IPCC, 2013). The risk of human induced climate
change requires the management of our activities. The main conclusion from the Stern
Review (Stern, 2006) is that the benefits of strong, early climate change mitigation actions
will far outweigh the costs of doing nothing. However, global negotiations and mitigation
actions on climate change have been slow, and these approaches lack efficiency.
Geoengineering or climate engineering is expected to play a significant role in mitigating
global temperature increases; however, the relative impacts and risks of these engineering
practices need to be closely examined. China, as an emerging economy, attracts more and
more attention with respect to its role in international affairs. Some Western journalists and
scholars have stated that China is one of the countries with the capability and potential
willingness to implement large-scale climate engineering (Anderson, 2012). Furthermore,
China has long been implementing modifications that increase risk resilience, although China
does encounter obstacles and difficulties in traditional mitigation areas. Yet, does this mean
that China is ready for climate engineering?

At present, the scientific basis for climate engineering is not sufficiently clear to elucidate an
obvious technological approach. However, it is critically important to consider the ethical and
governance issues arising from any possible climate engineering experimentation or
implementation. It is also necessary to provide a clear message to the international and
domestic communities on the Chinese perspective on this issue. The following sections will
examine the definition, impacts and risks, and governance issues to establish a Chinese
perspective on the future governance of climate engineering. Finally, this manuscript will
present an unambiguous recommendation on China's principles and position with regard to
climate engineering.

1.2 DEFINITION

Climate engineering, mostly known as geo engineering, is defined as “human's planned

measures to cope with climate change by altering the environment on the Earth on a large
scale” (RS, 2009). More recently, scholars have decided that geo engineering is too
ambiguous as people sometimes confuse geo engineering with the building of large dams or
tunnels or with the undertaking of massive engineering projects that change the global
environment. Scientists are instead choosing to use the term climate engineering to keep their
discussion within the bounds of climate change. Climate engineering describes a diverse and
largely hypothetical array of technologies and techniques for the intentional manipulation of
the global climate in order to moderate or forestall the (most severe) effects of climate change
(Lawrence, 2014). Climate engineering includes a grab-basket of technologies that generally
address carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and solar radiation management (SRM). From these
classifications, we can infer that climate engineering aims to manipulate the global
temperature by changing solar radiation or atmospheric carbon concentrations, i.e., by
modifying the Earth's albedo. Irrespective of whether they are fast or slow, all these
techniques have the potential for significant environmental impacts and risks.
1.3 IMPACTS AND RISKS

Climate engineering involves large-scale interventions in complex, dynamically interacting

systems that are not adequately understood. In other words, we have no way of accurately
predicting the impacts of climate engineering applications: they could easily compound the
problems we are already facing because of increased climatic instability (Biofuelwatch and
Econexus, 2014). It is not possible to quantify or even identify the relative environmental,
social, political, legal, and economic risks at this time, given the current state of our
knowledge on our complex global system. Both the uncertainties in modelling climate change
and the potentially far-reaching consequences of climate engineering currently make it
impossible to provide reliable, quantitative statements about the relative risks, consequences,
and benefits of albedo modification, let alone the benefits and risks to specific regions of our
planet (NAS, 2015).

It is obvious that prior to the further consideration of climate engineering, with its substantial
potential environmental impacts and risks, the inherent uncertainties need to be re-evaluated.
If the potential impacts and risks of implementing any type of climate engineering are higher
than doing nothing, the discussion needs to cease. Halting, or at least slowing, the
implementation of climate engineering would allow for consideration of the three pillars of
sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental impacts. Simultaneously,
there are ethical risks.

The potential impacts for climate engineering can be divided into three dimensions:

 direct environmental impacts

 indirect environmental impacts
 Indirect impacts on climate mitigation politics and policies.

With respect to the first dimension, direct environmental impacts, there are SRM projects that
release sulphates into the atmosphere, chemically polluting the air. The observed effects from
volcanic eruptions include stratospheric ozone loss, changes to precipitation (both amounts
and patterns), and likely increased growth rates of forests, due to an increase in diffuse solar
radiation (NAS, 2015), and provide insight into potential direct environmental impacts from
albedo modification. In addition, there are ocean fertilization projects that propose pouring
iron powders into sea, which may lead to eutrophication. CCS projects aim to change the
environmental conditions of geological structures, but they all have the potential risk of
carbon dioxide leakage.

For the second dimension, indirect environmental impacts, climate engineering could lower
the global mean temperature; however, it could also change local temperatures and
precipitation levels, which could be detrimental to agriculture and established ecosystems.
Further complicating the matter is the potential for regional disparities in the distribution of
benefits and risks (Kravitz et al., 2011; Moreno-Cruz et al., 2012). In fact, computer-
modelled SRM interventions result in either excessive cooling in the tropics or excessive
warming at high latitudes or both (CBD, 2012). Still, not all predicted precipitation changes
are offset: models of the SRM world fully counter anthropogenic radiative forcing and
consistently show a slowing of the hydrological cycle, with an up to 2% decrease in global
mean precipitation. This change in precipitation is predicted to be most pronounced over land
and within the equatorial regions, so, among the regions containing the most biodiversity
(CBD, 2012). However, fast-food climate engineering projects only focus on lowering the
global mean temperature; they leave the environmental problems caused by conventional
fossil energy usage unfixed. SRM methods do not seek to reduce the atmospheric
concentrations of anthropogenic CO2, so the process of ocean acidification would continue.

For the third dimension, impacts on politics and policies, if a country's government believed
that climate engineering techniques could reliably curb global warming, they would most
likely change their future development strategies. For example, a so-called green
transformation of the energy system would seem irrational, and further investment in
renewable energy would be tabled.

1.4 GOVERNANCE

The implementation scope of climate engineering solutions can be grouped into global
commons-based classifications, these include atmospheric, oceanic, outer spatial, and
territorial projects. For instance, the implementation of the SRM called space mirror, in
which SPI would be injected into the stratosphere and resulting in cloud whitening, is an
example of a global-commons project, while roof whitening and desert mirror
implementation would be a (national) territorial project. Similarly, CDR and ocean
fertilization are global commons based projects, while afforestation and CCS would be
grouped within the national territory classification.
Many of these potentially usable technologies are regulated by international or national
environmental laws, while other technologies are not addressed. According to the scientific
report provided by the Conventional of Biodiversity (CBD, 2012), technologies such as ocean
fertilization are under regulated by the London Protocol, while other technologies, including
solar radiation management, are still unregulated. A clear understanding of the potential
impacts and risks is foundational to creating appropriate governance. A well designed,
transparent mechanism is crucial for regulation.

Climate engineering not only impacts the air, water, and land, it also has potential
implications for economic development, political maneuvering, and social evolution.
Relevant experiences with similar technologies, such as nanotechnology and transgenic
technology, resulted in louder disputes with respect to their governance than the implications
of their usage. As mentioned previously, climate engineering is a mixed basket of
technologies that aim to manipulate the global temperature. Thus, the governance of climate
engineering technologies, at this current stage, is provided by different international, national,
and regional legislative frameworks.

According to CBD (2012) on climate engineering and its social impact, there is an increasing
volume of literature that addresses the social dimensions of geo engineering (Banerjee, 2009;
Victor et al., 2009; Galaz, 2012). These issues relate to geo engineering ethics, governance,
and socio-politics, and have also been discussed within the geo engineering research
community. This is exemplified by the Oxford Principles (Rayners et al., 2009). CBD (2012),
which provides an overview of the existing regulations and institutional arrangements that
relate to climate engineering governance issues. In Table 1.1 we can see that most of the
CDR technologies are regulated under modern international law, to avoid cross-boundary
conflicts, while most of the SRM technologies have governance gaps, preventing their
widespread regulation.
Table 1.1: Climate engineering technologies and their potential regulation
Technology Relevant treaties and potential gaps Note
SRM: Space-based reflectors Space law (Outer Space Treaty) No specific rules or guidance
Stratospheric aerosols Montreal protocol Only applies to the gravity of actual
impacts
Cloud reflectivity No global treaty applies

Surface albedo No global treaty applies

CDR :Ocean fertilization UNCLOS; LC/LP

Enhanced weathering (ocean) UNCLOS; LC/LP

 Ocean CCS UNCLOS; OSPAR in the Northeast
Atlantic
Ocean biomass storage UNCLOS; LC/LP Only with guidance for the dumping of
organic materials
Subsurface CCS LC/LP; OSPAR Rules under development
Source: CBD (2012).

The current global governance structure for climate engineering is insufficient to mitigate the
potential risks or compensate for intentional or unintentional climate engineering mis-
implementation. Due to all of the aspects and potential impacts of climate engineering, no
single international legal instrument provides comprehensive coverage. Integration and
coordination among multiple international regulations is essential. The United Nation
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has endorsed CCS as one of the most
effective global warming mitigation measures, yet it has not opened the gates for further
discussions on climate engineering, neither with respect to its technology, nor its governance.

1.5 A CHINESE PERSPECTIVE

China is under prodigious pressure to implement climate mitigation. The conventional

mitigation practices are not only economically expensive, but they also result in significant
social impacts. Climate engineering measures with relatively small impacts and risks may be
a reasonable alternative choice. However, there is no concrete analytical data on the potential
costs associated with utilizing climate engineering technologies. “In practice the information
available on costs is extremely tentative and incomplete, and only order-of magnitude
estimates are possible”, as stated in the Royal Society report (RS. 2009). Even the most
advanced studies, conducted on an international level, could not provide such data, and
Chinese researchers have just recently started to delve into climate engineering. China has a
history of implementing large-scale engineering projects to change its geological conditions
and local weather, in order to combat natural disasters. These projects, including artificial
afforestation, the South Water to North project, and the Three Gorges projects, were not
aimed toward changing the global climate. These projects, as well as their impacts and risks,
were all very well estimated prior to their implementation. For example, in order to
implement the Three Gorges projects, based on previous work since 1950, Yangtze River
Basin Comprehensive Utilization Plan Highlights Report was finished in 1959 (YRBPO,
1959) and was revised in 1988 (YRBPO, 1988). Scientists and engineers repeatedly
investigated the feasibility and importance of the development of the Three Gorges, and they
also pay a lot of concerns on the response measures on the potential floods and other
challenges caused by electricity production. Nevertheless, in 1992, on the requirement of the
Central Government, more than 400 scientists, engineers and experts in this area cooperate to
do another assessment report, Yangtze River Three Gorges Project Feasibility Report
(CTGPC, 1992), to update the data and cases for a reliable and feasible estimation of the
actual implementation. And no earlier than 1994 did the work of the Three Gorges finally
started. For another example, China modifies its weather to avoid agricultural disasters, and
weather modification has been supporting the Chinese agricultural production for many years
(Zhu et al., 2015). China is well equipped for weather modification and has already provided
international cooperation to assist other countries in combating droughts and other agriculture
disasters (Guo, 2009).

From the scientific research, technological innovation, equipment installation, and

management development, China's weather modification projects have accumulated
extensive experiential data (Liu, 2015). However, China has also invested substantial
financial and human resources into its previous engineering research, including progress
monitoring. The relevant risks and impacts were almost completely controlled, and adequate
compensation was provided to mitigate overflow effects.

The Chinese governing structure does not place such priority on climate engineering. Until
now, China has had no sufficient scientifically-research basis to implement climate
engineering. There are a few Chinese researchers and scholars who have been following the
development of climate engineering, although national and ministerial projects only
commenced in 2015. Other countries, however, particularly the U.S., the UK, and Germany,
began their research on climate engineering at a much earlier date and have been furthering
its discussion. Harnisch et al. (2015) explained that scientists have played a leading role in
the initiation of the climate engineering debate, especially within the UK, where scientists
have proactively brought climate engineering onto the national political agenda. Scientists in
Germany have been the source of a more sceptical political stance toward climate
engineering. These examples highlight the instrumental role that scientists play in influencing
their country's environmental politics. In contrast, the U.S. executive branch has thus far
taken no official stance on climate engineering, although this may be a result of the divisive
U.S. national politics with respect to climate change. Compared with the U.S., the UK, and
Germany, China is merely a follower on this topic, both from the aspects of natural scientific
research and social regulatory study. China's current relevant research basis is far too small to
support a well-supported national strategy on climate engineering. As a responsible, large
developing country, China would never implement climate engineering without a sound
scientific and political basis.

1.6 CONCLUSIONS

Climate engineering hazards significantly environmental risk that places it far beyond the
consideration of today's China. However, China should closely monitor and perhaps join the
global discussion on governance relating to climate engineering, including participation in
current international schemes and potential global governance frameworks that include
climate engineering regulations. First, climate engineering, the Plan B to conventional
climate change mitigation measures, should be studied and researched from a scientific stand-
point. Second, to reduce the public's manipulation by the media, the Chinese government
needs to clarify its stance on climate engineering. All relevant clarifications need to be
supported by credible natural and social scientific research. Third, Western countries and
international societies are actively discussing topics related to the development of climate
engineering and its potential global governance structures, which will regulate future studies
and research on climate engineering in addition to the potential ethical, political, economic
impacts.

China should prepare itself for possible future discussions and negotiations on climate
engineering. Since there are large uncertainties in both the natural and social sciences, in
relation to climate engineering, China should invest more of its resources into the analysis
and research of this topic. If conventional mitigation and adaptation fail to rescue the Earth
from future climate disasters, climate engineering would be a final alternative. Yet research
cannot wait until that day comes. Furthermore, if climate engineering projects are
unexpectedly implemented, perhaps without proper consultation or regulation, people should
be aware of the possible consequences and be prepared to possibly mitigate the negative
impacts on the environment, economy, and human health.

Only with thorough advanced research can policymakers provide equitable, rational, and
reasonable answers to the questions relating to climate engineering. Thus, there are several
sub-topics that require further investigation, particularly in social sciences. The first of the
social science sub-topics that needs more supporting research is agriculture, which is the most
vulnerable sector, regardless if the impacts were caused by conventional climate change or by
climate engineering. Proper evaluations and simulation monitoring should be conducted on
potential agricultural disasters resulting from climate engineering. Risks and cost-benefit
analyses should be based on simulations that account for the indicators retrieved by
metrological and climatic models. Second, extreme climate events, including their possible
social economic costs, should be evaluated using implemented climate engineering projects
scenarios. Third, in comparison with conventional mitigation and adaptation actions, climate
engineering may impact the pathway choices for energy utilization and innovation.

Relevant social economic impacts and costs, related to energy development transformation
under the circumstances of feasible climate engineering, should be calculated. Fourth, after
obtaining certain information on the above issues, policymakers need to construct a decision-
making framework based on their ethical, political, and economic principles. Finally,
researchers should also provide their expert insight into future global governance structures,
given all of the principles and pathways available for sustainable development.

REFERENCES

Anderson, M., 2012. At War over Geoengineering. The Guardian, Letters.

Biofuelwatch, Econexus, 2014. Geo-engineering: A New Intervention in Climate and Earth
Systems?
Banerjee, B., 2009. The limitations of geoengineering governance in a world of uncertainty.
Stanf. J. Law Sci. Policy 4, 16e35.
CBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity), 2012. Geoengineering in
Relation to the Convention on Biological Diversity: Technical and Regulatory Matters.
CBD Technical Series No. 66.
Galaz, V., 2012. Geo-engineering, governance, and social-ecological systems: critical issues
and joint research needs. Ecol. Soc. 17. Available at “http://dx.doi.org/ 10.5751/ES-
04677-170124”.
Guo, X.-L., 2009. Advances in Artificial Weather Modification, pp. 25e28. Annual Report of
CAMS, 2009 (in Chinese).
Harnisch, S., Uther, S., Bettcher, M., 2015. From 'Go slow' to 'Gung Ho'? Climate
engineering discourses in UK, the US and Germany. Glob. Environ. Polit. 15 (2),
57-58.
Kravitz, B., Robock, A., Boucher, O., et al., 2011. The geoengineering model
intercomparison project (GeoMIP). Atmos. Sci. Lett. 12 (2), 162-167.
Lawrence, M., 2014. Opening Statement for the Critical Global Discussions. Available at
“http://www.ce-conference.org/”.
Liu, B., 2015. China's weather modification work in progress and the main technical
research. Sci. Technol. Innov. Appl. 14, 300 (in Chinese).
NAS (National Academy of Sciences, U.S.), 2015. Climate Intervention: Reflecting Sunlight
to Cool Earth.
Rayner, S., Redgwell, C., Savulescu, J., et al., 2009. Memorandum on Draft Principles for the
Conduct of Geoengineering Research. House of Commons Science and Technology
 Committee Enquiry into the Regulation of Geoengineering. Available at
“www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmsctech/221/221.pdf”.
RS (Royal Society), 2009. Geoengineering the Climate: Scholarship, Governance and
Uncertainty. Royal Society Policy document. Available at http://royalsociety.org/
geoengineering-the-climate/.
Stern, N., 2006. Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change (Prepublication Edition).
HM Treasury, London. Executive Summary.
Victor, D.G., Morgan, M.G., Apt, J., et al., 2009. The geoengineering option: a last resort
against global warming? Foreign Aff. 88, 64e76.
Zhu, J.-C., Zhang, G.-Y., Jiang, Y., 2015. Artificial weather modification proposal in disaster
prevention and mitigation action and development. In: The 32nd China Meteorological
Society Annual Meeting. Chinese Meteorological Society (in Chinese).

CHAPTER TWO

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: DROSOPHILA AS A BIOLOGICAL

INDICATOR

Suchitra Rai, Virendra Kr. Vishwakarma, R. K. Kesharwani, Sandeep Tripathi and

Bhawna Kalra

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
2.2 Effect of climate change on living organisms..................................................................................
2.3 Shift in species boundary due to climate change………………………………………………… …....
2.4 Phenotypic changes due to global climate change in Drosophila …………………………………...
2.5 Genotypic changes due to global climate change in Drosophila …………………………………....
2.6 Conclusions ………………………………… …………………………………
…………………………...
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT
Global warming is rise in temperature of earth in past two centuries through number of
natural and man-made recourses. It has affected the geographical distribution, phenotype as
well as genotype of many plants and animal species. However, small sized ectothermic
insects are more likely to be affected by climatic changes. Due to global climate change many
cold-adapted Drosophila species from Western Himalayan regions of India has shifted their
geographical boundaries and distribution. Changes in temperature has also affected the
seasonal pattern as well; many warm-adapted species which were restricted earlier to summer
season has now been reported in winter season also. Climate warming has affected
phenotypic and genotypic clines of many Drosophila species across different continents.
Phenotypic plasticity is another way adopted by Drosophilids to cope climatic stress.
Acclimation and hardening are type of phenotypic plasticity that helps Drosophila species to
adapt in changing thermal environment. Apart from phenotypic changes genotypic changes
such as chromosomal inversion polymorphisms have also been reported in widespread
generalist Drosophila. Drosophila melanogaster flies from east coast of Australia and other
continents has shown inversion polymorphism along latitudinal gradient. Thus, Drosophila
species overcome these stressful climatic conditions by plastic and genetic changes or by
undergoing evolutionary adaptations over the time scale and can act as profound biological
indicator of global climate change.

Keywords: Drosophila, ectothermic, phenotypic plasticity, acclimation, hardening, inversion

polymorphisms, global warming.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Global warming is the term used to describe enhancement of temperature near the surface of
the earth over the past century. Due to rapid global climate change earth temperature has
increased significantly by 1 C in past 50 years and by 0.8 C in last 100 years (Figure 2.1;
Hansen et al., 2006). These changes are occurring as a consequence of much induced green
house changes of the current climate as compared to prehistoric time (Heerwaarden and
Hoffmann, 2007). Global warming affects the distribution, life-history and stress resistance of
ectothermic insects across continents (Heerwaarden and Hoffmann, 2007). Climate changes
can influence selection and adaptations of many organisms that might leads to evolutionary
shifts. Moreover, adaptations can allow species to expand their range that allow them to adapt
better than their current range (Hoffmann, 2010). However, some species have more potential
to adapt to climate changes than others. These adaptive responses produce genotypic or
chromosomal changes in organisms (Hoffmann, 2010). If the global warming remains
unchecked, it may have profound implications on environment and living organisms. Global
warming has huge implications on climate of earth such as rise in ocean levels, melting of
glaciers and polar ice caps. Moreover, due to rise in temperature fresh water sources are also
depleting at a fast rate. Other impacts of global warming are ocean acidification, extreme
weather events and other natural and societal impacts (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.1: Change in 1 C temperature of earth in past 50 years

2.2 EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVING ORGANISMS

Natural populations of living organisms cope with global climate change both by changing
their geographical distribution and/or by shifting their geographical boundaries. These
changes in population dynamics leads to fluctuation in community structure and interaction
among species (Parmesan and Yohe, 2003). Many animals and plants adapt rapidly to
variations in environmental conditions while others are not. Changes in population dynamics
can leads to either favorable or unfavorable conditions for a particular species due to changes
in habitats, species competition etc. Consequently, some insect communities are under the
threat of extinction owing to influence of global climate change on their survival, fitness and
development (Deutsch et al., 2008). Furthermore, small sized ectothermic insects such as
Drosophila are more prone to changes in temperature and humidity. Nevertheless, ability of
Drosophila to tolerate climate change depends upon potential of flies to adapt via plastic,
genetic and adaptive changes (Chown et al., 2007; Hoffmann, 2010).
 Figure 2.2: Effect of climate change on environment of earth

Large number of living organisms faces challenge to cope adaptation to abiotic stresses
(Crick et al., 1997; Heerwaarden and Hoffmann, 2007). Various insect, plant and animal
species are responding to changes occurring in climate (Heerwaarden and Hoffmann, 2007).
Widespread generalist Drosophila species has shifted their geographical boundaries
(Rajpurohit et al., 2008; Kalra and Parkash, 2016) and showed phenotypic changes in their
traits such as body size, melanization (Parkash et al., 2008a, b; Kalra and Parkash, 2014a),
stress related traits (Parkash et al., 2008a, b; Kalra and Parkash, 2016) as well as life history
traits (Kalra and Parkash, 2014b). Generalist Drosophila species, D. melanogaster and D.
subobscura are good indicator of climate change as their phenotypic and genotypic clines are
affected by temperature and changes in their generation time were also observed
(Heerwaarden and Hoffmann, 2007; Balanyà et al., 2009). These changes in ectothermic
insects had been correlated with changes in abiotic factors such as temperature and humidity
(Heerwaarden and Hoffmann, 2007; Parkash et al., 2008a, b; Kalra and Parkash, 2014).
However, organisms overcome these stressful conditions by plastic and genetic changes or by
undergoing evolutionary adaptations over the time scale (Williams et al., 2015). Thus, large
number of phenotypic changes has been observed in various insects due to global climate
change.
2.3 SHIFT IN SPECIES BOUNDARY DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Worldwide global climate changes have led to shift in geographical boundaries of number of
insects, animals and plants species (Crick et al., 1997; Bradshaw and Holzapfel, 2008; Hill et
al., 2011). Recent studies on climate changes are investigating whether species boundaries
are shifting in expected direction or not. Thermal gradient has been considered as main factor
affecting species boundaries rather than humidity gradient because changes in humidity level
are more difficult to infer. A report based on United Kingdom birds has suggested that more
than 84% species of birds has shifted their migratory pathway towards poles due to enhanced
temperature (Crick et al., 1997). Nevertheless, ectothermic insects are more likely to be
affected by abiotic stresses. Genus Drosophila comprises more than 1500 species but very
few species have received attention as a model for climate change (Ashburner, 2005; Hill et
al., 2011). Due to global climate change many cold-adapted species have shifted their
geographical range from higher altitudes towards lower altitudes and many warm adapted
species has shifted their range towards higher altitudinal localities (Hill et al., 2011). Impacts
of climate change have been analyzed in life history and stress resistance of Drosophila
species from Indian subcontinent (Etges et al., 2006; Rajpurohit et al., 2008; Kalra et al.,
2014). Several Drosophila species such as Drosophila ananassae, Drosophila nepalensis,
Drosophila melarkotliana and Zaprionus indianus etc. from Indian subcontinent were
analyzed for their invasive potential (Rajpurohit et al., 2008; Kalra and Parkash, 2016). These
species were restricted to narrow range of developmental temperature and their distribution
was limited due to sensitivity to cold and desiccation stress (Parkash and Munjal, 1999). But
these species have shifted their boundaries by changing stress tolerance and life history
pattern (Rajpurohit et al., 2008). Furthermore, India is primarily tropical and subtropical
country and climate of Indian subcontinent vary across latitude. Northern India localities are
warm and dry in summers and cold in winter season. Temperature further deceases below
subzero in western Himalayan region. However, climate is warm and humid in southern parts
of India. This variation in temperature and humidity in Indian subcontinent has huge impact
on distribution of species (Parkash et al., 2008a, b; Rajpurohit et al., 2008).

Due to climatic warming, there are shifts in Drosophila species distributions as well
as genetic changes in quantitative traits. Several rainforest restricted species from Australia
and desiccation sensitive species from India has shown limited potential to cope stress
resistance and are in verge of extinction and are more likely to suffer from climate change
(Parsons 1991; Hoffmann et al., 2003; Kellermann et al., 2009). However various generalists
Drosophila species has enhanced their resistance level and coping the climate change rapidly
(Huey et al. 2000). Two Drosophila species from Australia, Drosophila serrata and
Drosophila birchii has shown low variation for cold resistance and low evolutionary potential
for desiccation resistance; these species have shown low genetic potential for climatic stress
adaptations (Jenkins and Hoffmann, 1999; Hoffmann et al., 2003). A warm adapted species
Drosophila ananassae which was restricted to southern part of India and lowland altitudinal
localities of northern India has shifted its range to mid-altitudinal localities of Himalayan
region (Rajpurohit et al., 2008). Another cold adapted species Drosophila nepalensis
restricted its range to lower altitudinal localities (Rajpurohit et al., 2008). A comparison of
data on average temperature and relative humidity across the past 50 years corresponds to
increase in ambient temperature and a decrease in humidity, resulting in range expansion of
this species. However, a warm adapted species Zaprionus indianus restricted its geographical
range to tropical regions of the world in early 1970s now has invaded to northern, southern
America and Central America successfully (Tidon et al., 2003; Commar et al., 2012).
Furthermore, as the temperature of earth is increasing there is movement of many species
towards poles (Parmesan and Yohe, 2003). Likewise, Drosophila subobscura from old world
has recently invaded the southern and Northern America (Balanya et al., 2009). Furthermore,
Zaprionus indianus- a warm adapted species found predominantly in summer and rainy
seasons in India has been observed in pre-winter and winter months in northern Indian
localities (Kalra and Parkash, 2016). Thus seasonally varying humidity and temperature
affect distribution of flies by changing their resistance level. These changes in distribution of
species ultimately change the population dynamics of that area. Furthermore, some species
have restricted distributions with clear borders on different continents and range expansions
have been reported in other cases (Jenkins and Hoffmann 1999; Hoffmann et al., 2003).
Thus, thermal sensitivity to temperature has ability to influence distribution, ecology and life-
history of Drosophila species.

2.4 PHENOTYPIC CHANGES DUE TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IN

DROSOPHILA

In Drosophila species and population latitudinal and altitudinal clines for phenotypic traits
has been correlated with climatic factors in Indian and Australian subcontinent (Parkash et al
2008a,b; Jenkins and Hoffmann 1999; Hoffmann et al., 2003). The clines in Drosophila have
been attributed to adaptation of equatorial population to warm climatic temperatures and of
temperate populations to cooler and more variable climates (Hoffmann, 2010). Impact of
global warming is more prominent at higher latitude (Hoffmann, 2010). Tropical species
might be more vulnerable to extinction than temperate species because they are already
encounter temperatures close to their physiological limits (Deutsch et al., 2008, Tewksbury
et al., 2008, Hoffmann, 2010) and they also lack genetic variable to enhance their stress
tolerance (Kellermann et al., 2009).

Temperate and tropical D. melanogaster subpopulations have been shown to

genetically differ for a variety of traits, such as body size, and fecundity (Parkash et al 2008b;
Kalra and Parkash, 2014b). Furthermore, temperature can influence defense mechanism of
insects. Temperature has huge impact on host-pathogen interactions of Drosophilids because
ambient temperature determines the physiological temperature observed only in stressful
environments (Thomas and Blanford, 2003). However, it is not clear whether responses that
Drosophila flies are showing are due to phenotypic plasticity or adaptations. The role of
phenotypic plasticity in adapting to natural environments has been the focused by many
studies (Dewitt and Scheiner, 2004). Drosophila species that are genetically less variable and
are less stress resistant solely change themselves due to phenotypic plasticity or
acclimatization and might be vulnerable to global warming. A study has shown lesser genetic
variability limits the distribution of stress sensitive species as compared to widespread
species of Drosophila (Kellermann et al., 2009). Under extreme thermal stress most of the
Drosophila species tolerate outside the range in which they are reared, they are able to
tolerate such conditions due to phenotypic plasticity (Hoffmann, 2010).

Acclimation and hardening are type of phenotypic plasticity in organisms; it is a

condition in which different phenotypes are produced by same genotype under same
environment (Dewitt and Scheiner, 2004). Species cope the stress expected from climate
change by phenotypic plasticity for thermal environment these enhancements in plasticity
contribute to evolutionary variation (West-Eberhard 2003; Chown and Terblanche, 2007;
Ghalambor et al., 2007). However, plasticity prevents population from evolving higher
resistance (Bennett and Lenski, 1999; Gabriel 2005; Ghalambor et al., 2007). Furthermore,
species from temperate environment that face fluctuation in temperature are expected to
evolve better under climatic stress than species living in tropic environment with lesser
fluctuations (Loeschcke and Hoffmann, 2007; Hoffmann 2010).
2.5 GENOTYPIC CHANGES DUE TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IN
DROSOPHILA

Global warming not just affect the phenotypic characteristics of Drosophila it has influenced
the genotype of the insect also (Hoffmann, 2010). Most of the studies have focused on
population movement or shift in species boundaries lesser focus has been given genetic
analysis. More importantly, climate change is occurring when most of the species are already
under pressure of species competition as a consequence to invasion of exotic species and
other disturbances such as habitat fragmentation through habitat destruction. Furthermore,
movements of species are occurring at faster rate across the globe (Gozlan et al., 2010;
Hoffmann, 2010). Process of habitat fragmentation and invasion introduce novel genotype
into the population as genes move around the landscape as a consequence few population
undergo drift and in other there are more chances of inbreeding (Hoffmann, 2010). Natural
selection favors phenotype with higher fitness. When there is gene flow among
subpopulation, local adaptations are favorable, this allow high fitness alleles in each
subpopulation.

Chromosomal inversion polymorphism pattern of the species varies across continents.

Chromosome inversions are regions of the operation of natural selection and adaptation to
environmental factors such as mean temperature that vary with latitude. Chromosomal
inversion polymorphisms have been reported in widespread generalist species such as D.
melanogaster and D. subobscura (Rodríguez Trelles and Rodríguez 1998; Balanya et al.,
2009). Furthermore, allozyme frequencies data in Drosophila parallel climate warming (Rank
and Dahlhoff, 2002; Umina et al., 2005). Adh gene in Drosophila helps the flies to cope hot
and dry climatic conditions and changes in AdhS is linked to climate change (Heerwaarden
and Hoffmann, 2007 Balanyá et al., 2009). D. melanogaster flies from east coast of Australia
has shown inversion polymorphism along latitudinal gradient (Heerwaarden and Hoffmann,
2007 Balanyá et al., 2009). Furthermore, chromosomal arrangement frequencies of D.
robusta from North America were also subjected to temperature changes (Etges et al., 2006).

2.6 CONCLUSIONS

In summary, populations of Drosophila species are under verge of climatic changes. Impact
of climate change on species distribution and range expansion has been discussed. In light of
climate change some populations have difficulty in adapting to climate change because of
low trait heritability, overriding environmental effects on phenotypes, and strong but unstable
selection pressures. Still, most of the Drosophila species has extended their species
boundaries by expanding their geographical boundaries others have shown phenotypic
changes in their clinal patterns and also adapt to climatic stresses through acclimatization and
hardening. Genotypic changes in their chromosome inversions pattern were also reported.
But more studies are needed to identify evolutionary potential across groups of species,
including those sensitive to thermal extremes and intermittently dry conditions.

References
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Cambridge, UK Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
Balanyá JM, Oller RB, Huey GW, Gilchrist L, Serra (2009) Global genetic change tracks
climate warming in Drosophila subobscura Science, 313: 1773-1775.
Bennett, AF and Lenski, R (1999) Experimental evolution and its role in evolutionary
physiology. American Zoologist, 39, 346–362.
Bradshaw WE, Holzapfel CM (2008). Genetic response to rapid climate change: it’s seasonal
timing that matters. Molecular Ecology 17: 157–166.
Chown, SL, Slabber, S, McGeoch, MA, Janion C, Leinaas, HP (2007) Phenotypic plasticity
mediates climate change responses among invasive and indigenous arthropods.
Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 274, 2531–2537.
Chown, SL, Terblanche, JS (2007) Physiological diversity in insects: ecological and
evolutionary contexts. Advances in Insect Physiology, 33, 50–152.
Commar LS, Galego LGD., Ceron, CR, Carareto, CMA (2012). Taxonomic and evolutionary
analysis of Zaprionus indianus and its colonization of Palearctic and Neotropical
regions. Gen. Mol. Biol. 35, 395-406.
Crick, HQP, Dudley, C, Glue, DE, Thompson, DL (1997).  UK birds are laying eggs earlier.
Nature, 388, p. 526.
Deutsch CA, Tewksbury, JJ, Huey, RB, Sheldon KS, Ghalambor, CK, Haak, DC, Martin, PR
(2008). Impacts of climate warming on terrestrial ectotherms across latitude.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 6668–6672.
Dewitt, TJ and Scheiner, SM, (2004). Phenotypic plasticity: Functional and Conceptual
approaches. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York.
Etges WJ, Arbuckle KL, Levitan M (2006). Long-term frequency shifts in the chromosomal
polymorphisms of Drosophila robusta in the Great Smoky Mountains. Biological
Journal of the Linnean Society 88: 131–141.
Gabriel, W (2005). How stress selects for reversible phenotypic plasticity. Journal of
Evolutionary Biology, 18, 873–883.
Ghalambor, CK, McKay, JK, Carroll, SP, Reznick, DN (2007) Adaptive versus non-adaptive
phenotypic plasticity and the potential for contemporary adaptation in new
environments. Functional Ecology, 21, 394–407.
Gozlan, RE, Britton, JR, Cowx, I and Copp, GH (2010) Current knowledge on non-native
freshwater fish introductions. J. Fish Biol. 76, 751–786.
Hansen J, Sato M, Ruedy R, Lo K, Lea DW, Medina-Elizade, M. (2006). Global temperature
change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103, 14288–14293.
Heerwaarden B, Hoffmann AA (2007) Global Warming: Fly Populations are responding
rapidly to climate change. Current biology. 17: 1, 16-18.
Hill, JK, Griffiths, HM, Thomas, CD (2011). Climate change and evolutionary adaptations at
species' range margins. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 56, 143–159.
Hoffmann AA (2010) Physiological climate limits in Drosophila: patterns and implications.
Journal of Experimental Biology, 213, 870–880.
Hoffmann AA, Sørensen, JG, Loeschcke V, (2003). Adaptation of Drosophila to temperature
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Huey RB, Gilchrist GW, Carlson ML, Berriga D, Serra L (2000) Rapid evolution of a
geographic cline in size in an introduced fly. Science 287: 308–309.
Jenkins NL, Hoffmann AA (1999) Limits to the southern border of Drosophila serrata: cold
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Kalra, B. Parkash, R. (2014)a. Sex-specific divergence for body size and desiccation-related
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 CHAPTER THREE

TREND OF MAAWATH IN THE CHANGING CLIMATE SCENARIO

IN JAIPUR DISTRICT BETWEEN 1977 AND 2016

Dr. Harshita Upadhyaya

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
3.2 Station wise rainfall trend …………………………….......................................................................
3.3 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The basic climatic characteristics of precipitation and temperature impact the lives of people
critically in terms of socio- economic development. Climate has shown warming of 0.89°C
over the period 1901–2012 which is mainly attributed to anthropogenic activities (IPCC
2013). The newer studies predict the impact on India and other developing countries would
be particularly severe in the tropical areas (Sathaye et al., 2006). In the era of rapid growth in
India along with a very high direct dependence on agriculture it has to adapt to the climatic
changes and also has to device policies to sustain the economic challenges it will pose.

According to The State Level Climate Change Trends in India, a report published by the
Indian Meteorological Department in 2013 suggests that the “winter season rainfall has
shown increasing trends over Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Jammu
and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal. Winter rainfall trends have decreased over Andaman
and Nicobar, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Lakshadweep,
Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. However,
annual rainfall trends have significantly increased over Jammu and Kashmir (+1.88 mm/year)
and Meghalaya (+0.52 mm/year) and significantly decreased over Andaman and Nicobar (-
2.70 mm/year). However, Goa and Gujarat showed no trend in state averaged winter rainfall
during 1951-2010”.

The Indian Meteorological Department divides the year into following 4 seasons:
1. The winter season from January to February
2. The Pre-monsoon season from March to May
3. The southwest monsoon season from June to September
4. The post monsoon season from October to December
Jaipur district has a dry climate and receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon season
majorly. The present paper studies the trend of winter rainfall in the Jaipur district by
studying the trend of rainfall at each of the 13 Tehsil Headquarters for a period of 40 years
from 1977 to 2016. The data has been obtained from the official website of Government of
Rajasthan, Water Resource Department
(http://www.water.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/water/water-resources-department/Rainfall/
Rainfall data). If rainfall station wise data is studies than there are certain stations where there
is either increase or decrease but if the overall Jaipur district data is observed that there is a
slight increase in winter rainfall or ‘Maawath’ as it is locally known.

3.2 STATION WISE RAINFALL TREND

The rainfall station wise trend for each of the Tehsil Headquarters is as follows:
1. Amber Rainfall Station:
The Mean Winter rainfall recorded at this rainfall station during 1977 to 2016 is
7.82mm. There is a lot of variation in the rainfall trend, where approximately every 4 th
or 5th year has received more rainfall (See Figure 3.1). The average number of rainy
days is 1.43. The forecast trend line suggests that there is a regular decline in the
amount of rainfall received.
 Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Amber Rainfall Station (1977-2016)
90

80

Rainfall (mm) 70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
7

89

91

93

95

97

01

11

13

15
7

0
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

20
19

19

19

20

20
1
Figure 3.1: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Amber Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

2. Bairath Rainfall Station:

It can be observed that every 3rd year there is an increase in the rainfall received at this
station during the studied 40 years' data (See Figure 3.2). The average rainy days 0.82
with a very slight increase in the rainfall received as suggested by the trend line. The
average rainfall received is 10.43.

Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Bairath Rainfall Station (1977 -2016)

120

100
Rainfall (mm)

80

60

40

20

0
7

5
5

3
0

1
7

1
9

0
9

19

20

20

20
1

Figure 3.2: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Bairath Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

3. Bassi Rainfall Station:

The rainfall at this station has been generally low with a forecast of a slight increase
as per the trend line. During the early 90’s the region recorded high rainfall
specifically. The average number of rainy days is 0.75 and average rainfall is
7.50mm(See Figure 3.3). No particular pattern can be identified.
 Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Bassi Rainfall Station (1977-2016)
80

70

Rainfall (mm) 60

50

40

30

20

10

0
77

95

03

07

11

15
9
7

98

99

01
9

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

0
19

19

19

19

19

20

20
1

2
Figure 3.3: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Bassi Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

4. Chaksu Rainfall Station:

At the Chaksu Rainfall Station the trend line does not show much change in the trend,
and it can be observed that the rainfall amount is very likely to remain the same. Here
too generally 3rd or 4th year receives better rainfall (See Figure 3.4). The average rainy
day in the studied 40 years is 0.68 and average rainfall 0.68mm.
Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Chaksu Station (1977-2016)
80

70

60
Rainfall (mm)

50

40

30

20

10

0
7

5
7

1
9

0
1

Figure 3.4: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Chaksu Station (1977-2016)

5. Chomu Rainfall Station:

The average number of rainy days is 0.58 and average rainfall 0.749mm. The trend
line forecasts slight increase at this rainfall station where high rainfall was high during
1990 and 2010 to 2015 (See Figure 3.5). There is a general increase every 3 - 4 year.
 Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Chomu Rainfall Station (1977-2016)
120

100

80
Rainfall (mm)

60

40

20

0
7

5
8

1
7

1
9
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20
1

Figure 3.5: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Chomu Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

6. Dudu Rainfall Station:

The region is registering a regular decrease in winter rainfall and the same is being
predicted by the trend line. No specific pattern can be identified. The average number
of rainy days is 0.48 and the average rainfall is 5.6mm (See Figure 3.6).
Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Dudu Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

60

50
Rainfall (mm)

40

30

20

10

0
7

3
3

5
8

0
7

1
9

0
9

0
1

Figure 3.6: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Dudu Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

7. Jaipur Rainfall Station:

It can be observed that the rainfall trend at the Jaipur Rainfall station has been stable
with average rainy days being 0.72 and the average rainfall in the studied 40 years
being 8.43 mm (See Figure 3.7).
 Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Jaipur Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

90

80

70
Rainfall (mm)
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
7

5
1

1
7

1
7

1
9

0
9

0
1

2
Figure 3.7: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Jaipur Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

8. Jamwa Ramgarh Rainfall Station:

The trend line shows a regular decrease and predicts the same too. The rainfall in
winters has been low with no particular pattern. The average rainfall is 7.49mm and
the average rainy days 0.76 (See Figure 3.8).
Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Jamwa Ramgarh Rainfall Station (1977-
2016)
80

70

60
Rainfall (mm)

50

40

30

20

10

0
5
7

5
7

1
7

1
9

0
9

0
1

Figure 3.8: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Jamwa Ramgarh Rainfall Station
(1977-2016)

9. Kotputli Rainfall Station:

A slight but regular increase in winter rainfall can be observed (See Figure 3.9). The
rainfall station records the highest average winter rainfall of 13.01mm and the rainy
days are 1.01. No particular pattern is seen here.
 Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Kotputli Rainfall Station (1977-2016)
120

100
Rainfall (mm)
80

60

40

20

0
7

5
7

1
7

1
9

0
19

19

20

20
1

2
Figure 3.9: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Kotputli Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

10. Phagi Rainfall Station:

There is regular and sharp decline in winter rainfall at the Phagi rainfall station until
1995 the rainfall was higher as compared with its following years (See Figure 3.10).
The average rainy days are 0.63 and average winter in the studied 40 years is 7.67mm.

Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Phagi Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

60

50
Rainfall (mm)

40

30

20

10

0
7

5
7

1
9

0
1

Figure 3.10: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall of Phagi Rainfall Station (1977-2016)

11. Phulera Rainfall Station:

There is not much variation of rainfall at the Phulera station in its winter rainfall. No
particular pattern of rainfall can be identified here. The average rainy days are 0.51
and the average rainfall is 5.98mm (See Figure 3.11).
 Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Phulera Rainfall Station (1977-2016)
70

60

50
Rainfall (mm)

40

30

20

10

0
7

5
7

1
9

19

19

19

20

20

0
1

2
Figure 3.11: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Phulera Rainfall Station (1977-
2016)

12. Sanganer Rainfall Station:

There is an increase of rainfall that is observed at the Sanganer Rainfall station. The
region in the first 10-12 of the study period recorded a very low or negligible rain fall
which increased gradually in particular pattern. The average rainy days are5.73 with
0.57mm as average winter season rainfall from 1977 to 2016 which can be observed
in Figure 3.12.
Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Sanganer Rainfall Station (1977-2016)
70

60

50
Rainfall (mm)

40

30

20

10

0
7

5
7

1
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

Figure 3.12: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Sanganer Rainfall Station (1977-
2016)

13. Shahpura Rainfall Station:

With a general pattern of increase of rainfall every 4 th to 5th year, the Shahpura
Rainfall station records a regular increase in the rainfall (See Figure 3.13). The trend
line suggests there will be a continuing increase in rainfall here. The average rainy
days are 0.73 and the average winter rainfall is 11.12 mm.
 Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Shahpura Rainfall Station (1977-2016)
140

120

100
Rainfall (mm)

80

60

40

20

0
19 9
19 0
19 1
19 2
19 3
19 4
19 5
19 6
19 7
19 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 7
20 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
16
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
19

Figure 3.13: Mean Annual Winter Rainfall at Shahpura Rainfall Station (1977-
2016)

3.3 CONCLUSION
Climate Change is a global phenomenon. Its impact can’t be altered but by identifying the
vulnerable areas and being prepared can be the only solution. One of the indications of
Climate Change is rise in temperature. The state of Rajasthan has specifically been a region
of very high temperature and this characteristic makes it a vulnerable region. The situation of
Jaipur district is on the East of the Aravallis and gets slightly higher rainfall and has
comparatively lesser temperature that the Western Thar Desert of Rajasthan. ‘Maawth’ or
winter rainfall is considered a blessing for many of the traditional crops grown in the state of
Rajasthan and Jaipur District.
From Figure 3.14, it can be observed that the district has a trend of slight increase in the
amount of Maawth received year after year during the studied time period of 40 years from
1977 to 2016. The forecast trend line predicts slight continuous increase in the future as well.
The other line depicting the two period moving averages shows the actual variation of
rainfall. But no particular pattern can be identified and predicted.
 Figure 3.14: Total Annual Winter Rainfall-jaipur District (1977-2016)

In the Figure 3.15 it can be observed that the two period moving averages being the same as
the Total Annual Winter rainfall and here too the forecast trend line predicts a constant
increase in the number of Maawath days in Jaipur District.

Figure 3.15: Total Annual Winter Rainy Days- Jaipur District (1977-2016)
The challenges posed by changing climate can be dealt with only through educating masses
about it especially the ones involved in the agrarian societies. Well-coordinated major
initiatives at international level and all the levels of national governance need to be
introduced.

References

Bhuiyan, C., W. A. Flügel and R. P. Singh (2009) Erratic monsoon, growing water demand,
and declining water table. Journal of Spatial Hydrology. 9, 1-19.
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100 years. Journal of Indian Geophysical Union. 9, 173-187.
Department of Environment (2010) Rajasthan State Environment Policy 2010, including
Rajasthan Environment Mission. Government of Rajasthan.
Government of Rajasthan (2011) Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change.
Guhathakurta, P., O. P. Sreejith and P. A. Menon (2011) Impact of climate change on
extreme rainfall events and flood risk in India. Journal Earth System Science. 120,
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Indian Meteorological Department (1988) Climate of Rajasthan State, Government of India,
New Delhi.
Indian Meteorological Department (2010) Climate of Rajasthan State, Government of India,
New Delhi.
IPCC, 2013. “Climate Change 2013 - The Physical Science Basis”. Cambridge University
Press, U.K. 1535 p.
Sathaye, J., Shukla, P.R. and Ravindranath, N.H. (2006) Climate change, sustainable
development and India: Global and national concerns. Current Science, 90, 3, 314-325.
Rathore, L.S., S D Attri and A K Jaswal (2013). State Level Climate Change Trends in
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India. New Delhi.
Upadhyaya, Harshita (2014). Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context
of Water Resource with Reference to Rajasthan. PhD. Thesis, The IIS (deemed-to-be)
University.

CHAPTER FOUR

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON GROUNDWATER RESOURCES

Bijendra Kumar

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
4.2 Effect of Climate change on Water Resources
 4.3 ………………………………………………................
Conclusion ……………………………..……………………………………………………......................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

Water is crucial for life, but its accessibility at a sustainable quality and quantity is
endangered by many factors, of which climate plays a leading role. Climate change may
affect both the long-term availability and the short-term variability of water resources in
many regions. Climate change will change the world of the present situation of the
hydrologic cycle, and cause the re-distribution of water resources in time and space. Changes
in global climate are expected to affect the hydrological cycle, altering surface-water levels
and groundwater recharge to aquifers with various other associated impacts on natural
ecosystems and human activities. It also will have a direct effect on the evaporation, runoff,
and the soil humidity and so on. The impacts of climate change are also likely to be more
profound for unconfined aquifer systems, which may respond rapidly to changes in the
recharge regime. The redistribution and changes of water resources in space will cause the
human society and ecology change a lot. Increases in runoff, flooding, or sea level rise can
reduce the quality of water and can harm aquatic organisms that live in cold-water habitats.
This paper presents the likely impact of climate change on groundwater resources, climate
change scenario for groundwater, status of research studies carried out, and hydrological
variability of groundwater resources.
Keywords: Hydrological cycle; Recharge; Temperature, Precipitation, quality and quantity

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the
climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer).
Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing, or to persistent
anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land-use. Ever since the
Industrial Revolution began about 150 years ago, man-made activities have added significant
quantities of greenhouse gases (GHGs) to the atmosphere. Shifting weather patterns threatens
the food production through increased unpredictability of precipitation, rising sea levels,
contaminated coastal freshwater reserves and increase the risk of catastrophic flooding, and a
warming atmosphere aids the pole-ward spread of pests and diseases once limited to the
tropics. The rapid change in climate results in sea level rise, global temperature rise, warming
of oceans, shrinking of ice-sheets and ocean acidification [16]. Impact of climate change
possesses risk with respect to the ecosystem, coasts, water resources, industries, settlements,
society and health. The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by
an unprecedented combination of climate change, associated disturbances (e.g. flooding,
drought, wildfire, insects, and ocean acidification) and other global change drivers.
Approximately 20 to 30% of plant and animal species assessed so far are likely to be at
increased risk of extinction if increases in global average temperature exceed 1.5 to 2.5°C.
Coasts are projected to be exposed to increasing risks, including coastal erosion, due to
climate change and sea level rise. By the 2080s, many millions more people than today are
projected to experience floods every year due to sea level rise. The numbers affected will be
largest in the densely populated and low-lying mega deltas of Asia and Africa while small
islands are especially vulnerable. The most vulnerable industries, settlements and societies
are generally those in coastal and river flood plains, those whose economies are closely
linked with climate-sensitive resources and those in areas prone to extreme weather events.
The health status of millions of people is projected to be affected through, for example,
increases in malnutrition; increased deaths, diseases and injury due to extreme weather
events; increased burden of diarrhoea diseases; increased frequency of cardio-respiratory
diseases due to higher concentrations of ground-level ozone in urban areas related to climate
change [15]. Climate change have significant effect on polar regions, which results in
reduction in thickness and extent of glaciers, ice sheets and sea ice, and changes in natural
ecosystems with detrimental effects on many organisms including migratory birds, mammals
and higher predators. The uptake of anthropogenic carbon since 1750 has led to the ocean
becoming more acidic with an average decrease in pH of 0.1 units. Increasing atmospheric
CO2 concentrations lead to further acidification. Projections based on SRES scenarios give a
reduction in average global surface ocean pH of between 0.14 and 0.35 units over the 21 st
century. Sea level rise is expected to exacerbate inundation, storm surge, erosion and other
coastal hazards, thus threatening vital infrastructure, settlements and facilities that support the
livelihood of island communities [15]. The ever-increasing emissions of greenhouse gases
from various sources have led to catastrophic climate changes including the well pronounced
global warming. Global warming is a problem in which the combustion of coal, oil and other
fossil fuels causes the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs such as carbon dioxide to
increase. This result in mounting global air temperatures that leads to climate change.
Specifically, global warming will cause a rise in sea levels, changes in the rainfall patterns,
global circulation pattern and other problems. Climate change will change the current
situation of the hydrological cycle, evaporation, runoff and soil humidity and cause
redistribution of water resources in space and time which results in drought and flood
conditions in different parts of the world and it indirectly affects the crop production, fresh
water availability, forest damage, erosion problems and different resource crisis all over the
world. This paper will discuss the effect of climate change on GHGs emission, precipitation
and rise in global mean temperature which indirectly affects the different world resources like
water resources, air quality, soil property and biodiversity essential of human kind and
economic growth. In the flowing section we will discuss the effect of climate change on
water resources, air quality, soil property and biodiversity which are the global resources for
human kind.

4.2 EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES

Climate change may affect both the long-term availability and the short-term variability of
water resources in many regions. Potential regional impacts of climate change could include
increased frequency and magnitude of droughts and floods, and long-term changes in mean
renewable water supplies through changes in precipitation, temperature, humidity, and wind
intensity, duration of accumulated snowpack, nature and extent of vegetation, soil moisture,
and runoff [12]. The water resources and the hydrologic cycle is a very important link of
climate change. The effect of climate change on water resources is because of the water and
water quality changes that caused by climate factors (mainly includes rainfall and
temperature changes). Climate change will change the world of the present situation of the
hydrologic cycle, and cause the redistribution of water resources in time and space. It also
will have a direct effect on the evaporation, runoff, and the soil humidity and so on. The
redistribution and changes of water resources in space will cause the human society and
ecology change a lot. At the same time, the water resources system changes will affect the
local climate, and will exacerbate climate change in a certain extent. Climate change will
cause water cycle changes, for watershed water cycle, in a great degree, its characteristics are
decided by local climate conditions. The climate system, directly or indirectly affect the
process of water circulation by precipitation, temperature, sunlight, wind, humidity and other
factors [11]. Climate also exerts many secondary effects; for example, on the capacity of
systems to transport pollutants to water bodies and to dilute concentrations of these
pollutants. In addition, climate plays an important role in determining the capability of land to
be used in different ways, particularly for intensive agricultural production which can also be
an important contributor to diffuse pollution [6]. In recent decades, scientific research has
been carried out to better understand how water resources might respond to global change.
Projections from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) show significant
global warming and alterations in frequency and amount of precipitation from year 2000 to
2100. These changes in global climate are expected to affect the hydrological cycle, altering
surface-water levels and groundwater recharge to aquifers with various other associated
impacts on natural ecosystems and human activities. Although the most noticeable impacts of
climate change could be changes in surface water levels and quality. As far as groundwater is
concerned, groundwater resources have been affected by a number of non-climatic forcings,
especially since the 1950s, such as contamination, reduction in streamflow (reduction in
recharge), and lowering of the water table and loss of storage due to groundwater mining
(primarily for irrigated agriculture). The fourth assessment report of the IPCC (2007)
reinforces that consistent climate changes are underway and that the anticipated sea level rise,
temperature increase and precipitation changes will affect freshwater resources, both in terms
of quantity and quality. The IPCC has put forward several development scenarios that result
in different climate change impacts to water resources, but in any case it is likely that coastal
aquifers in arid and semi-arid regions will suffer negative impacts from climate change,
notably due to changes in the recharge pattern and to encroachment due to the rising seawater
level. The IPCC reference scenario indicates that by 2099 the estimated global sea level rise
can reach up to 48 cm, with an average temperature increase in the west Mediterranean of
2.80C and a mean precipitation decrease of around 12% [5]. One of the effects of climate
change, global warming also affects the water resources through variations in
evapotranspiration rate, precipitation and run-off. Warming induced changes to
evapotranspiration may also affect regional water availability. Observations from various
countries in the Northern Hemisphere show that pan evaporation has been steadily decreasing
for the past fifty years, contrary to the expectation that warming would cause increased
evaporation. Two proposals exist to explain this paradox. First, decreasing pan evaporation
trends may be indicative of increasing actual (as opposed to potential) evapotranspiration in
moisture-limited regions because increased land surface evaporation alters the humidity
regime surrounding the pan, causing the air over the pan to be cooler and more humid.
Second, consistent declines of pan evaporation, diurnal temperature range, and global solar
irradiance suggest that actual evapotranspiration is also declining because of increased
cloudiness and concentrations of atmospheric aerosols that systematically reduce surface
energy availability for evaporation [4]. Changes in river flows, as well as lake and wetland
levels, due to climate change depend primarily on changes in the volume and timing of
precipitation and, crucially, whether precipitation falls as snow or rain. Changes in
evaporation also affect river flows. A large number of studies has examined potential trends
in measures of river discharge during the 20th century, at scales ranging from catchment to
global. Some have detected significant trends in some indicators of flow, and some have
demonstrated statistically significant links with trends in temperature or precipitation. At the
global scale, there is evidence of a broadly coherent pattern of change in annual runoff, with
some regions experiencing an increase in runoff (e.g., high latitudes and large parts of the
USA) and others (such as parts of West Africa, southern Europe and southernmost South
America) experiencing a decrease in runoff. As a result of changing climate, the most
important changes in the environmental conditions of water-dependent ecosystems are likely
to involve hydrological regimes, including floodplain inundation and the extent and
seasonality of aquatic environments. The changing climate may also affect freshwater–
seawater gradients, where rivers meet oceans. Additionally, changing aquatic thermal
regimes, density stratification of water bodies, depletion of dissolved oxygen and variation in
biogeochemical processes could occur. Climate change also impacts drivers such as land use
change (e.g. deforestation), dams and other hydrological alterations, and water extraction for
consumptive use; all of which in turn affect aquatic biogeochemical processes [3].

4.3 CONCLUSION

We can see from above observations and discussions that climate plays a very important role
in maintaining different resources of the world which are essential for the development of
human beings and economic growth of any country. Warming of climate due to global
warming rises the global mean surface temperature by 0.60C over last 100 years which results
in melting of ice sheets in Polar Regions, increase in the level of sea and salinization of
coastal aquifers due to intrusion of sea water. Increase in concentration of various gases in
atmosphere alters the radiation budget of the earth which in turn affects the hydrological
cycle, precipitation and evaporation rate. These variations affect the recharge rate of
groundwater and flow rate of water in river basins. Climate change affects the
evapotranspiration of soil moisture and variations in organic matter, organic carbon and
nitrogen of soil by alteration in biogeochemical cycles. Thus, changes in climatic system
ultimately cause large scale damage to the world resources which are essential for the growth
of human beings.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

WORTH OF BIODIVERSITY: A REVIEW

Dr. Ranjeeta Soni

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
5.2 Direct value of biodiversity.............................................................................................................
5.2.1 Direct value of biodiversity....................................................................................................
5.2.2 Indirect values or Non-Consumptive value............................................................................
5.2.3 Social values...........................................................................................................................
5.2.4 Ethical and Moral value.........................................................................................................
5.2.5 Economical value...................................................................................................................
5.2.6 Aesthetic value.......................................................................................................................
5.2.7 Ecological value....................................................................................................................
5.2.8 Scientific value or Educational value....................................................................................
5.2.9 Cultural and Spiritual value..................................................................................................
5.2.10 Option value.........................................................................................................................
Ecological role of Biodiversity.......................................................................................................
5.3 Biodiversity Conservation..............................................................................................................
5.4 5.4.1 Strategies for Conservation of Biodiversity...........................................................................
5.4.2 Conservation Methods............................................................................................................
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................
5.5
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

Abstract
Biodiversity means the existence of a large number of different kinds of animals and plants
which make a balanced environment. According to convention on biological diversity (CBD)
Biodiversity is present in terrestrial, ocean and aquatic ecosystem. This diversity present in
between same species different and in different ecosystem. Genetic biodiversity is referred to
the various kinds of genes which exists among individual species. Genetic diversity is one of
the key of successful agriculture. Species biodiversity refers to the existence of diverse
species within the same genera and also the variety of species within a region. It is reflected
by morphological, physiological and genetic features. Ecosystem biodiversity refers to the
various type of ecosystem and the variety of habitat. Plant provides us with food, timber, fuel
wood, drugs, insecticides, essential oil, bamboos, grasses, fibers, spices, pulses, gum, resin,
rubber, coffee and many miscellaneous products. Animals provide lot of products like meat,
eggs, fur, medicine, oil, dung, musk, ivory, sports. Animals are used in research areas.
Animals are used in transportation and agriculture. Plants and animals are useful in ecological
way. Plants maintain rainfall, humidity, temperature, wind velocity, prevent soil erosion and
degradation, maintain ground water table, protection from global warming, natural sink for
pollutants, act as a desert barrier etc. Animals maintain ecological balance in form of food
chain and biogeochemical cycle. Animals act as scavengers and also help in pollination and
seed dispersal. Many species of plants and animals have ethical values. Many factors are
responsible for depletion of biodiversity. Anthropogenic reasons like habitat loss due to
industries, experiments, residential colonies, environmental pollution, overexploitation,
introduction of exotic species are more responsible than the natural reasons.
Keywords: Biodiversity, Ecosystem, plants, animals.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity or biological diversity simply means the variety and variability among living
organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. Such variety refers to the
variety at the species, genetic and ecosystem level.
Types of Biodiversity: Biodiversity can be studies at three different levels:
1) Species diversity
2) Genetic diversity
3) Ecosystem diversity
In general, a species is a group of similar organisms capable of interbreeding with each other.
Members of the same species generally have many similar physical or morphological
(structural) characteristics. Species biodiversity refer to the different species in a particular
region.
Species diversity can be measured in many ways. Ecologists generally use the terms species
richness, species abundance or species evenness to estimate species diversity. Species
diversity is generally measured by estimating the species richness. Species richness refers to
the total number of individuals of a species in a given area. Thus, if there are 20 daisy plants
in an area of 10 square kilometers then the species abundance will be 20. Many ecologists
also use the concept of species evenness in measuring species diversity. Species evenness is a
measure of the relative abundance of the different species making up the richness of an area.
Orange, Malta, sweet limes, lemon species belong to same citrus family.
The more the species diversity in an area is, the healthier the ecosystem will be. We must
realize that every organism performs some functions in the ecosystem. Such functions could
range from decomposition to keeping the population of herbivores under control. What would
happen to the ecosystem if any one species got extinct? Who would then perform that
functions? In such a case species diversity helps in the survival in an ecosystem. They could
be bacteria, fungi or insects. What if one of these got extinct? The others would still be able
to decompose and so the ecosystem would survive. This is only one example where species
diversity helps ecosystems survive. There are many more.
Genetic diversity refers to the existence of a variety of genes in a population of a particular
species. All humans belong to the same species (Homo sapiens). Yet there are so many
differences in the colour, features and other traits between humans. This is due to genetic
diversity. Individual members of a particular species have some broad similarities. It is due to
genetic diversity that individual members show some distinct characters. For example, all
humans will have some common characters like the presence of hair or eyes. But due to
genetic diversity the colour of eyes or hair in humans differs in different individual humans.
High genetic diversity ensures better survival of the species. Nature has a system called
natural selection. The natural selection concept was stated by Charles Darwin. Natural
selection means that nature decides whether an organism will survive or not. Nature is
dynamic and keeps undergoing changes. These changes in the environment of an organism
will obviously affect the organism. Those organisms that are able to adapt to these changes
will survive while those that cannot adapt will not. In this process of natural selection genetic
diversity plays a very important role. The more the genetic diversity, the more are the
chances of survival of a species.
Diversity which results because of different ecosystem (Example, desert, forest, marine,
grassland etc.) is referred as ecosystem diversity. Ecosystem diversity is the assemblage and
interaction of species living together and the physical environment present there. In a broader
way, it is also called landscape diversity which includes placement and size of various
ecosystems. For example, landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains etc. As well
as aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes and seas—all show ecosystem diversity. Thus, there
is a large variety of different ecosystems on Earth, each having its own complement of
distinctive interlinked species based on the differences in the habitat. Ecosystem diversity
involves different part of ecosystem like niches, trophic levels, energy flow, food chain and
recycling of nutrients.
5.2 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

5.2.1 Direct value of biodiversity

These are those ways by which we can directly use biodiversity for our benefit. For example,
we can use plants as food of for deriving medicines in the laboratory. Economic value and
recreational value comes under this category.
Direct values are further classified into:
 Consumptive use Value: Consumptive use value is the value put on the products of
nature which are consumed directly without passing through a market. For example, if
we use firewood by cutting down a tree or consume an animal after hunting it.
 Productive use value: Productive use value is the value put on the products of nature
which are consumed after passing through a market. For example, if we buy fish from
the market then it will have productive use value.
5.2.2 Indirect values or Non-Consumptive value
These are those ways by which we don't physically use a plant or animal, but by virtue of its
existence it provides services that keep the ecosystem healthy. Indirect values would include
ethical or moral value, existence value, ecological value, aesthetic value, cultural or spiritual
value, option value and scientific or educational value.
5.2.3 Social values
Social value of biodiversity lies in the more and more use of resources by affluent societies.
Local use or sale of products if biodiversity is not included in it. Yet, 'ecosystem people'
value biodiversity as a part of their livelihood as well as through cultural and religious
sentiments. Now a days Government is spending a lot of money on lush green vegetation and
Coral Reef Island for the purpose of tourism. Apart from traditional agricultural systems, in
recent years, farmers have begun to receive economic incentives to grow each crop for
national or international markets rather than to supply local needs. This has resulted in local
food shortages, unemployment, landlessness and increased tendency to drought and floods.
5.2.4 Ethical and Moral value
Every species has its moral right to exist on earth. Every human culture, religion and society
has its own ethical values. There are several cultural, moral and ethical values, which are
associated with the conservation of biodiversity. We have in our country a large number of
sacred grooves or deolis preserved by tribal people in several States. These sacred groves
around ancient sacred sites and temples act as gene banks for wild plants.
5.2.5 Economical value
We depend heavily on biological products for our survival. Biodiversity has economic value
because it is a source of important products.
Some of these products are:
 Food supplies: Agriculture, the very basis of human survival, depends on plants and
animals.
 Source of medicines: A large number of medicines are obtained from plants and
animals. Cinchonas, Belladonna are important medicinal plants. Snake venom is used
in making medicines.
 Source of raw materials for industries.
 It supports the economy of a country. Industries and agriculture generate revenue or
income. They also generate employment. In fact, the economy of many countries is
heavily dependent on biodiversity.
5.2.6 Aesthetic value
Nature contributes immensely to the beauty of the world. Can you imagine a world without
trees, grass, flowers, birds or animals? Thus, biodiversity has immense aesthetic value for us.
5.2.7 Ecological value
Every species plays a unique role in the ecosystem. Through this role its maintains the
ecological balance. Thus, the ecosystems don't get disrupted. So, even if we do not use a
plant or animal for making products in our industries, by virtue of its very existence in the
wild it provides us with many important services. These services maintain ecological balance
and the ecosystem.
Some of these services are:
Waste Management: Nature has a unique way of managing wastes. The waste of one
organism becomes food for another organism. So, wastes don't accumulate. For example,
forests absorb greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. This helps to
reduce global warming. Forests also contribute to precipitation due to transpiration. Many
other plants and animals help to keep forests healthy. So, the entire biodiversity contributes
towards maintaining climate stability.
5.2.8 Scientific value or Educational value
Biodiversity is of great scientific value. Many species of plants and animals are the subjects
of our research. We use many species for research and in turn get a lot of knowledge from
their study. Through research on plants, insects and animals we find better ways of making
medicines, hybrid plants, engineering designs and many other things that are of immense
value to human beings. For example, the design of Velcro is developed from cockle-burrs
which cling fast to clothing as we walk in the woods.
5.2.9 Cultural and Spiritual value
Many cultures of human beings are closely related to many species of plants and animals. For
example, Hindus Identify owls as the transport of Goddess Lakshmi. Many religions identify
themselves with such plants and animals which renders to them a cultural or spiritual value.
5.2.10 Option value
There are many plants and animals which have not yet been discovered or even if they have
been discovered we do not know if they can be of any use to us. This untapped potential is
referred to as option value. For example, there might be a plant or animal which we can use
in the future to find a cure for corner. If we destroy biodiversity, then we lose this chance of
finding a cure for cancer. Thus biodiversity has great potential of being useful to us in the
future.

5.3 ECOLOGICAL ROLE OF BIODIVERSITY

All the species in ecosystem participate in the numerous ecological processes that occur
within and between the ecosystems. Each of the species has a specific role to play in the
ecosystem.
Some of these are:
1. Cycling of water and nutrients: These are done mostly by the plants, animals and
microbes. Not only this, non-living components like air, water and solar energy are
also attached with this.
2. Food production: Plans are directly or indirectly related with food production. They
are the sole source of food. Hence they are called primary producer. Though food
chain and food web, this food is transferred from one organism to other.
3. Climatic stability: Vegetation and plantation of an area are mostly responsible for the
climate of that area. A forest is one of the main sources of rain which in turn control
climate. Thus rich plant- diversity has a better control of climatic stability.
4. Reduction in pollution: There are some natural ways for controlling pollution. Some
micro-organisms as well as some plants and animals have the capacity to breakdown
pollution, thus helping in pollution reduction.
 5. Soil generation and reduction in soil erosion: Diverse living organisms both plants
and animals in a long run help in the formation of soil. Abiotic factors help in this
process.
6. Production of energy or producers: Though energy is the prime requirement of all the-
living organisms, sun is the sole source of energy. Green plants or producers are the
only medium which can convert solar energy into chemical energy. This energy in
turn is used by all the living organisms in the biosphere.
7. Consumers: All the other animals which are directly or indirectly take plants as their
food resources are consumers. All the herbivores and carnivores are called consumers.
8. Reduction in natural calamities: Natural calamities like drought, flood, earthquake etc.
are often the result of loss or destruction of biodiversity. Healthy ecosystem has the
capability of quick recovery from any natural calamities. Rich biodiversity also
lessens the occurrence of natural calamities.
9. Decomposers and decomposition: Micro-organisms decompose the dead plant and
animal body or organic material and thus help in the recycling of materials. This
process is A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and
energy pass as one organism eats another. Let's look at the parts of a typical food
chain, starting from the bottom—the producers—and moving upward.
 At the base of the food chain lie the primary producers. The primary producers are
autotrophs and are most often photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, or
cyanobacteria.
 The organisms that eat the primary producers are called primary consumers. Primary
consumers are usually herbivores, plant-eaters, though they may be algae eaters or
bacteria eaters.
 The organisms that eat the primary consumers are called secondary consumers.
Secondary consumers are generally meat-eaters—carnivores.
 The organisms that eat the secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers. These
are carnivore-eating carnivores, like eagles or big fish.
 Some food chains have additional levels, such as quaternary consumers—carnivores
that eat tertiary consumers. Organisms at the very top of a food chain are called apex
consumers.
The green algae are primary producers that get eaten by molluscs—the primary consumers.
The molluscs then become lunch for the slimy sculpin fish, a secondary consumer, which is
itself eaten by a larger fish, the Chinook salmon—a tertiary consumer.
Biodiversity is being depleted by the loss of habitat, fragmentation of habitat, over
exploitation of resources, human sponsored ecosystems, climatic changes, pollution invasive
exotic spices, diseases, shifting cultivation, poaching of wild life etc.
Since the human beings are enjoying all the benefits from biodiversity, they should take
proper care for the preservation of biodiversity in all its form and good health for the future
generation i.e., the human being should prevent the degradation and destruction of the
habitats thereby maintaining the biodiversity at its optimum level.

5.4 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Conservation of biodiversity is protection, upliftment and scientific management of

biodiversity so as to maintain it at its threshold level and derive sustainable benefits for the
present and future generation. In other words, conservation of bio-diversity is the proper
management of the biosphere by human beings in such a way that it gives maximum benefits
for the present generation and also develops its potential so as to meet the needs of the future
generations.
Mainly the conservation of biodiversity has three basic objectives:
(a) To maintain essential ecological processes and life supporting systems.
(b) To preserve the diversity of species.
(c) To make sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems.
5.4.1 Strategies for Conservation of Biodiversity
(1) All the possible varieties (old or new) of food, forage and timber plants, livestock,
agriculture animals and microbes should be conserved.
(2) All the economically important organisms in protected areas should be identified and
conserved.
(3) Critical habitats for each species should be identified and safeguarded.
(4) Priority should be given to preserve unique ecosystems.
(5) There should be sustainable utilization of resources.
(6) International trade in wild life should be highly regulated.
(7) The poaching and hunting of wildlife should be prevented as far as practicable.
(8) Care should be taken for the development of reserves and protected areas.
(9) Efforts should be made to reduce the level of pollutants in the environment.
(10) Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity and its importance for the
living organisms.
(11) Priority should be given in wildlife conservation programme to endangered species over
vulnerable species and to vulnerable species over rare species.
(12) The habitats of migratory birds should be protected by bilateral and multilateral
agreement.
(13) The over exploitation of useful products of wild life should be prevented.
(14) The useful animals, plants and their wild relatives should be protected both in their
natural habitat (in-situ) and in zoological botanical gardens (ex-situ).
(15) Efforts should be made for setting up of National parks and wild life sanctuaries to
safeguard the genetic diversity and their continuing evolution.
(16) Environmental laws should be strictly followed.
5.4.2 Conservation Methods
There are two types of conservation methods namely in-situ and ex-situ conservations.
(a) In situ conservation:
The conservation of species in their natural habitat or natural ecosystem is known as in situ
conservation. In the process, the natural surrounding or ecosystem is protected and
maintained so that all the constituent species (known or unknown) are conserved and
benefited. The factors which are detrimental to the existence of species concerned are
eliminated by suitable mechanism.
The different advantages of in situ conservation are as follows:
(a) If is a cheap and convenient way of conserving biological diversity.
(b) It offers a way to preserve a large number of organisms simultaneously, known or
unknown to us.
(c) The existence in natural ecosystem provides opportunity to the living organisms to adjust
to differed’ environmental conditions and to evolve in to a better life form.
The only disadvantage of in situ conservation is that it requires large space of earth which is
often difficult because of growing demand for space. The protection and management of
biodiversity through in situ conservation involve certain specific areas known as protected
areas which include national parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves.
1. Protected areas:
The protected areas are biogeographical areas where biological diversity along with natural
and cultural resources are protected, maintained and managed through legal and
administrative measures. The demarcation of biodiversity in each area is determined on the
basis of climatic and physiological conditions.
In these areas, hunting, firewood collection, timber harvesting etc. are prohibited so that the
wild plants and animals can grow and multiply freely without any hindrance. Some protected
areas are: Cold desert (Ladakh and Spiti), Hot desert (Thar), Saline Swampy area (Sunderban
and Rann of Kutch), Tropical moist deciduous forest (Western Ghats and north East) etc.
Protected areas include national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves. There are 37,000
protected areas throughout the world. As per World Conservation Monitoring Centre, India
has 581 protected areas, national parks and sanctuaries.
2. National parks:
These are the small reserves meant for the protection of wild life and their natural habitats.
These are maintained by government. The area of national parks ranges between 0.04 to 3162
km. The boundaries are well demarcated and circumscribed. The activities like grazing
forestry, cultivation and habitat manipulation are not permitted in these areas. There are about
89 national parks in India.
Some important national Parks of India are:
(i) Biological Park, Nandankanan, Orissa,
(ii) Corbett National Park Nainital, U.P. (First national Park)
(iii) Koziranga National Park, Jorhat, Assam
(iv) Tudula National Park, Maharashtra
(v) Hazaribagh National Park, Hazaribagh, Bihar
(vi) Band havgarh National park, M.P.
(vii) Bandipur National park, Karnataka.
(viii) Kanha National Park, M.P.
(ix) Reibul Lamjao National Park, Manipur
(x) Nawgaon National Park, Maharashtra
3. Sanctuaries:
These are the areas where only wild animals (fauna) are present. The activities like harvesting
of timbers, collection of forest products, cultivation of lands etc. are permitted as long as
these do not interfere with the project. That is, controlled biotic interference is permitted in
sanctuaries, which allows visiting of tourists for recreation. The area under a sanctuary
remains in between 0.61 to 7818 km.
Some important sanctuaries of Orissa are as follows:
(i) Nandankanan Zoological Park
(ii) Chandaka Elephant reserve
(iii) Simlipal Tiger Reserve
(iv) Bhitarkanika Wild life Sanctuary
(v) Gharial project at Tikarpada
(vi) Chilika (Nalaban) Sanctuary
4. Biosphere reserves:
Biosphere reserves or natural reserves are multipurpose protected areas with boundaries
circumscribed by legislation. The main aim of biosphere reserve is to preserve genetic
diversity in representative ecosystems by protecting wild animals, traditional life style of
inhabitant and domesticated plant/ animal genetic resources. These are scientifically managed
allowing only the tourists to visit.
Some importance of biosphere reserves are as follows:
(a) These help in the restoration of degraded ecosystem.
(b) The main role of these reserves is to preserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems, and
habitats without disturbing the habitants.
(c) These maintain cultural, social and ecologically sustainable economic developments.
(d) These support education and research in various ecological aspects.
Some important biosphere reserves are:
Simlipal, (Orissa), Sunderban (West Bengal), Kanha (M.P), Kaziranga (Assam) etc. The
biosphere reserve network was introduced by UNESCO 1971.
(b) Ex-situ conservation:
Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plants and animals
under partially or wholly controlled conditions in specific areas like zoo, gardens, nurseries
etc. That is, the conservation of selected plants and animals in selected areas outside their
natural habitat is known as ex-situ conservation.
The stresses on living organisms due to competition for food, water, space etc. can be
avoided by ex-situ conservation there by providing conditions necessary for a secure life and
breeding.
Some important areas under these conservations are:
(i) Seed gene bank
(ii) Field gene bank
(iii) Botanical gardens
(iv) Zoos
The strategies for ex-situ conservations are:
(i) Identification of species to be conserved.
(ii) Adoption of Different ex-situ methods of conservation.
(i) Long-term captive breeding and propagation for the species which have lost their habitats
permanently.
(ii) Short-term propagation and release of the animals in their natural habitat
(iii) Animal translocation.
(iv) Animal reintroduction.
(v) Advanced technology in the service of endangered species.
The different advantages of ex-situ conservation are:
(a) It gives longer life time and breeding activity to animals.
(b) Genetic techniques can be utilised in the process.
(c) Captivity breed species can again be reintroduced in the wild.
Some disadvantages of this method are:
(a) The favorable conditions may not be maintained always.
(b) Mew life forms cannot evolve.
(c) This technique involves only few species.
Hot Spots:
Hot spots are the areas with high density of biodiversity or mega diversity which are most
threatened at present. There are 16 hot spots in world, out of which two are located in India
namely North-East Himalayas and Western Ghats.
The hot spots are determined considering four factors:
(i) Degrees of endemism
(ii) Degree of expectation
(iii) Degrees of threat to habitat due to its degradation and fragmentation and
(iv) Number of Species diversity
The global hot spot and endemic species present within them are:
(i) North East Himalayas (3,500);
(ii) Western Ghats (1,600);
(iii) Cape region of South Africa (6,000);
(iv) Upland Western Amazonia (5,000);
(v) Madagascar (4,900);
(vi) Philippines (3,700);
(vii) Boreo (3,500);
(viii) South West Australia (2,830);
(ix) Western Ecuador (2,500);
(x) Colombian Choco (2,500);
(xi) Peninsular Malaysia (2,400);
(xii) Californian Floristic Province (2,140);
(xiii) Central Chile (1,450);
(xiv) Eastern Arc. Mts (Tanzania) (535);
(xv) South West Srilanka (500);
(xvi) South West Tvorie (200).

5.5 CONCLUSION

Biodiversity is the main source of ecosystem and knowing the importance of biodiversity in
various fields they are very useful for us. But due to threats of many anthropogenic reasons as
well as natural calamities we are destroying our precious species so need to conserve all the
species with development. Various conservation methods can help to protect the biodiversity
but among all conservation methods awareness of public and strict implementation of acts
and legislation should be follow by the public and government also.
References:

1. Biju SD: A synopsis to the frog fauna of the Western Ghats, India. Occasional publication
of ISCB. 2001, 1-24. Google Scholar
2. Chapin, F. S. et al. Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature 405, 234–242 (2000).
3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
http://www.cites.org (1979)
4. Myers N: The biodiversity challenge: Expanded hot-spots analysis. Environmentalist.
1990, 10 (4): 243-256. 10.1007/BF02239720. View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
5. Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GA, Kent J: Biodiversity hotspots
for conservation priorities. Nature. 2000, 403 (6772): 853-858. 10.1038/35002501.View
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
 CHAPTER SIX

THE ROLE OF LOCAL PEOPLE IN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

OF SAKAMBHARI CONSERVATION RESERVE (SCR), RAJASTHAN,
INDIA

Tara Chand Saini & Surendra Singh Chauhan

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
6.2 Study area
6.3 Methodology
6.4 Results
6.5 Conservation methods
6.6 Discussions
6.7 Conclusions
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

This study is carried out by the interviews of the local people of Shakambhari conservation
Reserve (SCR) during 2013-2016. The study is based on 88 interviews of the local people
from 20 villages. Most people accepted about loss of the biodiversity during last 20 years.
Main causes of loss of biodiversity are deforestation and low rainfall. They conserve the
biodiversity of the site through sacred groves forest. They also suggested some methods of
biodiversity conservation.
Keywords: Shakambhari Conservation Reserve, Local people, Interview, Bani (sacred
groves), loss of biodiversity, biodiversity conservation.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Besides various laws, local communities in many parts of the world play very important role
in protection and conservation of biodiversity. One of such indigenous practice is the
protection through sacred groves. These are patches of virgin forest which are left
undisturbed and protected by local inhabitants in the name of religious and cultural beliefs
and taboos that the local deities or ancestral spirits resides in them (K.C. Malhotra, 1998).
Sacred groves provide an important link between present society with the past in terms of
religious, culture, and ethnic heritage. It also gives very important role in promoting
sustainable use and conservation of flora and fauna of that region.
India has the highest concentration of sacred groves in the world: estimated to be over
100,000 sacred groves (K.C. Malhotra, 2007). Yet these are disappearing due to cultural
change and pressure to use the natural resources that they contain. In India, most of the sacred
groves are reported in the North-Eastern India, Western Ghats, and Central India (M. Gadgil,
1976, J.J. Roy Burman, 1992 and A. Roger, 2005).
In India, sacred groves are mainly found in tribal dominated areas and are known by different
names in ethnic terms (Bhakat, 1990) such as Sarana or Dev in Madhya Pradesh, Devrai or
Deovani in Maharashtra, Sarnas in Bihar, Ornas or Bani in Rajasthan, Devaravana or
Devarakadu in Karnataka, Sarpakavu and Kavu in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, Dev avn in
Himachal Pradesh, Law Lyngdoh or Law Kyntang in Meghalaya, Sarana of Jaherthan in
Jharkhand and Lai umang in Maniour. They are protected and managed by local people on
religious grounds and traditional beliefs. Wherever the sacred groves existed, the indigenous
traditional societies, which have spiritual relationship with their physical environment,
sustain them.
Shakambhari conservation Reserve is one of the distinguished sacred place of Rajasthan. It is
situated in Sikar and Jhunjhunu district. It is 10 km away from NH-52. Total geographical
area of the conservation reserve is 144.94 square kilometer, out of which 88.62 square
kilometer lies in Sikar Division and rest 56.32 square kilometer lies in Jhunjhunu Division. In
this reserve, 43 sacred groves are recorded from 23 different sites. Some sites have more than
one sacred places. The local people care and worship the nature through these sacred places.

6.2 STUDY AREA

Shakambhari Conservation Reserve (27°34’N to 27°43’ N & 75°17’ E to 75°30’ E) is

formally known as Raghunathgarh Forest Block. In February 2012, it was declared as a
conservation reserve. It is situated in Sikar and Jhunjhunu districts. The topography of the
reserve is quite undulating with broken ranges of hills of height ranging from 25 to 150
meters from the surrounding countryside. Most of the hilly tracts has moderate to high slopes.
The topography of the area can be divided into hills, pediment zone and a few plains. Nearly
one fifth part of the reserve has sand dunes and ravines which are lying in the north-western
region of the reserve. The fifth highest Aravalli hill peak Raghunathgarh (1055 m) and 9-10 th
century built Shakambhari temple is situated in this reserve. Lohargal, Kirori kund, Nagkund,
Raghunathgarh kund are some natural water spring in the reserve. Kot dam is the main water
sources of the reserve. It is situated in the north-eastern region of the reserve.
The forest of the Shakambhari Conservation Reserve is mostly edapho-climate climax type
forests. Classification of the forest is tropical dry deciduous forest and tropical thorn forest
(Champion and Seth 1968). Anogeissus pendula is the dominant tree species of the reserve.
Besewellia serrata, Butea monosperma are some other main tree species of the reserve.
Valley and slope of the Shakambhari conservation reserve are support to Acacia senegal,
Lannea coromandelica, Adina cordifolia, Naringi crenulata, Flacourtia indica, Ficus mallis,
Grewia asiatica. Some other trees species found throughout the reserve area are
Commaphora vightii, Ziziphus nummularia, Salvadara oleoides, Trema orientalis, Balanites
aegyptica, Terminelia arjuna, Mytenuse marginata etc.
Justicia adhatoda is a dominant shrub species of the reserve. Rhus mysorensis and Grewia
tenax, Grewia flavescens are other main shrub species of the reserve. The reserve has major
grass-root stock on the top of the Lohargarl hills range.
Some main wildlife are Cervus unicolar, Boselaphus tragocamelus, Canis lupas palliupes,
Semnopithecus entellus, Lepus nigricollis, Hyena hyena, Vulpes vulpes, Felis silvestris, and
Herpestes edwardsi.
 Figure 6.1 - Map of the Shakambhari Conservation Reserve (study area), Rajasthan,
India
6.3 METHODOLOGY

This study is based on 88 interviews of the local people of village near or nearby of
Shakambhari Conservation Reserve. By our interviews, we have gotten many responses from
local people. A person who was of age of above 50 years could give better information about
the past which is very important to compare the present condition of reserve. The main
objectives of this study were to analysis the role of local people in the biodiversity
conservation and the importance of the reserve in their life. Along with this study, we also
came to know the importance of forest in their life. We asked 10 questions (listed in
appendix-1) to them after selecting the person of age above 50 years due to their traditional
and medicinal knowledge. The information of each person was entered in the field note book.
We selected 3-6 person of each village. The main occupation of people is grazing the cattle in
the forest of the reserve.
 Photograph 6.1: A view of the study area

Photograph 6.2: An interview with a group of local people at Kalakhet village

6.4 RESULTS

6.4.1 Vegetation of the reserve in the past

Our first question to local people was about the vegetation of forest of reserve in past time
(before 20 year) as compared to the present time. 83 local people responded that reserve was
dense forest before 20 years.
Table 6.1: The vegetation of forest of the reserve, before 20-30 years
S. no. Vegetation of forest No. of people Percentage
responded
1. Dense forest 83 94.31%
2. Less dense forest 2 2.27%
3. No change 2 2.27%
4. Increase 1 1.13%

6.4.2 Causes of loss of the vegetation

23.86% people responded on our second question (main causes of the loss of biodiversity)
deforestation was the chief cause of the loss of biodiversity. 31.81% people responded low
rainfall was chief cause of the loss of the biodiversity. 28.40% people responded both reason
(deforestation and low rainfall) were causes of biodiversity loss. Some people also told about
selling the wood to outsider people for earning (due to poor economic condition) was also
another cause of biodiversity loss. Presently, there is no selling of the wood by people.
15.91% local people responded mixed reason was responsible for loss of biodiversity. They
informed that mixed causes were forest fire, cutting the trees in wrong pattern, cutting the
trees for cremation process and selling the wood to outsider people for earning the money.

Table 6.2: The chief causes of decrease the vegetation in the reserve
S. No. Causes of Decrease in No. of people Percentage
forest area responded
1. Low rainfall 28 31.81%
2. Deforestation 21 23.86%
3. Low rainfall & 25 28.40%
deforestation
4. Mixed causes 14 15.91%

6.4.3 Wild life

Present time wildlife is decreasing with decreasing the vegetation. Settlement is another
reason of the decrease the wild life in the reserve. 100% people responded that there was a
decrease in the wild life during these years. Tiger and panther were species that are already
extinct from the reserve for many years. Sometimes local people informed the presence of
panther in some site of reserve but it is not an official information. We also could not find
any panther in the reserve during this study.
In the past, wild life species found here were tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera
pardus), fox (Vulpes Vulpes), Hyena hyena, Indian wolf (Canis lupas pallipes), jackal (Canis
aureus), sambhar (Cervus unicolar), langur (Semnopithecus entellus), Asian Pal Civet
(Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) wild cat (Felis silvestris), hare (Lepus nigricollis), common
mangoose (Herpestes edwardsi), Indian Hedgehog (Paraechinus micropus) etc. (as they
responded)
They told about the reason of the loss of wild life during these years were: (1) deforestation
(2) road accidents (road construction before 10 years which is responsible in increase in the
activities of outsider people in the reserve) (3) mining activities (4) hunting in the past time
by outsider people (5) increase in the transportation in the reserve which has disturbed birds
and other wild animals.
6.4.4 Medicinal plant species
69.31% local people (61 people) were using medicinal plant species. 30.68% local people (27
people) responded that they were not using any medicinal plant species. 61 Medicinal species
were used by local people. Local people have traditional and medicinal knowledge and is
transferred from one generation to another generation. It is also another side of coin is
decreasing the use of medicinal plant species due to hospitalization or easy availability of the
medicines in nearby town or bigger village. And new generation is showing lack of interest in
the traditional medicine knowledge.
6.4.5 Fodder species
77.27% (68 people) people responded that they are still using fodder from forest for their
cattle. Most of the fodder includes grasses and some tree species. 19 people (21.59%)
responded that they don’t use the fodder from forest. Fodder species includes 16 trees
species, 5 shrub species and 15 grasses. The fodder species are listed in table 6.3, 6.4 and 6.5.
Table 6.3: Tree species used as fodder
S.No. Species Local name Usable part
1. Anogeissus pendula (Edgew.) Dhonk Leaves
2. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Plas Leaves
3. Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurtler & Kikar Leaves/pods
Mabb.
4. Acacia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurtler & Mabb. Kheri Leaves/immature pods
5. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd Ronjh Leaves
6. Bosewellia serrata (Roxb. ex Colebr) Salar Leaves
7. Bauhinia racemosa (Lamm.) Jhinjho Leaves
8. Grewia asiatica (Linn.) Falsa Leaves
9. Ficus mallis vahl. Bari Leaves
10. Momordica dioica Roxb.ex. Willd. Kankoda Leaves
11. Ficus racemose (L.) Gular Leaves
12. Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) D.H. Nicolson Navasa Leaves
13. Cordia gharaf (Forsk.) Ehrenb. & Aschers. Gundhi Leaves and fruits
14. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Jhari ber Leaves
Arn.
15. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Khejri Leaves and fruits
16. Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merr. Kankun Leaves and fruits

Table 6.4: Shrub species as a fodder

S.no. Name of the species Local name Usable part
1 Rhus mysorensis (G. Don) Danser Leaves and fruits
2 Grewia flavescenc (Juss.) Chapunya Leaves and fruits
3 Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Gangern Leaves and fruits
4 Grewia Damine (Gaertn.) Kath Leaves
Gangern
5 Calligonium polygenoides (L.) Phog Branches and flowers

Table 6.5: Grass species as a fodder

S.no. Name of the grass Local name
1 Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. Shoorwala
2 Apluda mutica (L.) Gwan
3 Schima nervosoum (Willd.) Sin
4 Cynodon dectylon (L.) Pers. Dhub
5 Aristida adscensinsis (L.) Lapla
 6 Aristida funiculata (Trin. & Rupr.) Lapli
7 Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf. Karad
8 Demostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. Dhab
9 Acrachne racemosa (B. Heyne ex Roth) Ohwi Jern jesi chhoti
10 Dactylotenium scandium (Boiss, Diagn.) Big Jern
11 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P. Beauv. Makora gass
12 Cenchrus biflorus (Roxb.) Bharunt
13 Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees. Chiri gass
14 Cyperus atkinsonii (C.B. Clarke) -
15 Lasiurus hirsutus (Forssk.) Boiss. -

Edible plant species

In the reserve edible plant species are also found which are eaten by local people. Rhus
mysorensis and Ziziphus nummularia are two species whose fruits are economically
importance to the local people. The total edible species are 19 which are listed in the table
6.6.

Table 6.6: Edible plant species of SCR

S. No. Species name Local name Edible part
1. Rhus mysorensis (G. Don) Danser Fruit
2. Grewia villosa (Willd.) Gudbela Fruit
3. Grewia flavescens (Juss.) Chapunya Fruit
4. Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Gangedi/ Fruit
Gangern
5. Grewia Damine (Gaertn) Kath Gangern Fruit
6. Grewia flava (DC.) - fruit
7. Grewia asiatica (L.) Falsa Fruit
8. Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merr. Kankun Fruit
9. Pheonix sylvestis (L.) Roxb. Khajur Fruit
10. Ceropegia tuberose (Roxb.) Khadula Bulb or tuber
11. Ficus racemosa (L.) Gular Fruit
12. Ziziphus nummularia (Burn. f.) Wight & Bair Fruit
Arn.
13. Cordia gharaf (Forsk.) Ehrenb. Gundhi Fruit
 14. Procopis cineraria (L.) Druce Khejri Fruit/pod
15. Capparis deciduas (Forsk.) Edgew. Kair Fruit as vegetable
or pickle
16. Calligonium polygenoides (L.) Phog Flower as
vegetable
17. Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decne. Kheep Immature green
Pod as vegetable
18. Physallis minima (L.) Chirpotan Fruit/Seed
19 Amaranthus spinosus (L.) Cholai Leaves as
vegetable

Timber
Some plant species Anogeissus pendula, Ziziphus nummularia, Acacia senegal (L.) Britton,
Butea monosperma, Bambusa balcooa (Roxb.) are also used as timber.
Grazing
The main occupation of the local people is keeping the livestock. They graze their goats and
sheep in the forest area throughout the year. In the monsoon season, they collect the green
grasses. They use it after the monsoon season as a dry fodder. 100% people are involved in
grazing activity.
Conservation by Government
They told us about government work or any government plantation (forest department) for
reserve as plantation in the reserve is year wise during the period of monsoon.
Conservation by Local People
72.72% local people (64 people) responded that they were engaged in the conservation work
directly or indirectly through ‘Bani or Oranas’ (sacred groves), plantation, looking after the
reserve, preventing cutting of the trees, cutting the tree only by its twigs, not allowing cutting
of tree from its trunk, informing forest guard during forest fire or any illegal activities, forest
safety committee etc.
‘Bani’ is one of the important place of the local people. Total recorded Bani are 43 from 23
sites or villages. It is a small sacred forest area which is conserved by local people. This is
their traditional way to protect the forest. They never cut any tree of this sacred forest. They
believe that nature nourishes them by various ways. So, they worship the nature and protect
them in reverse. They use only dry wood or dead trees for preparation of prasadi (offering
something to their God). Actually a small temple is situated in these forest and they come
here to worship their God. Even it is a tradition which has been handed from one generation
to the other generation and is important to conserve the forest. 27.27% local people (24
people) responded that were not working for biodiversity conservation.

6.5 CONSERVATION METHODS

Most people told that the loss of biodiversity was due to low rainfall. They strongly supported
to have various water storage techniques to avoid the threat to biodiversity. Wildlife is facing
the scarcity of water in the reserve. Kot dam is only major water sources of water in the
reserve but it is situated in the north-eastern part of the reserve. Another dam is situated in the
south-west of Sakrai village but it is not able to hold water for long due to leakage, so water
is available only during the monsoon period. The water problem of wildlife of this site can be
solved if the leaking dam is repaired. So, the question arises, where can quench the thirst of
wild animals?

Local people are suggested some points as (1) without rain there is no conservation of the
biodiversity (2) by the support of local people (3) by stoppage of deforestation (4) by
MGNAREGA or forest department scheme which provides work to local people and
beneficiary to make trench, ditch, small pond etc. in the forest which will collect the
rainwater during the monsoon (5) by prevention of hunting (6) by making a wall around the
forest area (6) by good service in every site of reserve by forest guard (7) by plantation and
looking after the planted tree (8) by unity of the local people and their decision to not to cut
the trees (9) by punishment or fine to those, who cut the trees (10) by plantation of the
Acacia species on the sand dunes which is much adapted species on sand dunes. This is also a
fodder species (11) by making ‘thawla’ (a traditional technique for rain water harvesting)
(12) by making a ‘Forest Safety Committee’ in every village working for protection of the
forest (13) by cutting the tree from its twigs if it is needed for feeding the livestock.

6.6 DISCUSSIONS

Although local participation is important in forest conservation, there are circumstances in

which it is necessary, for example high population pressures and resource use conflicts,
communal ownership and in smaller and more vulnerable protected areas (Roche &
Dourojeanni 1984). In such cases, conservation without local participation is doomed to
failure.
Deforestation, Low rainfall and cutting the tree for fodder by wrong pattern by the people are
main causes of loss of biodiversity. Many times local people cut the tree from its truck for
green leaves to feed their cattle. If they cut the tree by its twigs, tree can easily regenerate
twigs but cutting by its trunk or stem cannot save it.

Some local people told us that some people had sold tractor-trolley filled with wood from
forest to nearby town a few years ago, they choose the time in the early morning or late
evening. All this happened due to their poor financial conditions. So, it was also a reason of
decrease in the vegetation in the reserve. Planted tree cannot survive due to water problem.
Every year there are plantation in the reserve by the forest department but few trees survive.
The main reason behind this is low rainfall or no water availability to them due to hilly
terrain. Deforestation activity is also continuously seen in sites which is close to villages near
or outside to reserve.

6.7 CONCLUSION

In the reserve, the vegetation decreased in present time as compared to the past. Most people
(94.31%) reported that there was dense forest in the past (before 20-30 years). 31.81% of
respondents mentioned that low rainfall was the chief cause of the loss of vegetation during
these years. While 28.40% respondents mentioned both reasons i.e. low rainfall and
deforestation as causes of loss of vegetation. 100% people responded that wildlife was
decreasing. The main reason of decreasing wildlife was habitat loss and hunting as per their
response. 69.31% people were still using the traditional medicinal species. 77.27% people
were using fodder which was obtained from the reserve. 100% people were involved in
grazing the livestock. 72% of all respondents mentioned that they were involved in the
conservation of the biodiversity through sacred groves and other ways.

Sacred groves are forest patches conserved by the local people intertwined with their socio-
cultural and religious practice. These groves harbor rich biodiversity and play a significant
role in the conservation of biodiversity. These sacred groves should be safe and protected.
Now due to many economic pressures and social issues, these sacred groves are being
challenged. The sacred groves can be sustaining and protected by joint efforts of government
and local people. It is also noted that sacred groves are the symbol of aesthetic, cultural and
spiritual attraction of the tribes. Government or any NGOs may encourage local people to
look after the sacred groves for protection. It is also a fruitful step to plant fruit trees around
the sacred groves and handing them to local people for care. Later, the production of fruits
should provide benefit to the people. It can be a help to them economically.
Control the overgrazing, minimizing the human activities in the reserve, stop the mining and
deforestation, taking care of the planted trees, leaving the hills as naturally developing
landscaped etc. can be some important steps for biodiversity conservation of the reserve.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to forest officials of Sikar for giving permission to perform the survey in the
reserve. Tara Chand Saini is thankful to UGC for providing Fellowship for this research
work. We would also like to acknowledge all those people of the nearby areas who helped us
directly or indirectly in this study.

REFERENCES

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Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi, India.
2. Bhakat, R.K. (1990). Tribal ethics of forest conservation. Yojana (March 16-31): 23-27.
3. Bhakat, R. K. and Pandit, P.K. (2003). Role of sacred groves in conservation of medicinal
plants. Indian Forester 129(2): 224-232.
4. Bhandari, M.M. (1995). The Flora of the Indian Desert. MPS REPROSE, Jodhpur,
Rajasthan.
5. Bhattacharyya, Rajasri, Sabita Bhattacharyya & Siddhartha Chaudhary (2006).
Conservation and documentation of medicinal resources of India. Springer. 365-377.
6. Battacharya, Siddartha B., Peter A. Furley, Adriyan C. Newton (2006). Impact of
Community-based conservation on local communities in Annapurna conservation Area,
Nepal. Springer. 425-446.
7. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth. (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India.
Government of India Publication, Delhi.
8. EENVIS Centre on Wildlife and Protected Areas. www.wiienvis.nic.in/
9. Forest Department of Sikar district (2014). Annual Report of Operation for Shakambhari
Conservation Reserve for the year of 2013-2014.
10. Forest Department of Sikar (2016). Model Format for Preparing Annual Plan of
Operational (APOs) Under CSS Development of National Parks and Sanctuary:
Annexure-1, pp 6-13.
11. Gadgil, M. and Vartak, V.D. (1976). The sacred groves of Western Ghats in India.
Economic Botany30 (2), pp. 152-160.
12. Jain, Anita, S.S. Katewa, P.K. Galav, Pallavi Sharma (2005). Medicinal Plant Diversity of
Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 102 (2005)
143-157.
13. Kapoor, B. B. S. and Swati Lakhera. (2013). Ethnomedicinal plants of Jodhpur District,
Rajasthan used in herbal and folk remedies: Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical and
Biological Research (IJPBR). Res.2013; 1(4):71-75.
14. Katewa, S. S., B. L. Choudhary, Anita Choudhary, Parveen Galav. (2002). Traditional
uses of plant biodiversity from Aravalli hills of Rajasthan. Indian journal of traditional
knowledge: Vol. 2(1). January 2003. Pp 27-39.
15. Katewa, S. S., B.D. Guria and Anita Jain. (2001). Ethnomedicinal and obnoxious grasses
of Rajasthan, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 76 (2001) 293–297.
16. Katewa, S. S. and P. K. Galav. (2004). Traditional herbal medicine from Shekhawati
region of Rajasthan. Indian journal of traditional knowledge: Vol. 4(3), July 2005, pp 237-
245.
17. Khan, M.L., Ashalata Devi Khumbongmayum, & R.S. Tripathi (2008). The Sacred Groves
and Their Significance in Conserving Biodiversity. International Journal of Ecology and
Environmental Sciences.34 (3): 277-291.
18. Khumbongmayum, Ashalata Devi, M.L. Khan & R.S. Tripathi (2006). Biodiversity
Conservation in Sacred groves of Manipur, northeast India: Population Structure and
regeneration status of woody species. Springer. 99-116.
19. King, E.D.I.O., Viji, C. and Narasimhan, D. (1997). Sacred groves: Traditional ecological
heritage. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences 23 (4), pp. 463-
470.
20. Kumar, Mukesh &Vishwapati Bhatt (2006). Plant Biodiversity and Conservation of Forest
on Foot Hills of Garhwal Himalaya. Iyonia. 43-50.
21. Malhotra K.C., Deb D., History of Deforestation and Regeneration/Plantationin
Midnapore District of West Bengal, India, In: Roy, Chatterjee S.B., Yadav M.G.,
Mukherjee G.R., (Eds), Policy to Practice of Joint Forest Management, Indian Institute of
Bio-Social Research and Development (IBRAD), New Delhi, (1998)
22. Malhotra K.C., Gokhale Y., Chatterjee S. and Srivastava S. (2007). Sacred groves in India,
New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
23. Martinez, G.J. A.M. Planchuelo, E. Fuentes & M. Ojeda (2006). A numeric index to
establish conservation priorities for medical plants in the Paravanchasca Valley, Cordoba,
Argentina. Springer. 117-135.
24. Nagothu, Udaya Sekhar. (2003). Local people’s attitudes towards conservation and
wildlife tourism around Sariska Tiger Reserve, India; Elsevier, Journal of Environmental
Management 69 (2003) pp.339–347.
25. Pirbalouti, Ghasemi, A., Momeni, M. and Bahmani, M. (2013). Ethnobotanical study of
medicinal plants used by Kurd tribe in Dehloran and Abdanan districts, Ilam province,
Iran. Ghasemi et al., Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. (2013) 10(2):368-385
http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v10i2.24.
26. Prasad, Mondal Rajendra, Pati Subhadip, Sarkar Soumik, Gayen Arpan, Guin Priya and
Mishra Trisha (2015). General awareness and Perceptions about Sacred Groves and
Biodiversity Conservation in Urban people of Bankura District, West Bengal, India.
International Research Journal of Environment Sciences. ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 4(2), 16-
21.
27. Roy Burman J.J. (1992). The institution of sacred grove, Journal of Indian
Anthropological Society 27, 219-238.
28. Sharma R., Aggarwal N. and Kumar S. ((2014). Ecological Sustainability in India through
the Ages, Int. Res. J. Environment Sci., 3(1), 70-73.

Appendix-1

The list of questions for interview with local people.

Q. 1. What was the condition of the vegetation of the forest before 20-30 years?
Q.2. What was the condition of the wildlife in the forest before 20-30 years?
Q.3. Are you using any plant species as a medicine? If using, tell the method of preparation.
Q. 4. Are you using any plant species as a fodder for livestock?
Q.5. Do you eat any plant species as a food?
Q.6. Do you use any tree as a timber?
Q.7. Are you grazing the cattle in the forest?
Q.8. Are any works doing related to conservation in the forest?
Q.9. Are you involving in the conservation of the biodiversity of the reserve?
Q.10. How can be possible the conservation of the biodiversity of the reserve if you know?
Appendix-2

List of medicinal plant species of Shakambhari Conservation Reserve.

S.No. Plant species/Family/Types Local name

1. Termenalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. (Combretacaea) / tree Arjun
2. Anogeissus pendula (Edgew.) (Combretacaea) /tree Dhonk
3. Cassia fistula (Linn.) (Fabaceae) / tree Amaltas
4. Acacia Senegal (Linn.) Willd. (Fabaceae) /tree Kheri
5. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Fabaceae) / tree Palas
6. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce (Fabaceae) /tree Khejri
7. Mimosa hamata Willd. (Fabaceae) / shrub Alay
8. Abrus precatorius (Linn.) (Fabaceae) /climber Chirmi
9. Tephrosia purpurea (Linn.) Pers. (Fabaceae) / herb Damasa
10. Crotolaria buhria (Buch.-Ham.) (Fabaceae) / shrub Krishana
11. Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Bruseraceae) / tree Salar
12. Commifhora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari (Bruseraceae) / tree Guggle
13. Trema orientalis(L.) Blume (Canabinacea)/ tree Kala khara
14. Ficus racemosa (Linn.) (Moraceae)/ tree Gular
15. Ficus malis Vahl (Moraceae)/ tree Bari
16. Sterculi auren Roxb. (Malvaceae)/ tree Kadu
17. Grewia asiatica Vahl (Malvaceae) / tree Falsa
18. Helicteres isora (Linn.) (Malvaceae)/ tree Marorfali
19. Sida cordifolia (Linn.) (Malvaceae)/ shrub Khrinti
20. Flacaurtia indica (Burn.f.) Merr. (Salicaceae) / tree Kankun
21. Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale (Rubiaceae)/ tree Haldu
22. Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae) / tree Khirna
23. Ceropegia tuberosa (Roxb.) (Apocynaceae) / creeper Khdula
24. Balanites aegyptiaca (Linn.) Delile (Zygophylaceae) / tree Hingot
25. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn (Rhamnaceae) / tree Jhari
26. Capparis decidua (Forsk.) edgew. (Capparaceae) / tree Kair
27. Cordia gharaf (Forsk.) Ehrenb. & Aschers. (Boraginaceae)/ tree Gundi
28. Justicia adhatoda (Linn.) (Acanthaceae) / shrub Adhusa
29. Barleria prionitis (Linn.) (Acanthaceae) / shrub Vajardanti
30. Sarcostemma viminale (Linn.) R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae) / shrub Khir-khamp
31. Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Dence. (Asclepiadaceae)/ shrub Kheep
32. Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton.(Asclepiadaceae) / shrub Aak
33. Calligonium polygenoides (Linn.) (Polygonaceae) /shrub Phog
34. Euphorbia nirrifolia (Linn.) (Euphorbiaceae) / shrub Danda-thor
35. Asparagus racemosus (Willd.) (Aspharagaceae)/ climber Shishmooli
36. Withania somnifera (Linn.) (Solanaceae) / shrub Padalsi
 37. Solanum surattense (Burm.f.) (Solanaceae) / herb Pisagatali
38. Tinospora cordifolia (Thumb.) Miers (Menispermaceae) / climber Neem-giloy
39. Cocculus pendulus (J.R. &G.Forst) Diels (Menispermaceae)/ Pilwani
climber
40. Cissampelo spareira Linn. var. hirsuta (Buch. -Ham ex DC) Harjori
(Menispermaceae) / climber
41. Lindenbergia indica (Linn.) (Orobanchaceae) / herb Patherchitti
42. Tridax procumbens (Linn.) (Asteraceae) / herb Rukhri
43. Echinops echinatus Roxb. (Asteraceae) / shrub Untkatara
44. Urginea indica (Roxb.) Jessop (Liliaceae) / herb Kolikanda
45. Aloe barbadensis (Mill.) (Liliaceae) / herb Gawarpatha

46. Gloriosa superba (Linn.) (Liliaceae) / herb Kalihari

47. Saccharum munja (Roxb.) (Poaceae) / herb Munj
48. Boerhavia diffusa (Linn.) (Nyctaginaceae) / herb Santhi
49. Pedalium murex (Linn.) (Pedalliaceae) / herb Gokhru
50. Momordica dioica Roxb. ex. Willd. (Cucurbitaceae) / creeper Kankeda/ bad
karela
51. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae) / creeper Gartumba
52. Aerva persica (Burm.f.) (Amaranthaceae) / herb Bui
53. Cuscutareflexa (Roxb.) (Convolvulaceae) / climber Amarbel
54. Rhus mysorensis (G. Don) (Anacardiaceae) / shrub Danser
55. Ocimum americanum (Linn.) (Labiateae) / herb Bawchi
56. Dendrophthoe facata (L.F.) Ettingsh (Lorantaceae) / herb Kanwlet
57. Trianthema portulacastrum (Linn.) (Aizoaceae) / herb Santo
58. Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. (Lamiaceae) / herb Dadkhal
59. Moringa oleifera Lam.(Moringaceae) / Shrub Senani
60. Adiantum venustum (D. Don) (Peteridaceae) / herb Hansraj
61. Actinopteris radiata (J.Koenig ex Sw.) (Peteridaceae) / herb Morpanja

Appendix-3

The list of villages which conserve the trees through Bani (sacred groves)

1. Sakrai village (4 Bani)

2. Nagkung (1 Bani)
3. Bhagova (2 Bani)
4. Kalakhet (1 Bani)
5. Shobh (3 Bani)
6. Chaneja ki dhani (2 Bani)
7. Raghunathgarh (1 Bani)
8. Pandhora (2 Bani)
9. Khoh-kund (1 Bani)
10. Golyana (1 Bani)
11. Lohargarl (5 Bani)
12. Chirana (2 Bani)
13. Kirori (2 Bani)
14. Paharila (1 Bani)
15. Sewali village (1 Bani)
16. Shyamgarh (1 Bani)
17. Hatyaj (1 Bani)
18. Baral (2 Bani)
19. Palasara (2 Bani)
20. Sangrwa (1 Bani)
21. Kot (3 Bani)
22. Palaski and nearby village (3 Bani)
23. Kot dam village (1 Bani)
 CHAPTER SEVEN

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS PARTS OF PROSOPIS

JULIFLORA
Preeti Khandelwal, R. A. Sharma, and Rohit Badaya

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
7.2 Material and methods.....................................................................................................................
7.3 Results and discussion....................................................................................................................
7.4 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

Objective: The Antimicrobial activity is the potential to inhibit the growth of microbes such
as bacteria and fungi. The present study was carried out to investigate the antimicrobial
activity present in the leaves, stem, pods and callus of Prosopis juliflora.
Methods: The Agar well diffusion method (Perez et al., 1990) was used to test the
antimicrobial activity of various parts of Prosopis juliflora. Four fungal and four bacterial
strains were used as test microbes.  
Results: The study was revealed that all the four parts of the plant Prosopis juliflora showed
the inhibitory zone against the microorganisms.  
Conclusion: The antimicrobial activity found in the various parts of the plant may be due to
the presence of secondary metabolites isolated from the plant such as flavonoids and steroids.
Keywords: Antimicrobial activity, Prosopis juliflora, Microorganisms.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Medicinal plants have been known for decades around the world as a potential source of
medicinal agents for the prevention of diseases and ailments [1]. The plant based,
conventional medicine systems play an essential role in first aid, with about 80% of the
world’s indigenous people have faith mainly in traditional medicines for their primary health
care [2]. According to the report of World Health Organization, many people who cannot
afford the products of western pharmaceutical industries, still depend on traditional medicines
for their health requirements [3,4,5]. It has now become important to screen medicinal plants
either in the form of crude extract or as components isolated from them for promising
biological activities [6,7]. Plant based medicines are safe and would overcome the resistance
produced by the pathogens as they may be present either in a pure form or in a pooled form
of more than one molecule in the protoplasm of plant cell [8, 9, 10].
The pathogenic micro-organisms build resistance against the antibiotics and cause side
effects, Hence the use of biologically active compounds isolated from plant species used in
herbal medicine has increased [11]. New compounds such as benzoin and emetine have been
isolated from plants which inhibit microorganisms [12]. Various pharmaceutical products
used in modern medicine, Aspirin, Atropine, Ephedrine, Digoxin, Morphine, Quinine,
Reserpine and Tubocurarine serve as examples of drugs discovered through observations of
indigenous medical practices [13]. Eloff (1999) stated that the antimicrobial compounds from
plants may inhibit bacteria by a different mechanism than the presently used antibiotics and
may have clinical value in the treatment of resistant microbial strains [14].
Prosopis juliflora is a species of flowering tree in the pea family, Fabaceae. It is a
multipurpose tree of desert in Western Rajasthan and is regarded as the backbone of rural
economy [15]. This plant may prove a potential source of antibacterial, antifungal agent with
significant activity against infective microorganisms [16].

7.2 MATERIAL AND METHODS

Antimicrobial activity of Prosopis juliflora viz. (Leaves, Stem, Pods and Callus) was studied
with their methanolic extracts. Four bacterial and fungal strains were selected for the primary
screening.
Microorganisms Used
Clinical laboratory bacterial isolates of Streptomyces grisveus, Staphylococcus aureus,
Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and fungal isolates viz. Aspergillus niger, Fusarium
oxysporium, Penicillium notatum and Trichoderma reesei were collected from the stock
cultures of Microbiology Laboratory, SMS Medical College Jaipur, India.
Preparation of Extract
The 30 g of dried powder of plant parts was macerated in 95% of methanol and thus crude
methanolic extract was obtained and kept on a rotary shaker for 24 h. The extract was
filtered, centrifuged at 5000 g for 15 min. and was dried under reduced pressure. The extract
was stored at 4ºC in airtight bottles.
Culture and Maintenance of Microorganisms
Pure cultures of Streptomyces grisveus, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia
coli and fungal isolates viz. Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporium, Penicillium notatum
and Trichoderma reesei obtained from S.M.S. Medical College, Jaipur, India was used as
indicator organisms. These bacteria were grown in Nutrient Agar Medium (prepared by
autoclaving 8% Nutrient agar of Difeco-Laboratories, Detroit, USA, in distilled water at 15
lbs psi for 25-30 min.) and incubating at 37°C for 48 h. Each bacterial culture was further
maintained on the same medium after every 48 h of transferring. A fresh suspension of test
organism in saline solution was prepared from a freshly grown agar slant before every
antimicrobial assay.
Determination of Antifungal Assay
Antifungal activity of the experimental plant was investigated by agar well diffusion method
[16]. The fungi were subcultured onto Sabouraud’s dextrose agar, SDA (Merck, Germany)
and respectively incubated at 37°C for 24 h and 25°C for 2-5 days. Fungal spores
Suspensions were prepared in sterile PBS and adjusted to a concentration of 106 cells/mL.
Dipping a sterile swab into the fungal suspension and rolled on the surface of the agar
medium. The plates were dried at room temperature for 15 min. In the culture media wells of
10 mm in diameter and about 7 mm apart were punctured using sterile glass tube. 0.1 ml of
several dilutions of fresh extracts was administered to fullness for each well. Plates were
incubated at 37°C. The incubation period was of 24h and then bioactivities were determined
by measuring the diameter of inhibition zone (in mm). All experiments were made in
triplicate and means were calculated.
Determination of Antibacterial Assay
In vitro antibacterial activity of the crude methanol extract was studied against gram positive
and gram negative bacterial strains by the agar well diffusion method [18]. Mueller Hinton
agar no. 2 (Hi Media, India) was used as the bacteriological medium. The extracts were
diluted in 100% Dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) at the concentrations of 5 mg/mL. The
Mueller Hinton agar was melted and cooled to 48 - 50ºC and a standardized inoculum
(1.5×108 CFU/mL, 0.5 McFarland) was then added aseptically to the molten agar and poured
into sterile petri dishes to give a solid plate. Wells were prepared in the seeded agar plates.
The test compound (100 μl) was introduced in the well (6 mm). The plates were incubated
overnight at 37ºC. The antimicrobial spectrum of the extract was determined for the bacterial
species in terms of zone of inhibition sizes around each well. The diameters of zone of
inhibition produced by the agent were compared with those produced by the commercial
control antibiotics, streptomycin. For each bacterial strain controls were maintained where
pure solvents were used instead of the extract. The control zones were subtracted from the
test zones and the resulting zone diameter was measured with antibiotic zone reader to
nearest mm. The experiment was performed three times to minimize the error and the mean
values are presented.

7.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The antimicrobial capability was evaluated by using Agar well diffusion method on different
extracts of dried plant parts of Prosopis juliflora as shown in Table-7.1 respectively.
Methanolic extract shows significant results on all pathogens whereas no activity was
recorded by other extracts.
The methanolic extract of P. juliflora pods showed highest activity against (fungal strains) P.
funiculosum (14±0.22mm) followed by Fusarium oxysporum (13±0.13 mm) and it followed
by callus against Fusarium oxysporum (12±0.48 mm) and no activity was observed against
Aspergillus niger. The lowest activity was showed by leaves against T. reesei (4 mm). No
activity was observed against A. niger by any of the part of the plant P. juliflora. In the
present investigation the methanolic extract of P. juliflora (Table 7.1) pods showed highest
activity against the bacteria E. coli (18±0.97) followed by the methanolic extract of callus
against E. coli (17±0.97mm). Lowest activity was showed by stem against S. aureus and S.
griseus (6.3±0.57), as there is no activity was observed against B. subtillis. Significant
development of a satisfactory chemical assay for the drug has been long compared by
previous lack of knowledge of the precise active principals of the drugs [19].

Table 7.1: Antimicrobial activities of methanolic extracts of P. juliflora L.

Plant parts and inhibition zones of growth

Standard
Test organisms inhibition(mm)
Leaves Stem Pods Callus C/K
Fungi
T.reesei 4±0.11 NA 08±0.21 - 20
P.funiculosum 11±0.23 10±0.53 14±0.22 11±0.22 20
A.niger NA NA NA NA 20
Fusarium
6±0.13 8±0.42 13±0.13 12±0.48 20
oxysporum
Bacteria
E.coli 13±0.54 15±0.90 18±0.97 17±0.97 22
S. aureus 8±0.42 7±0.03 11±0.50 10±0.50 22
B.subtillis NA NA NA NA 22
S.griseus 9.3 ±0.11 6.3±0.57 16±0.92 17±0.62 22

IZ= Inhibition zone (mm) excluding the diameter of disc (6mm) Mean± SE, NA= No
Activity, Values are the mean ± SEM (n = 3 replicates in each group). *P < 0.05; **P < 0.001
compared with the Standard; P < 0. 001.

A B
 C D

E F

G H

Photograph 7.1: Antimicrobial activity of Methanolic extracts of different plant parts of

P. juliflora L. (Abbreviations: L- Leaves, S-Stem, P-Pods, C-Callus)

20
18
16
14
12
10
8 Leaves
6 Stem
Pods
4
Callus
2
0
m
um

l is

us
ei

i
ge

eu
co
ru
ss

ise
t il
os

ni

ur
re

po

E.

gr
A.
ul

a
T.

su
ys

S.

S.
ic

B.
ox
n
fu

m
P.

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sa
Fu

Figure 7.1: Graphical representation of antimicrobial activities of methanolic extracts

of P.juliflora L.
7.4 CONCLUSION

The traditional medicine system based on plants continues to play an important role in health
care, with about 80% of the world’s inhabitants relying mainly on traditional medicines for
their primary health care. Now a day, very much interest has been developed towards extracts
and biologically active compounds isolated from various plant species. Different extracts of
medicinal plants have been tested to identify the source of the pharmaceutical effects. Some
natural products and other bioactive compounds have been approved as new antibacterial
drugs, but there is still an urgent requirement to identify novel compounds that are active
towards pathogens with high resistance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely thank to Dr. R.A. Sharma, Associate Professor, Department of Botany, University
of Rajasthan, Jaipur for his valuable suggestions, constant encouragement and for kind co-
operation at all levels of my work.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT

SMART CITY: A PROBABLE SOLUTION FOR DIGITAL INDIA

Ritu Yadav and Ravi Yadav

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
8.2 Trend of urbanization in
8.3 India.........................................................................................................
Problems of Urbanization in India..................................................................................................
8.3.1 Problems of
 Infrastructure......................................................................................................
8.3.2 Problems of Governance and
8.4 Management............................................................................
8.5 8.3.3 Problems of Sustainability......................................................................................................
Smart city: A probable solution.......................................................................................................
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

The Urbanization is most predominant and contemporary process prevalent throughout the
globe especially in developing countries like India. To sustain the brisk growth rate of
economy and urbanization and to alleviate the problems arising due to the growth, an
integrated approach and sustainable strategy is required. The inclusive and smart planning is
one such emerging strategy to tackle and mitigate these problems. This paper attempts to
analyse and evaluate the need for the development and planning of smart city projects in the
country in line with various on-going projects and the government’s proposal for
development of the 100 smart cities throughout the country. The analysis indicates that the
cities are expanding and new cities are being formed mainly by transformation and growth
from villages and towns due to rapid urbanization. But these cities lack basic infrastructural
services and other amenities due to various reasons ranging from lack in administrative and
service delivery mechanism to lack of proper planning vision, investment, management, and
to some extent changing lifestyle, etc. Some green field development like GIFT, Lavasa,
Kochi Smart city and Nano City have started but are far from satisfactory to cater to the
demands of the sustainable cities and urban centres, hence there is an urgent need to plan for
both green and brown field sustainable urban developments in form of Eco city or smart city
or similar projects to bring out a balanced urban growth and development.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The urbanization is an integral part of modern economic growth, and a phenomenon

experienced by almost all the countries round the globe. Urbanization is often used to
indicate a broad-based rural-to-urban transition of one or more factors involving population,
land use, economic activity and culture, etc. The shift in population from rural to urban
settlements is generally accepted as predominant indicator of urbanization, measured by the
urban population share. The Urbanization is mainly result of (net) migration from rural to
urban areas, expansion of urban boundaries and the formation of new urban centres either
through the reclassification of villages as they grow or new towns develop to support national
urban population. The Urbanization helps in putting in planned infrastructure in place and
contributes to protect people from more local environment burdens, but itself is sometimes
blamed for contributing to climate change and other global environmental burdens associated
with high consumption levels. The ambient urban air pollution has become a bane for some
of the most economically successful cities which aggravate the impact of prevailing
environmental problems. Hence there arise a need for eco-friendly and sustainable urban
planning for the balanced and healthy urban development. Moreover, the success of cities
depends on active involvement of stake holders and end users in energy saving and
implementation of new technologies as a high percentage of the total energy use remains in
the hands of end users and affected by their behaviour. The concept of sustainability is full of
challenges in India especially due to factor of time and special investment with modified
regulations and tax structures to make it attractive for investment. This paper aims at
analysing the trend of urbanization and urban growth, and need for new cities and urban
centres so as to cater to the ever increasing urban demand and at the same time work out a
sustainable and workable solution within the limited and constrained budget. The concept of
smart cities is deemed to be one such solution for the cities of future. It originated just a few
years back but has captivated the imagination of many nations across the globe. Today a
number of excellent examples like Seoul, Amsterdam, Vienna, Dongtan, etc. exist which are
referred to as Smart Cities or sustainable cities, and India can also learn and adopt some of
the parameters that could tackle the local problems and conditions, and must be workable and
feasible hence require further extensive research in this field.

8.2 TREND OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA

India is among the countries with low level of urbanization at present but the urban
population is growing rapidly especially in developing countries like India leading to
continuous demographic and spatial increase in the number and size of urban centres. The
decadal growth of population in urban area is greater than rural population leading to the
increase in urban population from around 27.8% (286 million) in 2001 to 31.2% (377
million) in 2011 and is estimated to be 40% by 2030 and more than 50% by 2050. The
growth of urban population in the country is not only explosive but also highly skewed. The
number of census towns increased by 53.7% from 5161 in 2001 to 7935 in 2011 with number
of Class I towns increased from 441 to 468 and the million plus cities increased from 35 to 53
over the past decade from 2001 to 2011.
The Class I towns (population more than one lakh) dominate the urban scenario, which
accounts for 70.20% of urban population in 2011 up from 68.7% in 2001, out of this 53
million (10 lakh) plus Metro cities alone accounts for more than 40% of urban population.
But if we compare the growth rate of population we find that smaller cities are growing at the
fastest rate followed by the growth rate of metro cities which in slightly higher than the
national urban growth rate. However, if we analyze the rural scenario we find that there are
19,020 (almost 40%) towns with populations above 5000, which are legally Villages as per
the definition of the Urban area in use in India since 1961 as set out in 2001 census as
follows:
 All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified area
committee, etc. so declared by state law;
 All other places, which satisfy the following criteria:
a) A minimum population of 5000
b) At least 75 percent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural
pursuits
c) A population density of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
At the same time there is a large disparity in distribution of the urban population throughout
the country. More than 60% of districts in the state of Assam, Orissa & U.P have less than
10% of urban population while the state of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka &
Punjab have more than 60% of districts exceeding national average urban population.

8.3 PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA

The urbanization in India is unplanned and haphazard in general, this in itself is a root cause
of almost all the problems. The major problems associated with the urbanization in the
country may be categorized into 3 broad categories which may be overlapping each other in
one aspect or the other.
 Infrastructure – It includes Physical, Social and Institutional infrastructure.
 Governance and Management – This basically deals with the mechanism for the
provision of urban infrastructures and services.
 Sustainability – It includes the application of appropriate technology to attain the
sustainability in terms of environment, economy and society.
 All these functions together contribute towards strengthening of economic infrastructure
and social overheads for the development of the urban areas along with the well-being of
the citizens.
8.3.1 Problems of Infrastructure
The provision of infrastructure and services have deteriorated over the time leading to the
escalating demand for provision and maintenance of basic infrastructure and services such as
water supply, sewerage, drainage, public health and sanitation, roads, streets, city transport,
elementary education, etc. thus resulting in serious deterioration of quality service and thus
the quality of life. On an average 38% of urban population is below poverty line and 80
million people live in slums without basic services and amenities.
8.3.2 Problems of Governance and Management
Urban local bodies are the primary agencies for administrating the infrastructural needs of the
people and fairly Large Capital Investment decisions being thrust upon them. But the limited
revenue base and dependent fiscal Jurisdiction has made it difficult for them to meet revenue
expenditures with their own resources, hence Direct Borrowing is an alternative which looks
essential but improbable due to poor credits ratings of the urban local bodies in terms of pay
back from revenue generation and recovery of the user charges for the provision of services
due to malpractices in resource management, structural machinery, improper division of
domain/ work and area, lack of hierarchy and proper planning, continuous rivalry and lack of
coordination and understanding among different departments and section, lack of
transparency and vigilance, etc. The predicament in delivery of urban service in the country is
the result of the neglect of urban planning and infrastructure by state governments, the
fragmented and overlapping institutional responsibilities of the state government, ULB's,
Development Authorities, Parastatal agencies in different state. This is further aggravated by
inadequate investment in urban infrastructure, poor maintenance of public infrastructure
assets, weak administration, and poor system of delivery, inadequate autonomy of ULBs, and
lack of accountability to community.

8.3.3 Problems of Sustainability

The sustainability basically includes the environmental, economic and technological
sustainability but it is generally dominated by environmental impact because it drastically
affects all other systems and aspects. The level of carbon dioxide has tremendously increased
in the atmosphere since 1950 leading to the drastic change in climate round the globe. The
city alone accounts for 50% of worlds' population (31.8% in India), 75% of energy
consumption and 80% of carbon emission.
The cities face problems and challenges of pollution, congestions, deteriorating quality of life
and infrastructure and rising cost while competing with each other for investments, jobs and
talents, etc. The problem coupled with challenges of climate change, resource depletion,
alteration in the ecological cycle and biodiversity intensifies the need for up-gradation in
approach and to adapt, survive and thrive over the coming decades to prevent catastrophic
climate change while maintaining or increasing quality of life in almost all the cities
throughout the country in general and the Unplanned “Quasi Towns” or “village Towns” in
particular. These towns are often developed as peri-city or satellite towns and face haphazard
growth, due to lack of coordination and collaboration between Planning Authorities and local
government. They need to become more efficient, sustainable and liveable, in other words
may be termed as "Smart".

8.4 SMART CITY: A PROBABLE SOLUTION

Cities are real time systems and deem to be supermodels of efficiency, friendliness and
preparedness on a mass scale but as the populations swell inexorably due to migration and
other factors leading to formation of urban agglomerations from cities, they need to navigate
their challenges of growing demand for new constituent services by identifying potential
solutions for ever increasing complicated problems within the constrained budgets, often
resulting into proliferation of point solutions: emergency response integration, traffic
congestion alleviation, waste and water management, smart buildings, smart grids, etc. The
cities need to equip themselves to integrate these point solutions to cater to the increasing
demands placed on them, rather than crumbling under the growing demand and pressure. The
"smart city" has become a buzzword over last few years in the realm of
government/administration, marketing giants/investors, academia/urban research laboratories
and the common mass or the end users. Almost everyone have their own comprehension and
conception of Smart City i.e. “what should it be?” and “how should it be?” etc. The smart city
projects (i.e. development of new towns or transformation of old cities) that are currently
going on or have completed (like Amsterdam, Seoul, etc.) have different set of parameters
and characteristics to address different priorities and problems and to call themselves
SMART. In the absence of any clear cut or globally accepted definition of Smart City,
various attempts have been made to define, categorize and integrate the parameters of smart
cities as different subsystems of the urban system. One such categorization has been done by
Chourabi et.al. 2012 as eight critical factors of management and organization, technology,
governance, policy context, people and communities, economy, built infrastructure, and
natural environment besides some others, and the major classification include some or all of
these in one way or the other. Some of the green field development in the name of sustainable
and smart cities have also been conceptualised and developed in India as Lavasa, Gift City
(Ahmedabad), Kochi Smart City, Nano City besides some other like Dholera being labelled
as Smart Cities. But there are far from satisfactory in terms of numbers and scale to meet the
pace of urbanization and demand in the country, and is an urgent need of brown field
development in this regard.

8.5 CONCLUSION

The migration of people from rural to urban areas is one of the main reasons for the growth of
urban population, and failed regional planning is often attributed as the main reason for it.
The city is swelling in its sizes beyond the urbanizable limits into the peri-urban, suburban
and rural areas surrounding it, thus increasing load rural land too. Furthermore, the cost of
infrastructure and urban service delivery is also increased to be uneconomical at one point of
time and the urban services require decentralization. To cope with the crisis within the
constrained budget is an upcoming challenge which could only be met with the meticulous,
coordinated and planned development of new urban centres and cities or development of the
satellite towns which are also technologically advanced, self-sustaining and ecological. The
smart city concept is one such upcoming concept which is deemed to be the solution for the
present day problems as well as the sustainable future. But in the absence of any definite
guidelines and case specific solutions to develop the smart cities in India, there is need for
further research to work out the parameters, definitions and guidelines for the development of
new cities on green field as well as the brown field developments.

REFERENCES
Census of India, “Population Census-2011”, Government of India, 2011.
Available: http://www.census2011.co.in & www.census.co.in
AIF, Poverty in India, Azad India Foundation, Kishanganj, India.
Available: http://www.azadindia.org/social-issues/poverty-in-india.html
NIUA, Report on Urban Infrastructure and Services, Summary and Recommendations,
National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, 2011.
H. Chourabi et.al. “Understanding Smart Cities: An Integrative Framework”, Proc. IEEE
Computer Science Society, 45th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences,
Hawaii, 2012, pp. 2289-2297.
J. Belissent, WEBINAR: The Core of a Smart City Must Be Smart Governance, CIOS,
Forrester, 2011.
Available:https://www.forrester.com/The Core of a Smart City Must Be Smart
Governance/EWEB7738.

CHAPTER NINE

POLLUTION AND CONSERVATION OF GOMTI RIVER IN

LUCKNOW CITY
Dr. Vipin Kumar and Ayushi Sharma

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
9.2 Study
9.3 Area........................................................................................................................................
9.4 Objectives........................................................................................................................................
9.5 Research Methodology....................................................................................................................
9.6 Causes of Pollution in Gomti River.................................................................................................
9.7 Impact of Pollution..........................................................................................................................
9.8 Gomti River Front Development.....................................................................................................
Conclusion and Suggestions...........................................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

River water pollution is the severe problem faced by major rivers in India. Gomti is among
the principle river of Uttar Pradesh and the lifeline of capital city Lucknow. It flows entirely
in Uttar Pradesh and originates from a lake “Fulhar Jheel” in Madhotanda in Pilibhet town
(UP). Gomti River especially in Lucknow city is facing a worst scenario. According to
Irrigation and Water Resources Department, Lucknow, total 37 nallas drain their waste in to
the river, among which 401 MLD (million liters per day) are being properly treated, while
others get directly drained into the river. Chemicals from the industries waste flows directly
into the river without paying much attention to the sustainable needs of the river. Other than
industrial waste, religious waste also gets thrown directly into the river and remains pilled
with such wastes. Problem of pollution in Gomti River increasing day by day causes
depletion of water quality and aquatic life. So, there is a great need to pay proper attention to
control the pollution of the river, and to take strict measure towards proper sewage treatment,
proper checks on leakages of sewage pipes, imposing strict restrictions on industries with
special focus on chemical industries etc. so that, the natural quality of the river water can be
preserved. The main aim of this work is to highlight the sources, causes and effects of Gomti
river water pollution at local level and to provide some solution to control the pollution.
Keywords: Gomti River, religious waste, nallas, chemical industries.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Water pollution is a deep worry of today’s world. With the growing population and
urbanization, the water quality of rivers is degrading. Water resources are dealing with great
pressure to keep up with the developing world.
In India, water pollution is becoming a major problem more than 80 per cent of the rivers are
polluted. Gomti River, a tributary of Ganga originates from a lake- ‘Fulhar Jheel’ in
Madhotanda near Pilibhet town in Uttar Pradesh. This is a monsoon and ground-water fed
river. Total drainage area of the river is 30,437 sq. km. and of perennial nature. The Sai River
is the major tributary to join Gomti near Jaunpur. The Gomti River flows through the districts
of Sitapur, Lucknow, Barabanki, Sultanpur and Jaunpur before joining Ganga near Varanasi.
Major urban settlements on the river Gomti are Sitapur, Lucknow, Sultanpur and Jaunpur.
Srivastava Shivani (2011) studied the effect of 26 drains on the water quality of the river. The
paper concluded that the water of Gomti from Gaughat to Piperaghat is not suitable for
beneficial purpose and alkaline level is also high in the river. Dixit Satyam (2015) studied
open drainage system of the Gomti River with the help of remote sensing technique and
emphasized the huge quantities of untreated sewages, agricultural runoff, pesticides,
fertilizers, heavy metals drained directly into the Gomti. Chloride, nitrate and total hardness
are high in river because of domestic waste.
Irrigation and Water Resource Department Gomti river front development (2018) pointed
some issues faced by Gomti river in which it is stated that 37 nallas get drained into the river
from Sitapur bypass to Shaheed path discharging 1173 MLD (million liters per day) of waste
into the river. Out of which only 401 MLD get treated by Jal Nigam and Nagar Nigam.

9.2 STUDY AREA

Gomti River is the tributary of Ganga flowing wholly in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It flows
through the capital city Lucknow, where it gets most polluted due to the improper
maintenance of the river. Millions of waste products whether of human, industrial or religious
waste dumped directly into the water of Gomti affecting the quality and purity of the Gomti
River. Each of the cities pollutes the river in her part but the worst condition is seen in
Lucknow city. Being a capital of Uttar Pradesh huge population resides in the city for earning
their livelihood imposing pressure on the river to quench large thirst and need of the people.
With the rising population, pollution level in the river is also increasing. Unawareness and
ignorance among people, industrial sectors and government departments towards Gomti,
results into the decreasing water quality of the river. The localities of Nishatganj, Daliganj,
Kudiya Ghat, Hanuman Setu Mandir, Chowk, Gomti Nagar, Arts College are major
contributors in pollution of Gomti River. Gaughat Drain, Nishatganj Drain, Gomti Barrage
Drain, Hanuman Setu Drain, Kukrail Drain, Rahimnagar Drain are some of the drains which
directly drain their waste in Gomti.

Figure 9.1: Gomti River (Study Area), Uttar Pradesh, India

9.3 OBJECTIVES
There are two main objectives of present research-
1. To study the Causes of pollution in the Gomti River.
2. To provide solutions for water conservation of the Gomti River.

9.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The methodology adopted for the research work is based on secondary data obtained from
concerned U.P. state government departments, official websites, journals, articles and books.
Location maps are prepared with the help of ArcGIS 10.2 software. Present status of
pollution in Gomti River is shown through pictures taken from the sites.

9.5 CAUSES OF POLLUTION IN GOMTI RIVER

Some of the major causes of pollution in the Gomti River are as mentioned below:
1. Untreated Sewages- Water of the Gomti River is highly polluted in the Lucknow city. Out
of 1173 MLD only 401 MLD is handled by Jal Nigam and Nagar Nigam (Irrigation and
Water Resources Development Gomti River Front Development). The rest of the water goes
directly into the river. Drains left untreated are: Jiamau Drain, Lamartenier, Khadra Drain,
Mohan Meakin, Daliganj no.1, Daliganj no.2, Arts college, Hanuman Setu, TGPS,
Kedarnath, Nishatganj Drain, Baba Ka Purva, Kukrail Drain and Rahimnagar Drain.
2. Chemical Waste- Industries dump their chemical waste and drain chemical water directly
into the river without any filtration and processing which results into raising the Ph. level of
the river and making it harmful for other uses. Insecticides, pesticides, copper, mercury,
chlorine, detergents etc. get drained into the river giving rise to water borne diseases.
Improper checking on these industries decreases the purity of the Gomti water.
3. Human Waste- human waste or human excreta in the localities of slum dominance for
instance Daliganj slum, Kukrail slum, Indranagar slum become a serious problem to deal
with. People because of lack of sanitation facilities excrete their waste directly into the river.
These activities harm the aquatic as well as the life of Gomti water.
 Phorograph 9.1: Showing the Phorograph 9.2: Showing religious
untreated sewage draining their waste Gomti River near Daliganj
domestic and chemical waste directly locality, Lucknow
into the Gomti River near Gomti
barrage, Gomti nagar locality,
Lucknow

4. Religious waste- Religious places like flowers, incense sticks, idols etc. in the Lucknow
city are filled with the waste thrown either at the river bank or into the river. Khatu Shyam
Mandir, Hanuman Setu Mandir etc. are the major contributors in religious waste. There are
approximately more than 700 temples in the city generating 500 kg. of waste every day
(Polluting Gomti, regularly, religiously, Lucknow News - Times of India). Though the
government is working in this direction but the response from the temples and people’s is not
satisfactory.

9.6 IMPACT OF POLLUTION

Aquatic life- With the increase in the pollution of the river, aquatic life is highly disturbed
and a sudden fall in the number of fishes are found. Healthy aquatic life is a parameter of the
health of any river. Untreated sewages, dumped solid waste in the river envelop the upper
layer of Gomti which enables the proper supply of oxygen in the depth of the river.
Fishermen- the fishermen which are totally depended on the life in the river are struggling
for their survival. With the increasing pollution in the river, decrease in the number of fishes
is seen which forces the fishermen to adopt other means of livelihood.
Health of the river- the river water of Gomti turning into black color because of the
pollution and a problem of false smell from the river is also noticed. The minerals of the
rivers are decreasing from past years resulting into the decline in the quality of the water from
drinking to other purposes. Water borne diseases are high in slums and in the areas where the
water for domestic is not treated well.

9.7 GOMTI RIVER FRONT DEVELOPMENT

For the conservation of Gomti River, Uttar Pradesh state government came up with an idea of
Gomti river front.
Provision of the Project:
 To prevent the flow of polluted water directly into the river drains will get construct
on both sides of the river
 Development of green belt along the sides of the river
 Promotion of tourism, development of water sports and construction of cycle track
 Proper check on all the structures along the river
 Development and beautification of the land
 Capacity regeneration of the Sharda canal system to make available as much water as
possible at Gaughat.
 Construction of the diaphragm wall of 8.1 Km. on both sides of the River from Pucca
Pul to Gomti Weir to channelize the water.
PLAN FOR RELIGIOUS WASTE DISPOSAL
 Huge pit was dug for dumping religious waste near Khatu Shyam Mandir near Gomti
on the instruction of former mayor and acting deputy chief minister Dr. Dinesh
Sharma in the year 2017
 Trucks were deployed by Lucknow Municipal Corporation for the collection of waste
and converting it into manure.
 Converted manure will be given to small entrepreneur for making incense sticks and
Lucknow Nagar Nigam parks.

9.8 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Gomti River is a lifeline of the Lucknow city. Pollution level in the river is increasing at an
alarming rate because of untreated sewage drains, industrial and religious wastes. Industrial
waste gets drained directly into the water without being properly treated affecting quality of
the river water and creating health problem for the residents of Lucknow city. Religious
waste like flowers, incense sticks etc. directly thrown in Gomti by the people spoiling the
purity of the river. Youth involvement should be encouraged for organizing awareness
camps, workshops, and seminars to fix the focus on the present condition of pollution of the
Gomti River and the measures to control the situation. With an active youth involvement in
the government project awareness can be achieved rapidly and in an innovative way. Proper
implementation of government policies and a strict regular check should be maintained on the
water quality and on the working of industries with respect to the pollution of Gomti River.
Though, the Uttar Pradesh state government had come up with several projects and ideas like
Gomti River Front Development and digging pit for dumping religious waste but all efforts
will be worthless without a proper people’s participation.

REFERENCES
Journals:
Dixit Satyam, Misra Rahul, (2010-2015), Study of Open Drainage System with The Help of
Remote Sensing Technique: Gomti River Case Study, S-JPSET: Vol. 7, Issue 2, ISSN:
2229-7111 (Print) & ISSN: 2454-5767 (Online), Copyright © Samriddhi, 2010-2015
Gupta L.P., Subramaniam V., (1998), Geochemical Factors Controlling the Chemical Nature
of Water and Sediments in the Gomti River, India, Environmental Geology 36 (1–2)
November 1998 7 Q Springer-verlag
Srivastava Shivani, Et. Al., (2011), Evaluation of Effect of Drains on Water Quality of River
Gomti in Lucknow City Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques, International
Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2, No 1, 2011, ISSN 0976 – 4402
Websites:
Irrigation and Water Resources Development Gomti River Front Development, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh, India, lucknowinfo.com/gomti-river-demo/gomti-river-front-
development.html
Articles:
Gomti River in Lucknow more polluted than Ganga in Varanasi: CAG, The Indian Express,
http://indianexpress.com/article/india/gomti-river-in-lucknow-more-polluted-than-
ganga-in-varansi-cag-4669539/
Singh Priyanka, Polluting Gomti, regularly, religiously, Lucknow News - Times of India,
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Polluting-Gomti-regularly-
religiously/articleshow/29786770.cms
 CHAPTER TEN

JOHAD WATER HARVESTING AND CONSERVATION SYSTEM OF

SHEKHAWATI REGION IN INDIA: A HISTORICAL-CULTURAL
STUDY

Har Lal Singh

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
10.2 Location...........................................................................................................................................
10.3 Johad...............................................................................................................................................
10.4 Objective..........................................................................................................................................
10.5 Building Time & Creator of the Johad............................................................................................
10.6 Johad's rain water collection methods and contribution................................................................
10.7 Current Johads Problems and Suggestion in the
10.8 solution...............................................................
Utility and application.....................................................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

Johad is a wonderful historical system of rain water harvesting and conservation of

Shekhawati region of Rajasthan state located in north-west of India. The people of Rao-
Raja's, Seth-Sahukara's, Samantas, landlords and general cast people, hereby formed the
people of this region, keeping in mind the scarcity of water in the area for their need and
public welfare. This work was completed during the famed famine 'Chhapnia' of India.
Johad is a unique symbol of architecture that is recorded in every town and villages of the
region. It shape is square or rectangular. Artistic umbrellas built on the entrances and corners.
Within it there is a resounding form of Yagyavedi, which is called 'Paat'. Its deepest place is
called 'Beech ki Chaubi'.
With the flow of changing times due to administration and people's indifference, this water
heritage is being destroyed. Which used to be the lifeline of people at any time. The unique
paradigm of fair culture with the social harmony of the area, which are associated with the
region. It this is not preserved, then it will be destroyed as soon as it is destroyed, an
important system of rain water harvesting and social cultural related to it. Presently, the lack
of water has become a challenge for the whole world. I believe that if this heritage is
preserved in a scientific way, then a large source of water can be recovered from the
historical heritage and the cultural associated with it can be preserved.
10.1 INTRODUCTION

Jaipur, the capital of the Indian state of Rajasthan, was a part of the Amer State. Which later
became Jaipur itself in the state. Between the 15th to the 20th centuary was the largest sub-
state in the north-west of Jaipur state which was known as Shekhawati. The word Shekhawati
is made up of local language Shekha and Wati. Where Shekha's relationship is established
with the Maharaja of Amarsar-Naan of the State of Jaipur, the word 'Wati' is made up of the
word 'Watt'. Which means surrounded place. That is the place which has been ruled by the
Maharaja Shekha and his descendants, is called Shekhawati.

10.2 LOCATION

Shekhawati area is located at 27° 20' and 28° 34' North and 74° 41' and 76° 6' East longitude.
Based on cultural parallels and impacts in this area, Sikar, Jhunjhunu and Churu districts of
Rajasthan state are included. Bikaner state in the north and west of Shekhawati, Jodhpur state
in the south-west, the state of Jaipur in the south-east and Patiala and the Loharu state were in
the north-east.
(Sources: Drawing numbers 1, 2 and 3 created by self and downloaded from number 4 multimedia)

Figure 10.1: Shekhawati area (Study Area), Rajasthan, India

10.3 JOHAD
The Jahad Shekhawati area has a unique and unique composition of rainwater harvesting
architecture in the world. Which can be divided into four parts - Agore, Mandir, Chowpada
and Gaughat. Somewhere the structure of the temple is not obtained. So somewhere between
Chowpada and Gaughat, the structure of another second Chowbhi is obtained. Johad, with the
structure of the second Chowbhi, is found in the district of Jhunjhunu, in Alsisar and
Malsisar.
10.3.1 Agore- This is the largest and the widest part of the Johad area. Agore is the entire
area of which every drop of rain runs to collect. That is, Agore is the part of the Johad, from
where rain water reaches Johad. The name of this area is known as Jalagam area in current
water storage programs. In the tradition of Shekhawati, it is known as stepping (paayatan),
pandhaal, taal etc. It can be said to spread Johad's foot.
10.3.2 Mandir- Often there is a temple built in front of the entrance of every johad or in front
of the Gaughat. Which is the second part of the Johad. If there are sculptures in different
types of deities, then there is a God pillar. Statues of Nandi, including Lord Shiva, Ganesha,
Parvati, Hanuman etc., are worshiped mostly around Shivalinga in the idols. Dev column is a
chokor or octagonal sculpted stone shaped by Hanumanji's Ghota. In the upper part of which
four different types of gods and animals are engraved. In Gods, the symbol of the bull in the
Sun, Moon and the Ganesh and the animals is inscribed. Articles on many God pillars have
also been found. These articles are historic sources of Johad's creator, time and religious
beliefs and information of traditions. These temples are the security of Johad and the place of
religious faith of the people. Whose religious greatness is still visible today. When people
enter various occasions within Johad, they first offer Johad's water and flowers leaves and
bow down to the gods and goddesses and enjoy the dessert and food. These temples have
contributed a lot to maintain Johad's cleanliness. Due to this temple being connected to
religious beliefs, people do not allow Johad's water to be polluted. While entering, people
enter their shoes and slippers outside the entrance door. In a way, these temples play the role
of security guard of Johad and environment. There are dome-shaped umbrellas on many of
the temples of Shekhawati's water reservoir.
10.3.3 Chowpada- It is the main part of Johad, which is surrounded by a high wall from all
sides. Although there are six types of ponds found in texts such as Jalashaya Nirupam of
Vishvavallan Ullas, but in Shekhawati, they get mostly square. They are also found in
circular shapes somewhere. We can divide it into two parts from the perspective of
architecture-
10.3.3.1 Outpost view wall construction area- In this part, the wall, artistic entrances and
umbrellas are included. There are dome-shaped art umbrellas on their three entrances and
four corners. Heavy entrances and umbrellas of the Shekhawati johad only make them
different in the world. The centers of tourism attraction are the same parts that hypnotize
anyone with their unique architectural skills.
10.3.3.2 The paat area visible from within- This part is filled with depth through the stairs
from all sides. In this part, the Firniyas and Chaubi are included. After entering the johad, the
stairs are visible. With the help of these, Johad can easily be obtained at the time of water
shortage. The maximum number of these firniyas is eight. This is according to the depth of
Johad. When the height of the firaniyas is high, they are then cut from the middle part and the
size of the smaller stairs has been given. The area surrounded by all the firniyas is called as
Paat. Raindrops were measured at some time by seeing how many water firniyas were
submerged. These firniyias are in the part paat of the johad. At the time of heavy rain, when
Johad was filled up, all the firniyas were drowned in water. The deepest place is called the
beech ki chaubi, which is usually 20 to 30 feet deeper than the water filler at the highest
water level. Most of Shekhawati's Johad's Chaubi is only eight octagonal size. But
somewhere, there is a staircase pillar on the Chaubi boundary. The domes shaped umbrellas
built on this pillar extend towards their splendor. These types of johad include Chokhani
Johada of Mandawa and Johad of Ramgopalji Ganediwal of Fatehpur.
 Photograph 10.1: Paat with Chaupada of Badrana Johad Laxmangarh, Rajasthan
10.3.4 Gaughaat- Gaughat is an important part of the Johad, which is composed of a wall of
each johad, which demonstrates their creators' love for animals. It is the structure of the
triangle, which is surrounded by huge walls from two sides. It is made of leaky dough for
penetration. Its size has been determined keeping in mind the zodiac structure, agore and the
number of cattle in the related area. Where grazing animals in fields and agore lands,
drinking their thirst by drinking water. The Khell is also built in the inner part of the many
Gaughats. In the valley of Moda Pahad in Jhunjhunu district, there is also a portrait of camel
carriage in Gaughat of Jeetmala Ji's Johod. Which makes it different from other johads.

Photograph 10.2: Gaughat of Jeetmalji's Johad Located in Jhunjhunu

(Sources: Published in daily news paper of Dainik Bhaskar)
Photograph 10.3: Paat with Firniyas & Beech Ki Chaubi of Located in Sikar Ganga
Sagar's Johad

Photographs 10.4: Firniya and Umbrell with Pillar on Beech ki Chaubi

10.4 OBJECTIVE

After the Marwar state in Rajasthan, semi-arid region of Rajasthan is Shekhawati. Due to low
rainfall, water storage available in this area is less in proportion to requirement in geological
water and river drains. Therefore, here people have invented various methods of collecting
and preserving each drop of water in the form of rain of water. Today it has been described as
Kund, Lakes, wells, step wells, johad, pond, sir, and tank etc. Present research paper which is
based on the system of water harvesting and conservation of the Johad of Shekhawati. I
believe that Johad can play a decisive role in solving this water problem of this region. A part
from this, the study of various inscriptions, statues, paintings and various styles of
architecture on these zodiacs is possible to establish new dimensions in the history, art and
cultural fields of this region. It has happened that I have tried to add new material mixed with
johads water in the ancient history of this region. Which will certainly prove to be milestone
in the presentation of new territories of the history and culture of this region.

10.5 BUILDING TIME AND CREATOR OF THE JOHAD

Most of Johad of Shekhawati was built during the infamous Chhapniya famine of Vikrammi
Samvat 1956 in 1899. Rao-Raja of Shekhawati, Seth-Sahukar, Samant, Thakur etc. made
them. With the objective of the famine of the people suffering from famine and for the
purpose of public welfare, the construction of this type of water reservoir was important in
two ways-
First, keeping in mind the need of ordinary people, grains were given instead of their day-to-
day labor. So that they could take care of their family. Second, this water reservoir built by
the people's labor has presented a new system of rain water harvesting and conservation to
the world.

10.6. JOHAD'S RAIN WATER COLLECTION METHODS AND CONTRIBUTION

The production of Johads of Shekhawati resulted in two major results. First, a new technique
for saving rain water was born to fight famine. Second- Find an innovative platform to keep
the history, art and culture of the region alive.
10.6.1 Method of collecting rain water in Johad's Paat- This method can be divided into
two parts-
10.6.1.1 Agore area - It is a land situated in a rugged area, which was left in the form of
Gauchar by the Rao kings, Seth Sahukars and Thakurs of some time zones. The biggest
feature of this land is that due to its central part being sloping, the water around it is collected
in its central part. This is the reason that the johads were built in the middle of this agore area
so that the rain water could easily come in the johad's paat. Drains were also made from high
land for this. Pickett drains have also been built on Agore land in Johad of Anataramji,
situated in a rugged Ramgarh-Shekhawati. In which the chambers are built after an interval in
order to prevent rugged silt and soil from entering the johad. This method of gathering water
in Jodh Paat is rarer elsewhere.
 Photograph 10.5: Drains built in Agore area of Johad of Anant Ramji of Ramgarh-
Shekhawati

10.6.1.2 Johad's walled area - To make the rain water brought through the drains from the
Agore region to the johad pool, the holes in the wall of Johad remained. The size of these
holes was determined keeping in mind the depth and depth of the Agor and Johad and the
perimeter area. Several Johad have been split by putting the stopper in the middle of the hole.
When the silt came out with water, it could be stopped outside. This system has been used in
the pond of Harinarayanji located in Ponkh.
10.6.2 Johad's contribution as a guide and creator of lifestyle- This section contains
details of architecture, history and traditions established by the people of Shekhawati during
Jawhar construction, which taught the people here to live life. This is where most of the
social religious traditions of the region have been born.
10.6.2.1 History Building- The historical excursions of Shekhawati are numerous. Here, an
example is being told that the people of the region have shed blood for their close relatives
for the construction of johad. It happened that there was a fierce famine in Vikrami Samvat
1653 during the reign of Raja Raisal of Khandela. For the welfare of the people suffering
from this famine, Raja Raisal's son Bhojraj was making a johad in Hod village. Suffering
people were being given Bhagar (Buckwheat) of their labor. The public was getting big relief
from famine. But it did not like to give Kalyandas the son of Bhojraj's elder brother
Laadkhan. Kalyanadas stopped giving this food in the absence of his uncle. When Bhojraj
came to know about this, he became very angry and killed Kalyan Das. This incident caused
anger in the brothers of Kalyan Das. In this situation, Laadkhan explained to his sons that
Kalyanadas has dissolved the tradition of his grandfather (King Raisal). Whose punishment
he got So it is not okay to hate your uncle. This type of example is rare in the creation of the
water heritage in any country of the world.
10.6.2.2 Cultural Development- The Shekhawati area has its own independent traditions.
These have created and developed different cultures of this region. The fairs and celebratory
festivals celebrating in the Shekhawati region culture play a major role. In these fairs, the
festivals of Gangaur, Teej, Gogaji, Sheetla Mata and Gopashtami seem to be on the edge of
some of Shekhawati's johad. Competition to focus on horse racing on the occasion of the fair,
camel race and gun floating on the water of Johad, was once the center of special attraction.
During this time a large crowd of the area gathered to see these activities. Shekhawati's
largest animal fair, located in Badrana Johad in Nawalgarh, is in the fairs. For organizing
animal fairs, Johads have been ranked best. In addition to the purchase and sale of animals on
fair occasions, animal dance, pagdi bandhai and mustache competitions have been organized
as part of cultural activities.
Shekhawati's fairs have a close relationship with festivals here. The joy and glee of these
festivals can be seen on the edge of the johad. On the occasion of Teej Mela, the immersion
of dolls by the girls is a special tradition located on Johad. A part from this, there is also a
tradition of immortalization of statues of goddesses on these zones. Among them, on the
occasion of Gangaur, Durgashtami and Ganesh Chaturthi, the tradition of immersion after the
worship of various goddesses, including Gangaur Isher is a tradition of immersion. In the
construction of Shekhawati culture, a special Kartik Snan tradition of johads is also a big
contribution. Kartik Snan is a mass bath in Johad in Kartik month by women. Due to the
religious significance of this bath, the women of the region continue to fast for a month for
the well-being of their families. In the third afternoon of the night, women go to Johad
singing hymns and collectively bath them there. Before the sunrise, they return home and
they come home and worship the Khejari tree after listening to the Kartik Snan story.
Photograph 10.6: Badrana Johad in Nawalgarh, performing camel dancing in cattle fair

10.6.2.3 Architecture Development- The contribution of Shekhawati's Johad in architectural

creation and development is unforgettable. However, various parts of Johad's architecture
have been mentioned earlier. Here only their significant contribution is being made. The
entire structure of Johad is unique. Although the domed umbrellas existed before their
creation. But they were used only in the temples and monuments. It is worth mentioning here
that Shekhawati has the credit for using refined and artistic umbrellas on the entrances and
corners of the Johad. Shekhawati's own invention is also the creation of a separate Ghat for
cattle and animals, including the Feraniis in Paat. Such structures are unavailable elsewhere.

10.7 CURRENT JOHADS PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTION IN THE SOLUTION

There are currently many problems of Johads. Here the details of their major problems are
being presented. Which are as follows:
10.7.1 Johad's biggest problem is its Agore area. At any time, the ruler of Shekhawati and the
manufacturer of Johad had left thousands of acres of land for the Gauchar in Agare area. But
now most of the land has become a victim of encroachment. If, in fact, Johad's is to be saved,
then the land of the Agore area will be first free from encroachment. Although this task is not
easy but we have to get started.
10.7.2 The second major problem of the Johads is illegal construction in the Agore area. Due
to which rain water does not reach within Johad. To bring water within Johad, this illegal
construction must be removed. Although from some years the Shekhawati area has very little
rainfall and there is no systematic plan to save the water as it is getting. Because of the illegal
construction and construction of railway tracks, bridges, roads etc. in the Agro area, rain
water cannot enter them. During the rainy season, many johad even collect extra water in the
agro area even after filling it. While many johads remain dry. If these zones are connected
with the pipeline, then a large part of the water can be saved from being wasted.
10.7.3 Most johad's are filled with a lot of dirt, which is a stigma on their brightness. Under
NREGA or Jal Swavalamban campaign, cleaning and safety wall can be constructed around
them. A part from this, the dirty water of the town or town is being poured. It is destroying
the original form of johads. To solve this problem, local government, semi-government and
private institutions can be constituted to ensure their supervision. If these institutions are set
up by the Rajasthan government in bringing legislation to the legislature, I feel that it will be
possible to solve many problems related to johad.

10.8 UTILITY AND APPLICATION

The biggest utility and application of the research paper presented is that this innovative
historical rainwater harvesting and conservation system of Shekhawati area can be adopted as
an alternative to resolving existing water crisis present at international level. I believe that in
addition to solutions from the water crisis through intensive research of this system, new
areas of history, art, literature, technology and local culture can benefit from every corner of
the world.
(Declaration: I have click all the photos except the photo number 3)
***************
REFERENCES
Arya, H. S. (2013). Shekhawati ka rajnaitik evam samaskritik itihas (In Hindi), Jaipur,
Panchsheel prakashna, pp. 1-7
Singh Narayan, Shekhawati Ka Bhoogol, p. 8
View, http://sikar.rajasthan.gov.in/content/raj/sikar/en/about-sikar/location-area.html
View, http://www.jhunjhunu.rajasthan.gov.in/content/raj/jhunjhunu/en/about-jhunjhunu/
location-area.html
Impact Area
Sharma K.G. and Meena M.L. (2011) Archaeological pre and proto history of Shekhawati
region, Unpublished research book, pp. 1-2
On the basis of direct visit and experience during the research visit.
Purohit P (2008). Aaj bhi prasangik hai paramparagat jal strot, Maharaja Man Singh pustak
prakash shodh Kendra, Meharangarh museum trust, durg, Jodhpur, p. 51
Jethu B (2015). Hamari Jal Paramparayein (in hindi). Pulkit Prakashan. Baanwalon Ka
Darwaza, Chaura Rasta, Jaipur . 82 p.
On the basis of direct visit and experience during the research visit.
Vishvavallan Ullas, Jalashaya Nirupam-2, Shloka 1-10
Sarraf Johad located in Mandawa.
On the basis of direct visit and experience during the research visit.
Pareek, Rajkumar (1997) Shekhawati Ke Sadabahar Johade, Sujas Annual (In Hindi), pp. 26-
29
On the basis of direct visit and experience during the research visit.
As before.
Based on the study of inscriptions found on johad's.
On the basis of direct visit and experience during the research visit.
Rathore, M. S. (2004). Udaipurwati digdarshan, (In Hindi) Gudha-Gaurji (Jhunjhunu).
Udaipurwati vikash smarika prakashna samiti, pp. 45-46
Singh Harlal, Gupta Manju (2018). Shekhawati anchal ke mele va tyohar (Jal dharohar ke
etihasik-sanskritik adhhyayan ke vishesh sandarbh me) Vol.3, Issue.III. Available:
http://www.jmsjournals.in/PreviousIssue.aspx
Singh Harlal, Gupta Manju (2018). Shekhawati ke jal mandiron ki snan paramparayein : Ek
Itihasik-sanskritik adhhyayan. Vol.3, Issue.II. Available:
http://researchinspiration.com/latestIssue.aspx
On the basis of direct visit and experience during the research visit.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

DYE WASTEWATER TREATMENT BY GREEN CHEMISTRY

Jyoti Pathak

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
11.2 Dyes...............................................................................................................................................
11.3 Characteristics of effluents.............................................................................................................
11.4 Treatment Methodology.................................................................................................................
11.5 Use of Biocoagulants ....................................................................................................................
11.6 Use of Agricultural Waste .............................................................................................................
11.7 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................
 References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT
Textile mills use various dyes and discharge a large amount of colour rich waste water, which
are not only hazardous for the human health but also affect environment adversely. These
textile effluents are treated before discharge due to environmental issues. Waste water
treatment in textile & dye industries involve the treatment of this colored wastewater in
different concentrations. The major criterion used for this waste water treatment is
coagulation. Wastewater mainly consisting of reactive dyes is treated with polyalluminium
chloride, polyamine & poly DADMAC. The method is efficient for BOD and TSS but not
effective for colour removal. This article presents the increasing practice and application of
bio coagulants in spite of inorganic coagulants ferric, alum and organic coagulants like PAC,
PloyDADMAC & polyamines. Bio coagulants mainly include seeds of Azadirachta indica
(Neem), Acanthocerus tetragonus (Cactus), seeds of Moringa Olifea (Senjan) etc. use of bio-
coagulants is very effective with almost 99 % colour removal for coagulant doses 300-
1500mg/L. This dose is higher than chemical coagulants. Using focused beam of reflectance,
sludge value of 50 ml/g was obtained for one and half hour. Bioformulation of chemical
coagulants lowers the doses upto one third and also improved the performance upto 50%.
Keywords: Coagulation, Bio coagulants, focused beam reflectance, Sludge value.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Wastewater derived from the manufacture of dyes contains variety of compounds, raw
materials e.g. aniline, intermediates and final product dyes itself similarly textile wastewater
contains dyes in large amount and suspended solid also. In textile industries 20-300m 3 water
is used per ton of textile produced thus these industries produce a large quantity of
wastewater as a result of dyeing and other processes. Synthetic chemical dyes are also used in
other industries like pulp and paper manufacture, paint, plastic and leather industries.
Effluents of such industries are very toxic due to high TDS, presence of heavy metals, silica
and non-biodegradable dyes. Effluents of these industries are discharged into water bodies,
thus is hazardous for aquatic organisms, human health and environment. It is necessary to
decrease the quantity of dyes in the effluent before discharge or disposal and reusing the
wastewater in an effective manner. Environment protection act, 1986 and other laws are
endorsed for proper management of hazardous waste generated during the treatment of
effluent. There are many approaches to treat this wastewater including Physical, chemical and
biological etc. but they are costly and not eco-friendly.

11.2 DYES

Powder / Solid dyes may be basic such as Rhodamine, malachite green. Victoria blue,
bismarsk brown are solvent dyes. Liquid dyes are mainly Rhodamine(l), crystal violet(l) and
basic yellow(l). By products are NH3, C6H5NH2 & N based organic compounds . Many of
these dyes are toxic and carcinogenic in nature. They impart imbalance on biological
metabolism and thus destruct the aquatic and other ecosystem. Dye wastewater treatment is a
difficult task as the dyes are recalcitrant organic molecules, resistant to aerobic digestion and
stable to light /heat.

11.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFLUENTS

The main parameters that characterize the dye wastewater are

COD : Chemical oxygen demand
BOD : Biochemical oxygen demand
SS : Suspended solids
DS : Dissolved solids
COLOUR & ODOUR: Clearly indicates the presence of dyes and other impurities.
 Total solids: – They include both suspended and dissolved solids. Suspended solids
are determined by filtering wastewater sample. Suspended solid include volatile
suspended solids and fixed suspended solids.
 pH: - Acidic effluents may cause corrosion to the treatment scheme.
 COD: - Organic compounds are oxidized to H2O and CO2 by strong oxidizing agents.
 BOD: - It provides measurement of O2 utilized by microorganisms which oxidise the
organic compounds present in wastewater. this test is direct measure of O 2
requirement and indirectly measures biodegradable organic matter.
Method to be applied for the treatment of wastewater depends on BOD and COD
level of wastewater.
 BOD/COD<2 indicates easily biodegradable nature.
 BOD/COD>2 indicates not easily biodegradable nature.
  Higher value of COD and presence of toxics and pollutants indicate not easily
biodegradable and toxic nature.
 Types of dyes / raw materials present.

11.4 TREATMENT METHODOLOGY

Main motives of treatment methodology-

 To provide an effective method for the treatment and disposal of waste water.
 Including and enhancing recycle reuse and recover.
 It should be economic for small scale industries also.
 It should be friendly for environment.
11.4.1 Chemical Methods
Chemical methods consist of coagulation or flocculation combined with floatation, filtration,
precipitation, electrokinetic coagulation, oxidation and electrochemical processes. These
methods are expensive and not environment friendly. High electrical energy demand and
consumption of chemical regents are also major problems.
11.4.2 Physical Methods
These methods are highly effective in dye removal. Physical methods include sedimentation,
screening, skimming and degastification. Adsorbents like activated carbon, coal, silica, clay,
wood, cotton and other agricultural wastes are used for the treatment of waste water.
11.4.3 Biological methods
These methods are cheaper and simpler in application and environmentally friendly as they
produce no secondary toxic sludge. Microorganism like Aspergillus niger, Chlorella sp.,
Bacillus cereus mostly play important role in the dyes wastewater treatment. However, such
methods are limited in applications as they don’t provide satisfactory colour removal,
removal of toxic heavy metals, require large land area and non-biodegradability of some
dyes. The aim of applying biological methods in the treatment of wastewater is to reduce
biological oxygen demand BOD. Under suitable environmental conditions, soluble organic
substances of wastewater are oxidized completely. These methods include aerobic and
anaerobic degradation depending upon the microorganisms involved in degradation. These
processes are used separately and combinedly.
11.4.4 Primary Treatment Process
First step to treat wastewater is the removal of suspended solids, oil, grease etc. Effluent is
screened for coarse suspended materials like yarns, lint, fabric-pieces, rags using bar screens
and fine screens.
11.4.4.1 Coagulation
It is an effective method to remove colour from dye wastewater coagulants are used as alum,
clay, poly aluminum chloride (PAC), Aluminum chloride AlCl 3, Al2(SO4), FeCl3 and FeSO4
etc. High doses are required and large amounts of sludge disposal creates secondary pollution
problems. Polyamine and organic coagulants such as polydiallyl methyl ammonium chloride,
poly DADMAC and poly amine have been proved to be effective alternatives to the inorganic
coagulants and can enhance the removal of pollutants and toxicants from the waste water.
11.4.4.2 Flocculation
Flocculation is a gentle mixing stage which increase the particle size from sub microscopic
micro floc to visible suspended particles. Microfloc particles collide causing them to bond to
produce larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. By further collisions and interaction with
coagulants, macro flocs are formed.
11.4.5 Secondary treatment process
Removal of dyes and oil from the wastewater by the use of Microorganism in aerobic
condition.
11.4.6 Tertiary process
Final removal and purification process in which treated water is separated from sludge by
passing through tertiary filter.
11.4.7 Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP)
Highly reactive and nonselective oxidizing agent OH0 radical is generated by AOPs. OH0
radical destroys the pollutants present in waste water, reacts in mild conditions and creates no
secondary pollution. various AOPs like O3, UV, H2O2 provide efficient treatment of waste
water. Ozone is artificially produced by UV-O3 generators, vacuum – UV generators and
cold plasma ozone generators. OH0 free radicals are then produced due to the depletion of O 3
at pH>8 depletion of ozone increases with pH these radicals react with organic matter,
microorganism, metal salts. O3 reacts mainly by addition, substitution and ozonide formation.
O3 is strong germicide and disinfectant. It is a strong oxidant which removes colour, odour,
eliminates toxicants and assist in coagulation. 10% removal of COD is reported at pH8.
Higher TOC and COD removal have been found on pH-7. Colour removal of dye/textile
waste water depends on initial COD. 95-99% colour removal has been found for COD 200-
160 mg/L. Colour removal efficiency depends on temperature also. Peroxone, a mixture of
H2O2 and O3 is used for water waste treatment. H 2O2 acting as a catalyst, accelerates the
decomposition of O3. At high pH, H2O2 readily dissociates into HO2 which initiates the
decomposition of O3. It works efficiently at pH 7-10. Colour removal rate is independent of
PH but the COD removal does so H2O2 alone is not much effective in the treatment of dye
wastewater at low or high pH. But under UV irradiation, H 2O2 are Photolysed to produce OH0
radicals which react with organic pollutants. It generates no sludge during the treatment,
works under mild conditions & O2 produced is utilized in aerobic decay processes. Colour
removal by this process is efficient at low pH. Time taken in removal depends on the type of
dye. For a 30 dyes 30-90 min has been reported. UV power if increased from 18 to 54 W,
removal efficiency reaches to almost 100% Fenton’s reagent (H 2O2 / Fe2+) produces OH0
radicals in a large amount. Oxidation of organic compounds takes place in aqueous medium,
colour removal efficiency increases with FeSo4 amount. TiO2 /UV is preferred AOP due to its
stability under various conditions like high radical production, easy availability, low
economy & high degradation efficiency.

11.5 USE OF BIOCOAGULANTS

Moringa olifera contains various Phytochemicals which have medicinal uses. They are rich
in glucosinolates and isothiocyanates. In ancient time, seed of moringa were used to treat
suspicious water in northern Nigeria. Now newer biocoagulants, e.g. seeds of Azadirachta
indica (Neem) and pads of Acanthocereus tetragonus are used along with Moringa olifera
and Cicer arietinum seeds. These biocoagulants were applied for the removal of congo red
dye. Uses of these biocoagulants were found to be very effective and pH sensitive. Upto 99%
dye removal was achieved for coagulant doses in the range of 300-1500 mg/L. though the
doses of biocoagulants are higher than chemical coagulants a satisfactory good value was
obtained for sludge volume ~50ml/g for 1hr & 30min respectively for both Acanthocereus
and Moringa. Combining it with chemical coagulants lowered the doses and improved
coagulating efficiency upto 50%. The coagulation solution is prepared with Moringa olifera
seeds offered the removal of seed coats. Seeds are ground to powder, sieved and mixed with
0.5M NaCl solution. Temp. of wastewater initially 25.50c was 18.50c after the treatment. pH
reaches from 9.5 to 7.2 & TDS from 309 ppm to 32 ppm offer the treatment. In a mixture of
direct, acid and reactive dyes with individual concentration of 30 ppm, colour removal is 82%
with dose 25 ml/L. This process is highly efficient for azo dyes as it removes upto 95%
colour within 30-50 Min.
11.6 USE OF AGRICULTURAL WASTE

Various plants extracts of gum, guar, tannine, Moringa and cacti are used for dye removal.
73-87% colour removal efficiency has been reported at the pH 9.5. Strychni potatorum
(Nirmali) seeds are efficient upto 80%. 98% colour removal efficiency has been reported
about gum Arabic. Agriculture wastes are renewable, available in large amounts & cheap.
They are better than chemical and other adsorbents as they need minimum or no processing.
Prickly bark of cactus fruit is used as a low cost biomaterial for the dye waste water
treatment. It is used specially to remove methylene blue from the aqueous solution by its
adsorption on the PBCF. Raw material is dried in sun light for 15 days at room temp. ground
to powder & sieved to obtain particles with size below 351 nm. PBCF surface area was
studied by measuring Iodine number which was found to be 436. 25 ml of methylene blue
dye was separated by 0.1gm PBCF. By FTIR spectrum, equilibrium time for the sorption of
MB into PBCF was found to be 60 Min. Sorption capacity was observed 222.22 mg/g as
according to Freundlich and Langmuir models. sorption increase with the dose of PBCF.
Activated charcoal prepared by agricultural waste is the most popular material. It has low
cost, high porosity, hence high sorption increases the removal efficiency. It is prepared by
corn straw, wheat straw, rice straw, sawdust, cottons stalk, coconut husk etc.

11.7 CONCLUSION

Many techniques are available to remove dyes from waste water such as coagulation,
oxidation (chemical), filtration by membrane, microbial degradation, etc. These methods are
efficient in colour removal but have many restrictions. Now a dyes adsorption is preferred
over other methods due to being cheap and good colour removal efficiency oxidation is
simple in application but H2O2 needs to be activated. H2O2+Fe(II) generates sludge and hence
secondary pollution. O3 doesn’t increase the amount of waste water but has short half-life
electro chemical destruction needs no chemicals but colour removal efficiency is not so high.
low cost adsorbents derived from agricultural wastes have been used for dye removal.
Moringa seeds & AC obtained by agricultural wastes offer promising results with maximum
efficiency and removal capacity.

References
1. C. Gianluca and R. Nicola (2001), Technical note, the treatment and reuse of
wastewater in the textile industry means of ozonation and electroflocculation, water
Research, 351 567-572.
2. Coagulants for optimal wastewater Treatment from Beckart Environment.
3. Illinoisattorneygeneral.gov. Retrived 21 may (2011).
4. FR. Basilini VA-Lentini, pp-80-81., (1625).
5. Anliker, R. “Color chemistry and the environment”. Coloration Technology 8.1
(1977): 60-72.
6. Advanced Oxidation Process for Treatment of Textile and Dye wastewater, Shashank
singh kalra, satyam mohan, alok sinha and Gurdeep singh, Department of
environmental Science and Engineering, Indian school of mines, Dhanbad, India.
7. Tang. H. 1990 Basic researches on inorganic polymer flocculant. Environment
chemistry, 10:1-12.
8. Kim. T.K. Park C. shin. E. Kim S. 2004 Decolorization of disperse and reactive dye
solution using ferric chloride. Desalination, 161:49-58.
9. Anliker, R. “Color chemistry and the environment”. Ecotoxicology and environmental
safety 1.2 (1977): 211-237.
10. Dyes and Pigments manufacturing industrial waste water treatment methodology,
Department of Chemical Engineering, Ujjain Engineering college Ujjain, (M.P.) India
and Associate Professor chemical engineering department, Ujjain Engineering college
Ujjain, (M.P.) India.
11. A. Reife, “Dyes environmental chemistry”, Othmer encyclopaedia of chemical
technology, 8, 1993, pp, 753-784.
12. U. pagga and D Brown “The degradation of dyestuffs part II Behaviour of dyestuff in
aerobic biodegradation tests”. Chemosphere vol. 15, 1986, pp, 479-491.
13. Standard method for ammonia concentration. APHA-4500 NH3 C.
14. Das, Subrata. “Textile effluent treatment – A solution to the Environmental
Pollution.” (2000).
15. Treatment of Direct Blending De Wastewater and Recycling of Dye Sludge, Xin-Hui
Xu, Ming-Li Li and Yuan Yuan, State key Laboratry of Pollution Control and
Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji
University, Shanghai 200092, China, E-Mails : [email protected](X.-H..X.);
[email protected](Y.Y.)
 16. Rideal, Samuel. “Disinfection and Disinfectants (an introduction to the study of).”
(1895)

CHAPTER TWELVE

PERFORMANCE AND PROPERTIES OF GRANULES IN ANAMMOX

HYBRID REACTOR FOR THE TREATMENT OF NITROGENLADEN
WASTEWATER

Swati Tomar and Sunil Kumar Gupta

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
12.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
12.2 Material and
Methods......................................................................................................................
12.2.1 Experimental
setup................................................................................................................
12.2.2 Origin of
12.3 biomass..................................................................................................................
12.2.3 Strategy of operation............................................................................................................
12.2.4 Methods of Analysis..............................................................................................................
Results and Discussion....................................................................................................................
12.3.1 Effect of seed culture on early startup and acclimation of AHR..........................................
12.3.2 Contribution of filter media towards reduction in sludge washout rate..............................
12.4 12.3.3 Morphology of anammox granules.......................................................................................
12.3.4 Physico-chemical properties of granular
sludge..................................................................
Conclusions.....................................................................................................................................
.
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT
The process performance and stability of bioreactors largely depends upon biomass retention
and good granulation. Anammox hybrid reactor (AHR), which is a conglomeration of
attached and suspended growth was attempted in the study for nitrogen removal from
synthetic wastewater. AHR was inoculated with mixed seed culture containing anoxic and
activated sludge (1:1 v/v). Early startup and acclimation of the reactor was achieved with an
average ammonium removal efficiency of 94.3% at a nitrogen loading rate (NLR) of 0.35 kg
N/m3d. Filter media in AHR contributed an additional 29% reduction in sludge washout rate.
Morphology of the granules formed in anammox process were studied using scanning
electron microscope (SEM) and settling tests were carried out to investigate the settling
velocity and granule size distribution across the bed of the bioreactor. SEM observation of
the granular sludge clearly indicated the presence of heterogeneous population of cocci and
rod shaped bacteria with an average size and settling velocity of 1.2-1.5 mm and 45.6 m/h,
respectively. The promising features of early start-up, significantly higher nitrogen removal
efficiency (NRE) coupled with high biomass retention ability, makes hybrid reactor
configuration most suitable for the treatment of nitrogen laden wastewaters. Moreover, well
compacted granules formed in AHR can be used for field-scale implementation of the
technology.
Keywords: anammox, nitrogen removal, hybrid reactor, granulation, mixed seed culture.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Anaerobic AMMomium OXidation is a novel and promising alternative to the conventional

nitrogen removal processes owing to significant reduction in aeration costs and small
footprint, exogenous electron donor saving, low sludge production coupled with significantly
higher nitrogen removal efficiency. The process has shown wide-scale application for the
treatment of a variety of nitrogen laden wastewaters, such as sludge digested liquor, fertilizer
effluent, landfill leachate, coke oven waste water, pharmaceuticals, etc. (Wang et. al., 2017;
Keluskar et. al., 2013; Miao et. al., 2018; Toh and Ashbolt, 2002; Tang et. al., 2011a).
However, field-scale implementation of anammox is severely limited by long startup periods
and poor granulation. Startup times varying as long as 1,000 days is reported for anammox
processes in different reactor configurations using variety of seed sludges, such as activated
sludge (Dapena Mora et. al., 2004), nitrifying activated sludge (Van der Star et. al., 2007),
and anaerobic sludge (Jetten et. al., 2005), etc.
Granulation can serve as an effective strategy to boast anammox performance (Tang
et. al., 2011b; Van der Star et. al., 2007; Arrojo et. al., 2008; López et. al., 2008). Excessive
secretion of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) corresponding to high nitrogen loading
rates facilitates the formation of well compacted granules with better settling ability. EPS
increases the resistance to adverse factors, thereby enhancing the process efficiency several
folds (Batchelor et. al., 1997). Thus, granulation of anammox biomass offers significant
biomass retention and can overcome the limitation caused by the low growth rate,
accumulating a sufficient biomass in the anammox reactor to deliver better performance
(Dapena-Mora et. al., 2004; Schmidt et. al., 2004). Several researchers have also reported that
extensive acclimation of anammox biomass using granular sludge of appropriate particle size,
density and microfilm characteristics enhances the reactor efficiency in addition to reduction
in start-up time (Molinuevo et. al., 2009; Abbasi and Abbasi, 2012). Super high-rate UASB
reactors inoculated with granular sludge demonstrated remarkable anammox activity with a
total NRR of 74.3-76.7 kgN/m3d, which is three times the highest reported value (Tang et. al.,
2011b). Similarly, Chen et. al., (2011) achieved total NRR of 18.65 kg N/(m 3d) at a Nitrogen
Loading Rate (NLR) of 22.87 kg N/(m 3d) using granular anaerobic sludge as an inoculum in
Expanded Granular Sludge Bed (ESGB) reactor. Thus, with the development of granular
sludge, maximum nitrogen removal efficiency (NRE) even at higher NLR can be achieved.
However, continuous elevation in loading rates might result in sludge flotation and even
washout leading to deterioration of reactor performance.
To overcome this lacuna of sludge washout, Hybrid reactor was adopted in the study.
Hybrid configuration of bioreactor conglomerates the dual advantages of attached and
suspended growth and offers high sludge retention, which may accelerate the process of
startup and granulation. The present study shall investigate the role of filter media towards
biomass retention. There is little information available on the process of granulation and
morphology of anammox. The emphasis of the present work is to develop anammox granules
in a hybrid reactor configuration using mixed seed sludge and study its morphological
characteristics in addition to other physico-chemical properties. The study shall also discuss
size distribution of the granules at the bottom of the sludge bed.

12.2 MATERIAL AND METHODS

12.2.1 Experimental setup

Schematic diagram of AHR along with the lab-scale experimental setup is depicted in Fig.
12.1. The reactor was fabricated of a transparent acrylic plastic with an internal diameter of
10 cm and height 65 cm. The total working volume was 5 litres. Corrugated polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) pipes of length 2.25 cm and diameter 2.25 cm were used as filter media. Total
55 nos. of PVC carriers were added to the reactor to constitute an attached growth system.
Hybrid reactor conglomerates the dual advantages of attached and suspended growth. The
sludge blanket in the lower half acts as a suspended growth system while filter media in the
upper part provides surface area for the attachment of biofilms (Tomar et al. 2017; Tomar et
al. 2015). AHR was fed with synthetic wastewater (Van de Graaf et. al., 1996) using
peristaltic pump to maintain a constant flow rate.
Figure 12.1: (A) Schematic diagram of AHR (B) Experimental set-up of AHR

12.2.2 Origin of biomass

Mixed seed culture of anoxic and activated sludge, 1:1 (v/v) was used as an inoculum for
AHR. Anoxic sludge was collected from the bottom of waste stabilization pond treating
municipal sewage and the activated sludge was obtained from Durgapur Coke Oven Effluent
Treatment Plant. The mixed inoculum sludge was brownish-black in color with VSS/TSS
ratio of 0.2. The reactor was seeded with the mixed seed sludge to maintain the optimum
sludge loading rate of 0.1 mgN/mg VSS.d (Ghangrekar et. al., 1996).

12.2.3 Strategy of operation

The reactors were started with initial influent ammonium and nitrite concentrations of 35
mg/l each to maintain NO2/NH4 ratio of 1:1 at an HRT (hydraulic retention time) of 1 day.
Influent pH was maintained at 7.5 and fresh synthetic wastewater was fed daily. The reactor
was initially operated for a period of 85 days till the attainment of pseudo-steady state
condition in the bioreactor. Thereafter, the concentration of influent nitrogen was gradually
stepped up to 350 mg/l for acclimation of biomass to higher concentration. To study the
effect of filter media, the effluent samples were collected and analyzed from outlets I and II
(one above and the other below the filter media) and the respective contribution of attached
growth system was worked out. The morphology and other physico-chemical properties of
the granules were examined after the granulation was confirmed in the reactor.

12.2.4 Methods of Analysis

SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) was adopted as a tool to study the morphology of the
granules formed in anammox process. The settling velocity of the granules were obtained
using using a glass-column, which was 90 cm in height to ensure that the terminal settling
velocity could be obtained (Fig. 12.2). Stoke’s law was used to assess the percent fines settled
in given interval of time during the column study. The percent of various sizes of the granules
were obtained by estimating the mass fractions of granules settled at various intervals of time
in column study. The analysis of pH, alkalinity, NH4-N, NO2-N and NO3-N was carried out as
per the standard methods (APHA, 2012). The biomass concentrations were determined as
VSS, TSS initially on weekly basis and later on at an interval of 15 days to study the effect of
filter media on sludge washout rate.

Figure 12.2: Glass column for estimating the settling velocity of anammox granules

12.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

12.3.1 Effect of seed culture on early startup and acclimation of AHR

The performance of AHR inoculated with mixed seed culture was monitored for period of 85
days. Startup of anammox process delineated four distinct phases i.e. cell lysis phase, lag
phase, exponential phase and stationary phase. In the cell lysis phase, no ammonium removal
was obtained indicating complete absence of anammox activity. In the second phase, activity
of denitrifiers was suppressed while anammox activity in the reactor slowly enhanced.
Continuous and sharp increase in the ammonium and nitrite removal was observed during
exponential phase. Thereafter, nitrogen removal performance finally reached a relative
stationary phase, due to establishment of psuedo steady state conditions in the reactor. This
phase is characterized by almost constant ammonium and nitrite removal profile. Startup of
anammox reactor was achieved in 70 days in our study. Bagchi et. al., (2010) reported startup
of anammox process in 82 days in CSTR. While, Banihani et. al., (2012) reported extremely
longer startup period of 4.5 months in UASB reactor. The startup period found in our case
was much shorter than reported by others (Lopez et. al., 2008; Bagchi et. al., 2010; Banihani
et. al., 2012), which may be attributed to the use of mixed seed culture and hybrid reactor
configuration which fostered enhanced biomass retention, accelerating the process startup
many folds.
After successful startup, the concentration of influent nitrogen was gradually
increased up to 350 mg/L for acclimation of biomass to higher concentration. With each step
increase in the influent ammonium concentration, AHR registered a slight decline in
ammonium removal efficiency (ARE) approximately 5-10%, initially for 3-4 days which later
got stabilized (Fig. 12.3). During this phase, NRR of 0.33 kg N/m 3d was achieved at a
corresponding NLR of 0.35 kg N/m3d and HRT of 1 day. ARE and nitrite removal efficiency
was registered around 94.3% and 96.4% respectively.  Higher availability of substrate and
better adaptation of anammox consortia to increased nitrogen concentration enabled higher
substrate removal efficiency in this phase. Several researchers investigated anammox activity
in different reactor configurations and attained variable NRR, which may be attributed to
variation in NLR, reactor configuration and seed sludge adopted in various studies. Bagchi et.
al., (2010) established anammox process in continuously stirred tank reactor and achieved
maximum NRR of 0.216 kg N/m3d at NLR of 0.231 kg N/m 3d. Tang et. al., (2013)
successfully demonstrated anammox process in UASB reactor and achieved maximum NRR
of 2.09 kg N/m3d using anaerobic granular sludge as an inoculum. Significantly higher
nitrogen removal efficiency in our study may be attributed to use of mixed seed culture
containing both anammox and denitrifiers, which simultaneously accounted for removal of
ammonium and nitrite. Another possible reason could be filter media in AHR, which acts as a
mechanical sieve and provides polishing treatment to the outgoing effluent, resulting
enhanced nitrogen removal efficiency.
 Figure 12.3: Nitrogen removal performance of AHR during acclimation phase

12.3.2 Contribution of filter media towards reduction in sludge washout rate

Nitrogen removal performance of AHR greatly depends upon biomass retention and its
granulation inside the reactor. The role of filter media towards reduction in sludge washout
rate was investigated by analyzing the effluent samples from outlet I and II, one above and
below the filter media. The average sludge washout rate at outlets I was considerably lower
(0.22 g/d) than outlet II (0.30 g/d) (Fig.12.4). The average VSS reduction between outlets I
and II was found 29%. This may be attributed to the filter media which acts as a mechanical
sieve and reduces the washout of sludge from the bioreactor. The media also provides surface
area for the attachment of biofilm, which also acts as a polishing unit and aids to additional
ammonium removal. Duan et. al., (2012) also reported that the use of non-woven carrier as
filter media effectively increased the biomass retention by 2.8% and overall NRR by 8.1 % in
the hybrid reactor. Appreciably higher biomass retention in our study attributes to higher
sludge residence time (SRT) due to the filter media in AHR, which catches anammox cells
effectively thereby minimizing the sludge wash out from the bioreactor.
 Outlet I (g/d) Outlet II (g/d) % VSS reduction

0.45 35

0.40 30
Sludge washout rate (g/d)

% VSS reduction
0.35 25

0.30 20

0.25 15

0.20 10

0.15 5

0.10 0
160 165 170 175 180 185
Time (days)

Figure 12.4: Contribution of attached growth system in % VSS reduction

12.3.3 Morphology of anammox granules

SEM was adopted as a tool to study the morphology of the granules formed in anammox
process. The morphology of granular anammox sludge (Fig. 12.5 B) indicated the presence of
heterogeneous bacterial population consisting of both cocci and rod shape along with few
filamentous microorganisms found in clusters (Tang et. al., 2011b) as shown in Fig. 12.5 (A).
A few stayed separate, while most tended to grow in clusters as reported by other researchers
(Tijhuis et. al., 1996; Trigo et. al., 2006). Interstitial voids and gas tunnels were usually found
embedded in the mesh connecting several microbial cell clusters which served as channels for
transport of substrate, metals and gases through the granules. The size distribution of the
granules was found comparable with the values reported (0.01-2.00 mm) in literature (Bagchi
et. al., 2010; Duan et. al., 2012). Vlaeminck et. al., (2010) also investigated the morphology
and size distribution of granules in OLAND reactor and reported that the granular surface
was heterogeneous and rough with irregular shapes like lobate extrusions and cavities.
Figure 12.5: (A) Cluster of cocci and rod shaped bacteria in anammox sludge
(B) SEM of anammox granule in AHR

12.3.4 Physico-chemical properties of granular sludge

The physical characteristics and size distribution of anammox granules is depicted in Table
12.1. The average size of the anammox granules varied in the range 0.8 to 2 mm. Size
distribution of the granules indicated majority of the granules (45%) were of size 1.2-1.5 mm
followed by 30% of size 0.8-1.2 mm (Fig. 12.6). The settling velocity of the granules varied
in the range 12.5-77.7 m/h, with the average settling velocity of 45.6 m/h which is
comparable with the values reported in the literature (36.4-67.8 m/h) (Lu et. al., 2012; Duan
et. al., 2012; Gupta and Gupta, 2005). In addition, percentage of the granules and VSS/TS
ratio was found appreciably high (0.73) at the bottom of the sludge bed which may be
attributed to the process of granulation and efficient biomass retention in the lowermost zone
of Hybrid reactor.
Table 12.1: Physico-chemical characteristics of granular sludge
S.No Parameters Values
1. Size of granules, mm 0.8-2.0
2. Percentage of granules 85
3. Settling velocity, m/h 12.5-77.7
4. TS, mg/L 57500
5. VSS, mg/L 42040
6. VSS/TSS ratio 0.73
7. Density, g/ml 1.044
 50
45
Percentage Number

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
<0.8 0.8-1.2 1.2-1.5 1.5-2.0 >2.0

Size of the granules (mm)

Figure 12.6: Size distribution of anammox granules in AHR

12.4 CONCLUSIONS

Increased biomass retention and granulation served as an effective strategy to boast the
performance of AHR. Well compacted granules of average size 1.2-1.5 mm, with an average
settling velocity of 45.6 m/h were very well retained inside the bioreactor leading to
increased SRT. SEM study of the granular sludge indicted the presence of heterogeneous
bacterial population consisting of both cocci and rod shape along with few filamentous
microorganisms found in clusters. Higher biomass yield obtained in our study may be
attributed to the use of mixed seed culture and attached growth system which could catch
anammox cells effectively thereby minimizing the sludge wash out. Filter media in AHR
contributed additional 29% reduction in the sludge washout rate.

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 CHAPTER THIRTEEN

FLUORIDE CONTAMINATION: TOXICITY AND PREVENTION

STRATEGIES

Dr. Pallavi Kaushik and Dr. Hemant Pareek

13.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
13.2 Fluoride contamination...................................................................................................................
13.3 Fluoride exposure and Toxicity......................................................................................................
13.4 Fluorosis.........................................................................................................................................
13.5 Mechanisms of Fluoride Toxicity...................................................................................................
13.6 Methods used for Defluoridation of water.....................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

13.1 INTRODUCTION

Fluoride a drinking water contaminant, is a member of halogen family along with chlorine,
bromine, and iodine. Fluorine is the lightest and highly reactive halogen (Kaminsky et al
1990). It forms various organic and inorganic compounds which are referred to as fluorides.
It is a strong ligand in water and can form various asoluble complexes with polyvalent metal
ions like Aluminium (Al3+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Iron (Fe3+) and Calcium (Ca2+) in a pH
dependent manner (Nordstrom and Jenne, 1977).
The biological systems like animals, plants, bacteria, fungi etc. are mainly exposed to
inorganic fluorides through food and water. The presence of fluoride in environment can be
due to natural or anthropogenic sources. The natural occurrence of fluorine is in minerals like
fluorspar (CaF2) and cryolite (Na3AlF6). It is used in a number of industrial processes as
electrolyte, as hydrofluoric acid (used in formation of glass products) and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as well as refrigerants in air conditioning units. The concern of
fluoride contamination to human is majorly through untreated ground water which has
resulted into severe problem of fluorosis in more than 16 states in India (Brunt et al 2004;
Parikh and Parikh 2013). The main cause of development of fluorosis is through intake of
fluoride above permissible dose. The other sources include consumption of food, inhalation
of fumes and other toxic environmental pollutants containing fluoride.
The fluoride levels in environment, is highly variable but there is a reported progressive
increase in the levels during the last decade. This progressive elevation indicates upon a
serious depletion of ground water reaching their critical levels in some states.
Thus, understanding the progressive increase in environmental fluoride levels and the
consequent fluorosis in the exposed population the government and non- government
agencies have joined hands with science and technology to develop means and methods for
the mitigation of fluoride problem. The major solution of this problem is been considered for
the development of means or methods which can remove fluoride from water as the
symptoms of fluorosis are irreversible.
Thus, the scientific community has greatly contributed to the issue and devised a number of
chemical, physical and biological processes of fluoride removal from drinking water which
can provide fluoride remediation upto variable levels.

13.2 FLUORIDE CONTAMINATION

The contamination of surface water has received a lot of attention because of the visible
pollution of this water. At national level the fluoride contamination has been reported in at
least 16 states. The levels of contamination not only depend on geogenic processes as
dissolution from rocks but also depends on the human intervention in form of fluoride
containing waste disposal in surface waters which generally fall in the range of 0.01 -0.3
mg/litre but can exceed to higher levels as 2.07mg/L (Waziri et al, 2012) in rivers and
streams and1.2 to 1.5 mg/litre in sea water. But there are many fluoride endemic areas where
the natural rock is rich in fluoride and the subsequent geothermal or volcanic activity results
in excess fluoride contamination. The ground water fluoride levels in such regions reaches
about 0.01 mg/l to 48 mg/litre (Gupta et al 2006). The inorganic fluoride compounds from
various sources dissolve in water and split into ions this process depends on the
characteristics of the compounds. The further reactions and transport of fluoride compounds
are greatly influenced by the hardness and pH of water along with the presence of materials
such as clay, which exchange ions although the speed at which they dissolve depends on the
type of compound and on factors such as the acidity of the water. In water with a neutral pH
and low fluoride concentrations, fluoride is predominantly present in the form of fluoride ions
(F-). As they travel through the water cycle fluorides usually combine with aluminium.

The water rich in fluoride is used for various purposes as agriculture, drinking, cleaning,
animal shed maintenance through which this ultimately mixes with soil. The industrial
discharge and waste also gets accumulated on land. Thus, large variations in contamination
levels are observed ranging from 10 to 1000 µg/g of soil. The calcium and aluminium salts
present in soil mainly make compounds with fluoride. This adsorption of fluoride to soil
particles is influenced by pH which increases with the increase in acidity of soil.

The gaseous and particulate forms of fluoride emitted from geogenic and anthropogenic
activities generally experienced near its emission source with the levels of airborne fluoride
usually in range of 2–3 µg/m3. On the other hand, in areas without a nearby source fluoride in
ambient air are generally less than 0.1µg/m 3. This airborne fluoride generally does not stay
long in atmosphere and stratosphere but sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6) once introduced in
atmosphere would remain for many years more (500 years to several – several thousands of
years).

13.3 FLUORIDE EXPOSURE AND TOXICITY

The surface water reserves in India are rapidly shrinking and the situation is worse in the
state of Rajasthan with no perennial rivers. Thus, the population depends greatly upon
groundwater reserves. The ground water has also been exploited to the saturation point as
water table has fallen several hundreds of feet below ground level. The limited water left is in
the zone of fluoride laden rocks. This results in excessive fluoride dissolution in water which
has been used for drinking by man and animals and even for agriculture. The fluoride
contamination in such water is several times above the permissible dose which is 0.5 mg/L-
1.0 mg/L as per World Health Organization (WHO, 2006) but in India it is 1 mg/L in
drinking water. The chronic intake of concentrations beyond these standards have shown to
cause various degrees of ailments in the exposed organisms.

All the living organisms like animals, plants, microbes and human are variously exposed to
fluoride from air water and soil. But, the levels of absorption in tissues, depends on the route
of exposure, the chemical form and the basic mechanism of waste excretion from the body.
The bioaccumulation of soluble fluoride compounds in aquatic and terrestrial plants and
animals has been documented but evidences of biomagnifications are missing.

The main source of fluoride has been identified as being water followed by food. After the
consumption of fluoride rich food such as fish, tea, and certain drugs it is quickly absorbed in
the gastrointestinal tract from which as great portion 35–48% is retained by the body, mostly
in the skeletal and calcified tissues, and the rest is excreted mainly through in the urine. Not
only human but the cattle feeding on fluoride-rich fodder for long period (chronic exposure)
develop symptoms of fluorosis like bony lesions, lameness, debility, dental discoloration,
difficulty in mastication along with high risk of mortality.

With the new lifestyle there is an undue escalation of daily intake of fluoride with soft
drinks, sweetened ice teas, beer (brewed with high fluoride water). Even consumption of
fluoride containing animal and plant products can significantly increase the daily fluoride
intake. The risk is more evident in children who consume soft drinks and juices, flavored
drinks which can predispose them to fluorosis (Fomon et al ,2000).

13.4 FLUOROSIS

The most common disease condition developing in organisms due to excess fluoride intake is
fluorosis (Michael,1996; Erdal and Buchanan, 2004). The condition develops due to retention
of fluoride in body and the subsequent deleterious incorporation in the metabolic pathways.
In many cases fluoride is incorporated as a substitute for calcium.

The visible signs include dental fluorosis with characteristically discolored teeth (darkened
and chalky white teeth) which indicate a childhood exposure to fluoride when teeth were in
developing stages. Adult exposures are not apparent as dental fluorosis but appear as sporadic
pain and stiffness of joints followed by headache, stomach-ache and muscle weakness which
are considered as warning signs of skeletal fluorosis (Susheela et al 1992). There is the next
severe stage called osteosclerosis (hardening and calcifying of the bones), and finally the
spine, major joints, muscles and nervous system are damaged. The chronic intake of
excessive fluoride in food and water can lead to the severe and permanent bone and joint
deformations which is termed as skeletal fluorosis.

The toxicity of fluoride in the cellular confirmation can also result in DNA damage and
chronic exposure has also been paralleled with development of paralysis and cancer.
Moreover, once the damage in teeth and bones due to fluoride as established in form of dental
and skeletal fluorosis and any other ailment, no reversal to original condition is possible even
after medication. Thus the exposure to fluoride is to be prevented at all ages.

13.5 MECHANISMS OF FLUORIDE TOXICITY

A number of cellular processes are affected with fluoride and result in deleterious
consequences. The most common include the inhibition of enzyme activities like the enzymes
involved in glycolytic pathway, by binding to the functional groups of amino acids. It is also
associated with development of oxidative stress due to degradation of cellular membranes
and reduced mitochondrial fitness. The increase in oxidative stress leads to an increase in the
expression of stress response genes, inhibition of protein synthesis and their activity as well
as altered gene expression. The involvement of fluoride in the inhibition protein synthesis
and the subsequent secretions also results in the interruption in cellular signaling pathways
which plays an important role in cell proliferation and apoptosis (Barbier et al 2010).

Dose dependency of fluoride toxicity can be understood by its dual role play in cellular
growth regulation as an anabolic agent at micromolar concentrations thus it can promote
cellular proliferation alternatively at higher doses of millimolar concentrations it acts as
inhibitor of enzymes such as phosphatases, which are intricately linked with production of
ATP which in turn contribute to cellular respiration and production cycle.

Realization of the properties, exposure along with deleterious consequences of excessive

exposure of population, the need to fight against the menace of fluoride in scientific
community triggered extensive research in the field of fluoride removal strategies.

13.6 METHODS USED FOR DEFLUORIDATION OF WATER

A number of chemical, physical and biological methods of fluoride removal have been
developed by various workers. Many of them have reached to the level of practical
application at mass scale and others are in the developmental stages. These methods are
basically aimed to bring the levels of toxicity to minimum and reduce fluoride to the
permissible levels in drinking water (Phantumvanit,1988). One of the most explored method
is the adsorption of fluoride onto a suitable substrate and subsequent removal from water. A
number of adsorbants have been tested and developed for this purpose like clay, soil, bone
charcoal with premier being alumina and aluminium based adsorbants (Bhatnagar et al 2011).
Such adsorbants can react with fluoride in the pH range of 3-8 with maximum adsorption
between pH 5.5-6.5. But this technique is not effective in water with high TDS (exceeding
1500mg/L). Further development of this technique involved modification of alumina by
impregnation with metals. The Nalgonda technique (Suneetha et al 2008) which involves
addition of alum and bleaching powder followed by rapid mixing, flocculation,
sedimentation, filteration and disinfection seemed promising and extensively explored. This
technique has proved efficacy even when fluoride concentration is above 20 mg/L. Although,
were some limitations as large quantity of sludge production, requirement of addition of large
quantity of chemicals daily along with stirring etc.

Another, technique is precipitation of fluoride with magnesium oxide. This involves

hydration of magnesium oxide to magnesium hydroxide which further combines with
fluoride to the insoluble magnesium fluoride which precipitates and can be subsequently
removed.

Membrane techniques are also practiced at mass levels wherein the fluoride is removed
along with other impurites. The use of reverse osmosis (RO) membrane process has emerged
in the last decade and has been considered as an as a preferred alternative for proving safe
drinking water (Singh et al 2016). This is a pressure driven physical process which is applied
on the incoming water and which is directed towards a semi-permeable membrane. Here, the
rejection of ions is on the basis of size and electrical charge. The affectivity and longitivity of
membranes depends greatly on the characteristics of the inlet water, temperature, pressure
and overall maintenance. For the removal of fluoride two types of membranes can be used
viz. NF and RO. NF is a relatively low pressure process that removes primarily the larger
dissolved solids as compared to RO which operates at high pressure and shows greater
rejection of all dissolved solids. The efficiency of RO process has been documented with
removal efficiencies up to 98% of fluoride by many researchers.

The chemical and physical methods are usually expensive and creates secondary pollution
thus, development of biological methods for fluoride removal are been explored.

The bioremediation studies including biosorption which show promise as a renewable and
eco-friendly and cost -effective technique (Chouhan et al 2012). The biosorption process can
be defined as natural process of accumulation of contaminants by the biological material.
This process is generally considered as passive process in which the contaminant interacts
with the surface components and get accumulated onto the surface or cytoplasm. Such
biological absorbing materials can prove to be an agent of environmental cleanup and can
also provide an alternative to expensive industrial treatment procedures. The reports on the
property of fluoride removal or bioremediation is available using non-viable algal Spirogyra
IO1 in which the sorption interaction of fluoride on to non-viable algal species obeyed the
pseudo-first -order rate equation but it was found to be pH dependent (Venkata Mohan et al
2007). The fluoride tolerant bacterial strain NM25 isolated from fluoride endemic site has
also been studied for fluoride accumulation and removal with maximum reduction upto
67.45% after 72 Hours (Chandra Pal et al 2014).

These and many other methods on fluoride mitigation are developed by constant scientific
approach at national and international levels to benefit the society which is free from fluoride
toxicity.

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fluoride toxicity Chemico-Biological Interactions. 188(2), 319-333.
Bhatnagar, A., Kumar, E., Sillanpää, M. (2011): Fluoride removal from water by adsorption
—A review Chemical Engineering Journal.171(3), 811-840.
Brunt, R. L., Vasak, J., and Griffioen (2004): A report: Fluoride in groundwater: Probability
of occurrence of excessive concentration on global scale. International groundwater
resources assessment centre.
Chandra Pal, K., Mondal, N.B., Chatterjee, S., Ghosh, T.S., Datta, J.K. (2014):
Characterization of fluoride-tolerant halophilic Bacillus flexus NM25 (HQ875778)
isolated from fluoride-affected soil in Birbhum District, West Bengal, India.Environ.
Monit. Assess. 186,699–709.
Choubisa, S. L., (2001), Endemic fluorosis in southern Rajasthan, India. Fluoride. 34(1), 61-
70.
Chouhan, S., Tuteja, U., and Flora, S. J. S. (2012): Isolation, identification and
characterization of fluoride resistant bacteria: possible role in bioremediation. Applied
Biochemistryand Microbiology, 48(1), 43–50.
Erdal, S and Buchanan, S.N. (2005): A Quantitative Look at Fluorosis, Fluoride Exposure,
and Intake in Children Using a Health Risk Assessment Approach. Environ Health
Perspect.113(1),111–117.
Fomon SJ, Ekstrand J, Ziegler EE (2000): Fluoride intake and prevalence of dental fluorosis:
trends in fluoride intake with special attention to infants. J Public Health Dent. 2000
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Gupta, S., Banerjee, S., Saha, R., Datta, J. K., & Mondal, N., (2006), Fluoride geochemistry
of groundwater in Nalhati-1 block of the Birbhum district, West Bengal, India,
Fluoride, 39(4), pp 318 – 320
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benefits and risks of exposure. Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1,261–
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Mathews Michael, M., Barot, V.V., and Chinoy, N.J. (1996): Investigations of soft tissue
functions in fluorotic individuals of north gujarat. Fluoride .29 (2) 63-71.
Nordstrom, D.K., Jenne, E.A. (1977): Fluorite solubility equilibria in selected geothermal
waters. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 41(2),175–188.
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household: Appropriate technology. World Health Forum.9, 555-8.
Singh, J., Singh, P., Singh, A. (2016): Fluoride ions vs removal technologies: A study.
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Susheela AK, Das TK, Gupta IP, Tandon RK, Kacher SK, Ghosh P, et al. Fluoride ingestion
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Xuoride from aqueous phase onto algalSpirogyra IO1 and evaluation of adsorption
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 CHAPTER FOURTEEN

SMART CITIES SPECTRUM: GATEWAY TO NEW PARADIGM AND MYRIAD

OPPORTUNITIES

Gaurav Shukla
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
14.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
14.1.1 Smart City: A Paradigm Shift Towards Myriad
Opportunities.............................................
14.2 14.1.2 What Makes a City Smarter?................................................................................................
14.3 Needs of Smart
14.4 Cities.......................................................................................................................
14.5 Smart City Framework....................................................................................................................
14.6 Challenges.......................................................................................................................................
14.7 The Solution.....................................................................................................................................
14.8 The Benefits.....................................................................................................................................
What to Expect from Smart
Cities?..................................................................................................
Conclusions and Recommendations................................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT
Most cities focussing on transportation and mobility, provision of basic services, protecting
environment by conserving water bodies and increasing green cover; majority have lined up
retrofitting. Nearly 31,000 crores rupees to come via PPP route, land monetisation, debt and
better resource mobilisation in the city. There is a certain allure to the idea that cities allow a
person to both feel at home and like a stranger in the same place. A one can know the streets
and shops, avenues and alleys while also going days without being recognized and those Elite
cities with “smart” technologies turning them into platforms for the “Internet of Things”
(IOT).
Sharing of data and protection of sources, networking and communication is a people
oriented definition for smart cities but in my perspective if there is SOMETHING FOR
EVERYBODY then it should be termed as a Smart City. Its impetus lies in its concept as the
basic concept of smart city is availability of water and power supply, affordable housing, and
robust IT connectivity with digitalisation, E- governance, etc. (as suggested by the Centre).
This will entail redevelopment of at least 50 acre, or Greenfield development over 250 acres
or taking up 500 acre for retrofitting.
What makes a SMART CITY smart? A big rhetoric question ahead all of us?
A Smart human being plus Internet of Things (IOT) makes a SMART CITY smarter as we as
a homo sapiens needs smart governance and other facilities which should be integrated and
embedded with sensors and other objects which facilitate lucid living of all Homo sapiens.
Digital intelligence is the key to make life safer and more efficient. Smart homes, safer
driving and Sustainable living are the three pre requisite that an individual need by the time
we approach the near future of Smart city. There is a seamless web of surveillance and power
as biometric surveillance is used as a form of monitoring and automated policing as a
particularly brutal and exacting form of manipulation.
This paper will outline a social theory of the “Smart City” by developing our Deleuze
concept of the spectrum of control. We conclude by offering normative guidelines for
governance of the pervasive surveillance and control mechanisms that constitute an emerging
critical infrastructure of the “Smart City”.
Keywords: Myriad, Retrofitting, Deleuze, Paradigm, Homo sapiens, Entail, Impetus

14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.1.1 SMART CITY: A PARADIGM SHIFT TOWARDS MYRIAD
OPPORTUNITIES
Traditionally, a Smart City has been defined as a city that uses information and
communications technology to make its critical infrastructure, its components and utilities
more interactive, efficient, making citizens more aware of them. In a broader definition, a city
can be considered as "smart" when its investment in human and social capital and in
communications infrastructure actively promote sustainable economic development and a
high quality of life, including the wise management of natural resources through participatory
government.
A Smart City is more than a digital city. A Smart City is one that is able to link physical
capital with social one, and to develop better services and infrastructures. It is able to bring
together technology, information, and political vision, into a coherent programme of urban
and service improvements.
In my opinion a smart city is a city where there is something for everybody i.e. if an
individual is able to find something for oneself then a city must be called smart city.

14.1.2 WHAT MAKES A CITY SMARTER?

SMART CITY = A SMART HUMAN BEING + INTERNET OF THINGS
A smart city is called smart city when its natives gets smart enough to understand Internet Of
Things (IOT). A robust mechanism of internet of things enables and makes things lucid for
citizens.
There are two key factors to achieve the competitiveness of cities. The rapid development of
new technologies and of innovation processes has resulted in a new city model, "Smart City".
A type of city that uses new technologies to make them more liveable, functional,
competitive and modern through the use of new technologies, the promotion of innovation
and knowledge management. There have been definitions of many scholars who defined the
concept of smart city in their own style. It has been depicted below in the image.

Figure 14.1: Meaning of smart city

Table 14.1: Charecteristics of Smart city

In 2050, the number of people living in cities will be almost as large as the world’s entire
population today. That’s why we need completely new approaches to be taken in order to
make our cities to be Smart City. Smart Cities gained importance as a means of making ICT
enabled services and applications available to the citizens, and authorities that are part of a
city’s system. It aims at increasing citizens’ quality of life, and improving the efficiency and
quality of the services provided by governing entities and businesses. Smart City is a type of
city that uses new technologies to make them more liveable, functional, competitive and
modern through the use of new technologies, the promotion of innovation and knowledge
management. Cities today are facing significant challenges including increasing populations,
infrastructures, and declining budgets.
Social and economic globalization is making the world 'more uniform', and cities are being
seen as main part of economic attraction, Cities need public administrations, businesses and
citizens that have a greater technological capacity, more entrepreneurial and innovative, more
creative and better informed. Smart city should address a comprehensive set of development
areas such as Knowledge, Technology, Leadership, and partnerships. We need to achieve
creative and talented cities that are innovative and highly technological.
The concept of Smart Cities is gaining increasingly high importance as a means of making
available all the services and applications enabled by ICT to citizens, industries and
authorities. It aims to increase citizens’ quality of life and improve the efficiency and quality
of the services provided by governing entities and businesses. A smart safe city is an
integrated solution to a challenged faced by cities throughout the world.
Smarter safe cities focus on three areas of expertise:
Leveraging information to make better decisions: Advanced analytics solutions, or an
interactive model of the relationships that exist among the city’s core systems, including the
economy, housing, education, public safety, transportation, healthcare, government services
and utilities that make it easier to understand and to act at every level of city administration.
Anticipating and resolving problems proactively: Advanced analytics solutions can help
city leaders discover patterns and trends in structured or unstructured data efficiently and cost
effectively.
Coordinating resources to operate more efficiently: The complexity and
interconnectedness of city systems can often mask inefficiencies that can be easily addressed.
By sharing information across agencies, such as metrics, events and processes, and by
collaborating in real time, cities can better anticipate and respond to situations while
optimizing city resources.

Figure 14.2: Smart city concept

 (Figure Source: Characteristics and factors of a Smart City from [GFKK07])
Figure 14.3: Characteristics and factors of a Smart City

The authors of [GFKK07], describing medium-sized European Smart Cities, define a Smart
City by using six characteristics in which such a city “performs in a forward-looking way”:
Smart Economy, Smart People, Smart Governance, Smart Mobility, Smart Environment and
Smart Living. They use these six concepts to describe specific factors that can be important
when describing a Smart City, which are presented in Figure 14.2.
The terms "smart" have become part of the language of urbanization policy, referring to the
clever use of IT to improve the productivity of a city’s essential infrastructure and services
and to reduce energy inputs and CO2 outputs in response to global climate change.

14.2 NEEDS OF SMART CITIES

Against the background of economic and technological changes caused by the globalization
and the integration process, cities are facing the challenge of combining competitiveness and
sustainable urban development simultaneously. Very evidently, this challenge is likely to
have an impact on issues of Urban Quality such as housing, economy, culture, social and
environmental conditions.

14.3 SMART CITY FRAMEWORK

 Cities and communities around the world face intractable challenges, including:
Increased populations: More than 50 percent of the world’s population lives in cities
placing massive pressure on city infrastructures (transportation, housing, water, power, and
city services), many of which require enormous redesign and capital expenditure.
Polarized economic growth: The 500 largest global cities will contribute 60 percent of
global GDP growth from 2014–2025.
Increased greenhouse-gas emissions: GHGs are forcing cities to develop sustainability
strategies for energy generation and distribution, transportation, water management, urban
planning, and eco-friendly buildings.
Decreased budgets: The economic climate continues to place huge budgetary constraints on
cities, which are becoming limited in their ability to respond to these pressures.
Further the framework has been shown in the figure 14.3.

Source: Cisco 2012

Figure 14.4: Smart City Framework
A Smart City Framework not only provides a detailed view of how cities function, but also
enables three major outcomes:
1) Typology that enables cities to benchmark relevant content based on the hierarchy of physical
city components.
2) Stakeholder roles that define who does what.
3) Catalogue system of city content that is easily accessible.

Source: Cisco 2012

Figure 14.5: Developing E- Governance an approach to Smart cities
These issues, and others, can be mitigated through the adoption of scalable solutions that take
advantage of ICT to increase efficiencies, reduce costs, and enhance quality of life. Cities that
take this approach are commonly referred to as Smart Cities. A Smart City Framework is a
simple decision methodology that enables both the public and private sectors to plan and
implement Smart City initiatives more effectively.
The four layers of the framework provide a logical flow that enables stakeholders to push
through and test initiatives. The circular flow of information within the Smart City
framework results in a feedback loop that enables stakeholders to understand best practices of
other Smart City initiatives.
More than half the world’s population lives in cities. This level of urbanization is
unprecedented in human history—and it is expected to keep increasing. Urbanization on this
scale brings numerous governance challenges. Increasingly, information and communications
technology (ICT) is helping to meet these challenges. In the past half century ICT has already
changed our lives and our behaviour in numerous ways. With the advent of 24-7 connectivity
and cloud computing we are starting to get a glimpse of how this technology can achieve
significantly more, and reach its true potential. The development of efficient and effective e-
government is a prerequisite for the development of Smart Cities. E-government applications
and technologies must be able to address the fundamental questions of how cities work, how
they are organized, and how they can be made to work in more intelligent ways for citizens
and businesses. A Smart City will be able to bring together technology, information, and
political vision into a coherent programme of urban and service improvement.
The role of ICT in four areas crucial to effective city governance: competitiveness, physical
infrastructure, the natural environment and public administration. ICT has the power to
address the city governance challenges described and thereby improve quality of life for city
residents—the successful use of ICT is about far more than merely investing in hardware and
software. City officials must understand the needs of citizens and businesses to ensure they
are effectively meeting them. They must educate and inform stakeholders about effective
technologies. They also need to be aware of the attitudinal and organizational change needed
to make the most of e-government by:
• Enable – new Paradigms of production, distribution and governance,
• Transform – Institutional and Social Organization,
• Inform – Individual choices and behaviours.
In general, e‐ Government can be considered as a concept that consists in improving public
governance and the provision of public services through the use of ICT (e‐Government),
improving the consultation and decision‐making processes using ICT (e‐democracy) and
improving public policy making, with the use of ICT, incorporating more critical agents
throughout the process.

Figure 14.5: Challenges of Smart City Mission

14.4 CHALLENGES
Cities will need to be able to better integrate wireless networks and need to become
increasingly active, aware, smart, compared to current passive and intelligent networks. The
development of Smart Cities requires a pragmatic approach to technological development
that is based on standards and, focused on the needs of cities, citizens, and businesses.
Planning and Management
City planning and management means building and carrying out ways for a city to realize its
full potential for while maintaining efficient day-to-day operations. City leaders must think
holistically about operations insight, law enforcement and emergency management,
government and agency administration, and urban planning including smarter buildings.
Public Safety
For everything from traffic tie-ups to security breaches, public safety agencies can gather data
from disparate sources; deliver it in real time to key stakeholders, emergency management
decision makers and first responders.
Smarter buildings and urban planning
Managed through a central repository, buildings fit with smart sensors and control systems
can measure, sense and see the condition of practically everything in them. Smarter buildings
lower maintenance and energy costs, and improve reliability and sustainability.
Government and agency administration
In smarter cities, successful leaders are finding ways to reorient their information technology
and policies to guide smart growth and address the needs of their citizens and businesses.
Human Resource
Human services support the needs of the citizen as an individual, both as developmental
foundations and as social services assistance. Typically, this includes social programs,
healthcare and education.
Social programs
Citizen-driven social programs enable timely access to the right programs, effective delivery
of such programs, and improved outcomes to ensure that citizens are getting promised
benefits — with reduced cost of delivery.
Health
Healthcare analytics turns data into clinical and business insights in real time for point-of-
care decisions and productivity. Forward-thinking organizations are connecting their
healthcare data, systems and processes to facilitate secure communications and information
sharing.
Education
Advances in education management and technology—analytics, early warning systems to
identify at-risk students, cloud computing—can help our systems refresh outdate
infrastructures with new functionality.
Infrastructure
Infrastructure services make a city "liveable." These fundamental services, both necessities
and comforts for citizens and businesses, include utilities such as water and energy, as well as
transportation and environmental areas.
Energy and water
The smart grid uses digital sensors, advanced communication networks and sophisticated
analytics to help utilities understand demand in near real time.
Automation technology is making the smart city system more energy efficient. Meanwhile,
light sensors are helping cities’ to cut power consumption. Smart energy grids are the
backbone of the Smart City, and will be responsible for the intelligent management and
operation of energy networks in cities, by utilizing the potential for shift between thermal and
electrical loads.
Environmental
Sustainable development embrace a new objective: optimize operations to minimize
environmental impact and improve social outcomes in a manner that also maximizes
performance. Cities are responsible for four fifths of all greenhouse emissions. That means
that effective steps to cut emissions in urban areas can have profound effects on the
environment.
Transportation
Into and around the city, people and goods are always moving. Intelligent transportation
systems improve capacity; enhance travel experiences and make moving anything safer, more
efficient and more secure. Traffic managers gain citywide visibility to help alleviate
congestion and rapidly respond to incidents.
More and more driverless trains are travelling through Europe’s cities. These trains run at
shorter intervals, while at the same time increasing flexibility and reliability. Like Nuremberg
where the subway system in Germany which use trains without drivers or Digital Drivers. An
on-board computer (Siemens technology Automatic Train Operation) in the subway train
itself uses this data to control the entire driving process. A reliable, well-run transport system
does not just reduce congestion. It improves the health of a city’s citizenry by reducing
carbon dioxide emissions, stress and vehicular accidents.
Every city has strengths, weaknesses and ideally a vision for the future. When we have an
understanding of our current performance, we can develop a long-term strategy and identify
short-term goals as well as invest in systems, optimize services and discover new
opportunities for growth.

14.5 THE SOLUTION

As the world becomes increasingly instrumented, interconnected and intelligent in nature,
cities are challenged to do better. The first step to making smarter city is the development and
refinement of a strategy. The smarter city assessment tool captures a holistic view of systems:
city services, citizens, businesses, transport, water, energy and communication. The smarter
city assessment tool can help us identify emerging strengths and weaknesses, highlight where
real progress is occurring and develop a plan for future improvements for actions and
investments.
Smart city concept isn’t a novel concept if I talk about it in context of India. If you go down
to the memory lane you will find out the ancient architecture and Harappa civilisation the
overall layout of city was well managed and well designed.

14.6 THE BENEFITS

 Captures information about how city performs overall, and within individual systems.
 Offers an analysis of core services and how they can be made smarter.
 To understand how city is performing, and develop plans for future improvements.
Smart Governance includes political and active participation, citizen services and the smart
use of e‐Government. In addition, it often relates to the use of new communication channels,
such as e‐government or e-democracy. New Technologies enable the introduction of a new
relationship between Local Governments and citizens; in particular, regarding the
introduction of public on‐line services and the use of New Technologies to improve the
participation of citizens in public decision‐making. In all these aspects, the role played by
citizens has a special impact. The new relationship emerging from e‐Government has led to
the emergence of a new kind of citizen, the e‐citizen. Smart governance is characterized by
the following factors:
Strategic plans to promote e‐Government and ICT On‐line public services
Transparent governance
E- Democracy by Citizen Participation and Electronic Voting Promoting ICT and Innovation
14.7 WHAT TO EXPECT FROM SMART CITIES?
PARAMETERES

Figure 14.6: Critaria to Rating Smart City

Figure 14.7: India vs others countries in IoT based solutions

SMART GROWTH PRINCIPLES:

• Integrating land uses.

• Create walk able neighbourhoods.
• Take advantage of compact building design.
• Preserve open spaces, farmland, natural beauty and cultural heritage.
• Provide a variety of transportation choices.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR SMART CITIES:

• Open innovation for SMART development.
• Transit oriented development
• To make citizens SMARTER.
• To make things will happen Faster.
• Compact Neighbourhoods.
• Accessible Public Spaces.
• Sustainable city and Urban learning.

14.8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

First and foremost, it’s the moral obligation of citizens that they should make constant efforts
to adapt according to the changing dynamics of smart cities. They need to be tech friendly in
order to operate applications from gizmos. As I have mentioned earlier that a smart city is a
one in which there is something for everybody then only the human element will come into
play if they think that they are vital cog in this city.
The concept of Smart Cities gained importance, as a means of making ICT enabled services
and applications available to the citizens, companies and authorities that are part of a city’s
system. It aims at increasing citizens’ quality of life, and improving the efficiency and quality
of the services provided by governing entities and businesses. This perspective requires an
integrated vision of a city and of its infrastructures, in all its components. To compete in this
new economic environment, cities will need to better apply advanced information technology
systems to develop a more citizen-centric approach to services. By doing so, cities can better
attract, create, enable and retain their citizens’ skills, knowledge and creativity.
 In order to achieve the goals of a Smart City, there is the need to increase efficiency of
government, developing environment-friendly applications, increasing mobility, providing
better health services, stimulating economic prowess, etc. It is vital that a city clearly outlines
these goals in policy making, defining a strategy founded in research to reach them, and
which role the city should play.
Government should support the City Protocol initiative. While fairly new, the City Protocol is
a step in the right direction in bringing multiple groups together to establish common
language for Smart Cities.
Work closely with the private sector to educate them on stakeholder roles and, in particular,
the how—policies and business models necessary for implementing Smart City solutions.
The development of Smart Cities requires a pragmatic approach to technological
development and work actively towards the development of cities, using ICT as an
instrument for sustainable development in all its dimensions, for each and every community.
In order to achieve the goal of Smart Cities, to develop quite a number of technologies in the
area of wireless and fixed communications networks, and many research challenges have
been identified.

References
 UNFPA, State of world population 2011, New York 2011.
 Kellner D, The Media and Social Problems. In: Ritzer G (ed) Handbook of Social Problems:
A Comparative International Perspective. Sage, Thousand Oaks, 2004.
 Education: An International Journal; Vol. 15, No. 1, March 2006; pp73-88.
 Mohammed R., ―Internet Marketing, McGraw Hill, New York, Vol. 4, 2001
 Shukla R., “ Modern English Grammar”
 Shukla R. DR., “Gandhi: Relevance Redefined”
 Siemens (2010). Pictures of the Future: The Magazine for Research and Innovation, Spring
2010.
 Smart city framework, Siemens 2012.
 Ulrich Eberl, “Life in 2050- How we invent the Future today” Beltz & Gelberg, Germany,
2011.
 Smart Cities Applications and Requirements, White Paper, Networks ETP, 2011.
 Official web page of IBM.
 OECD web page.
 Official web page of Siemens.
 UN-HABITAT web page.
 www.smartcities.info

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

LIGHT POLLUTION: A THREAT TO HUMAN HEALTH

Kamlesh Kumari

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.
15.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
15.2 A Threat to Human
15.3 Health...............................................................................................................
Results and
Discussion.....................................................................................................................
References…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

ABSTRACT
The inappropriate, misdirected or excessive use of artificial light is known as light
pollution. Light pollution is a side effect of industrial civilization. Its sources include
building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, commercial properties, offices, factories,
streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues. Most outdoor lighting used at night is
excessive, overly bright, poorly targeted, improperly shielded and in many cases,
completely unnecessary. It disrupts our ecosystem and consequently has adverse
health effects on flora and fauna. It can have serious environmental consequences for
humans and wildlife and is also responsible for other types of pollution of climate. In
present investigation the light pollution studies are carried out regarding its serious threat to
human health and also deterioration of the natural eco system on the planet Earth.

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Light pollution is a very little-known and less understood form of pollution and is
only recently being recognized as a severe environmental and health hazard. There are five
main categories of light pollution: light trespass, over-illumination, glare, light clutter and sky
glow. Light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters in a house from the outside; over-
illumination is caused by intense lighting pointing upwards; glare is caused by vehicular
lights, clutter is noticeable on roads, where streetlights are badly designed or where brightly-
lit hoardings line the roads and sky glow refers to the diffused glow that can be seen over
populated areas (Rasna Rajkhowa, 2014). Light pollution is gradually encroaching upon more
of the Earth’s surface with the annual growth of 2.2%, including newly lit areas. Nights have
lost their natural darkness with the help of which all living organism have evolved over
millions of years. The artificial lighting levels in our cities are hundreds of thousands of times
higher than the natural lighting levels due to starlight. The natural dark-light cycle is
completely upset and impacting human life. The intensity and wavelength are two important
parameters of light that affects the human eyes. In the photometry, Lux is used as a measure
of the intensity of light, as perceived by the human eye that hits or passes through a surface.
Quantitatively the Lux is the SI derived unit of illuminance and luminous emittance,
measuring luminous flux per unit area, equal to one lumen per  square metre. The safe limit
for direct exposing the light at human eye is 50-60 Lux. The light that human eye can adjust
to and find useful is between 400 and 500 microns of wavelength. LED lights installed above
hoardings, and in stadiums and open grounds are all more than 500 microns.
  As per a recent international study led by physicist Christopher Kyba from the GFZ
German Research Centre for Geoscience in Germany, the artificially-lit surface of the planet
at night increased in radiance and extent by 2.2% per year between 2012 and 2016
(Christopher C. M. Kyba et al, 2017). Around this time, artificially-lit areas at night across
India increased by 33%, a rise of 7.4% per year. Recent studies provide key insights into how
the night sky has consistently gotten brighter across the world and New World Atlas of
Artificial Sky Brightness is created by researchers. The atlas showed that 99% of the
population of the US and Europe lives in places where man-made lighting erases the view of
the night sky. Around 80% of land area on earth suffers from light pollution, which can
adversely affect sleep cycles and the ability to see in the dark. Around 94% of Indians live
under light-polluted skies, as many as 20% people in the world can’t see the Milky Way and
6% have night skies so polluted that rod cells (night-vision detectors) aren’t activated when
looking at the night sky.

15.2 A THREAT TO HUMAN HEALTH

In case of air and water pollution, the adverse effects on human health are
immediately visible and could even be life-threatening but light pollution has subtle and long-
term effects on health. Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body
suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive
light exposure (Gary Steffy, 2001). The circadian clock regulates physiologic activities such
as brain wave patterns, hormone production, and cell regulation. The rhythms respond to the
light and darkness for an organism. Disrupting these rhythms can result in a variety of health
problems, including sleep disorders, anxiety, depression, diabetes, cancer (particularly breast
and prostate cancer), cardiovascular disease, immunological disorders, and obesity, increased
headache incidence, fatigue, stress and can elevate blood pressure (Igor Knez, 2001). Animal
studies expressed that the disruption of the circadian rhythm is responsible for depression,
weight gain, impulsivity and slower thinking. Ophthalmologists warn about the perils of
excessive light. Light also affect the body’s inner clock. A deep sleep is very important for
physical and mental health of human being. Good sleep is essential for metabolic control of
the body, working of human body systems (digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular) and
cognitive or behavioral abilities of the human. Many studies point towards an increased risk
of breast cancer and prostate cancer because of exposure to artificial light. Light pollution
leads to hallucination, false orientation, sleep disorders, dry eyes, irritability and watery eyes.
Light pollution has a wide range of negative effects on human health due to disrupting
melatonin levels in the body. The level of melatonin is typically high during night in
comparison to the day and its secretion is severely disrupted by even low levels of light.
Reduction or elimination of light at night can help maintain a robust melatonin rhythm.
Melatonin, the naturally occurring hormone that regulates the sleep and wake cycle, is
acutely affected by light pollution. Melatonin disorders and disrupts circadian rhythms in
human body because it is activated by darkness. The exposure of light at night suppresses the
production of this hormone. Melatonin deficiency can result in anxiety and mood disorders,
insomnia, and elevated estrogen/progesterone ratio. Recent animal studies have identified the
role of melatonin in suppressing cancer cells. The melatonin is suppressed by late night use of
smart phones and laptops. Blue spectrum of light emitted by the LED screens of these
electronic devices is the worst kind of light pollution. Blue spectrum light affects the
photosensitive ganglion cells in our retinas. Photosensitive ganglion cells inhibit the
functioning of pineal gland, which is responsible for melatonin production. Light pollution is
not only a problem to human beings but it also affects flora and fauna very badly. Life exists
with natural patterns of light and dark, so disruption of those patterns influences many
aspects of animal behavior (T. Longcore et al, 2004).
Light pollution aggravates air pollution also. Photochemical smog produce due to the
chemical reactions of light, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the
atmosphere, which leaves airborne particles and ground-level ozone (Gardner Sarah, 2014).
The presence of excessive light at night significantly slow down this nightly cleansing of
environment, and enhance the Photochemical smog production.
Energy consumptions and energy production are the important aspect regarding
development and danger of the planet Earth. Lightening is responsible for one-fourth of all
energy consumptions worldwide. Lighting that emits too much light or shines when and
where it’s not needed is wasteful. Wasting energy has huge economic and environmental
consequences. Wasted light results in energy waste. According to a study estimated that 30%
of all light emitted by public outdoor light fixtures is wasted, mostly by lights that aren’t
shielded, which amounts to 22 Terawatt Hours (TWh)/year of wasted electrical energy. This
is equivalent to the following: About 3.6 million tons of coal per year, about 12.9 million
barrels of oil per year or the release of 21 million tons of carbon dioxide per year. To offset
all that carbon dioxide, we’d have to plant 875 million trees annually. Public lightening is the
single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions. The total amount of wasted electrical
energy each year is enough to illuminate over 11 million homes per year and power over
777,000 cars (Southwest Florida Astronomical Society SWFAS old News letter’s “The
Eyepiece May 2014).

15.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Quantitatively the light pollution can be defined as: perception of light by human
eyes beyond the safe limits of intensity (50-60 Lux) and wavelength (400 and 500 microns).
Light pollution severely affects circadian rhythm or biological clock of human being.
Circadian rhythm in human being has been developed for millions of years. Further the
ecosystems of the natural world have evolved around the light of the sun, moon, and stars.
Light pollution deteriorates both the circadian rhythm and ecosystem being on the planet. So
the consequences of light pollution are detrimental for the civilization. On a physiological
level, studies have shown that light pollution slow down reproductive cycles and even
weaken the immune system in creatures. All the living organism on this planet are in
somewhat affected by artificial light. So that, if precautionary measurements are taken into
account, regarding reduction of light pollution, human being can protect themselves from
various light related ailments. Ecosystem is very much dependent on sunlight and severely
affected by light pollution. Regarding the conservation of our ecosystem and life
sustainability on planet, the light pollution is important emerging field of research.
REFERENCES
[1] Rasna Rajkhowa (2014), Light Pollution and Impact of Light Pollution, International
Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), Volume 3 Issue 10, October 2014, p 861-867.
[2] Christopher C. M. Kyba, Theres Kuester, Alejandro Sánchez de Miguel, Kimberly
Baugh, Andreas Jechow, Franz Hölker, Jonathan Bennie, Christopher D. Elvidge, Kevin
J. Gaston and Luis Guanter (2017), Artificially lit surface of Earth at night increasing in
radiance and extent, Science Advances, 22 Nov 2017: Vol. 3 (11).
[3] Gary Steffy (2001), Architectural Lighting Design, John Wiley and Sons ISBN 10: 0471-
38683.  
[4] Igor Knez (2001), Effects of colour of light on nonvisual psychological processes, Journal
of Environmental Psychology, Volume 21, Issue 2, June 2001, Pages 201-208.
[5] T. Longcore and C. Rich (2004), "Ecological light pollution". Frontiers in Ecology and
the Environment (2004), 2(4): p 191–198.
[6] Gardner, Sarah (2014). "LA Smog: the battle against air pollution". Marketplace,
American Public Media. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
[7] Southwest Florida Astronomical Society SWFAS old News letter’s “The Eyepiece May
2014” p 7-11.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN

IMPACT OF NANOMATERIALS ON ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN

HEALTH: CHALLENGES AND FUTURE PROSPECTIVE

Virendra Kr. Vishwakarma, Rajesh K. Kesharwani, Suchitra Rai, Dev Bukhsh Singh,
Sandeep Tripathi and Bhawna Kalra

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
16.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
16.2 Application of Nanomaterial in Dentistry
 16.3 Environmental Concerns
16.3.1 Negative Effects on Environment
16.3.2 Challenges of environmental toxicity
16.3.3 Challenges and Future needs
16.4 Green Nanotechnology-Challenges
16.5 Conclusion And Future Research
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

Environment changes effects widely on all living organism and with the development of
advanced technology, criticalities arise like proper disposal system for any types of waste
products. In continuation of cutting edge technology like use of nanomaterials, which is
responsible for the generation of large amount of nano waste is now very burning issue.
Nanotechnology has gained a great deal of public interest due to the needs and applications of
nanomaterials in many areas of human endeavors including industry, agriculture, business,
medicine and public health. In the present study, summary of current technology and recent
research effort on fate, behavior and toxicity of different classes of nanomaterials in the
environment. A critical evaluation of challenges and future needs for the safe environmental
nanotechnology has been discussed. This is right time we think about the proper disposal
system of nano waste material without effecting the human health.

Keywords: Nonmaterial, Environmental waste, toxicity, Human health, Medicine

16.1 INTRODUCTION
A technological revolution is being promoted in nanotechnology around the world that will
help to resolve an array of problems. As per the current scenario, nanotechnology have the
potential to deliver new methods of solving, some of the Asia-Pacific Region’s chronic
challenges, such as treating tuberculosis and malaria, making water drinkable, conserving
food, and diversifying energy sources, among other hosts of applications. Though, the
possible risks and social allegations of this new technology are not often discussed or
addressed. The overall level of awareness and capability to address these matters remains
very low, in both civil society and government, and prevents these factors from playing their
social role in ensuring the human welfare. Nanotechnology allows the manipulation and
application of engineered particles or systems that have at least one dimension less than 100
nm in length (Stander and Theodore, 2011). New industries in association with University
research departments are being formed and are finding so many stakeholders eager to back
their ideas and products. There is no hesitation by saying that the significant resources for
research into the expansion of nanometer scale processes, materials and products are
committed by government and major industrial companies growing exploration of
nanotechnology has resulted in the discovery of many idiosyncratic properties of
nanomaterials such as superior catalytic, optical, magnetic, mechanical and electrical
properties when compared to conventional formulations of the same material (Ferrari, 2005;
Pattan and Kaul, 2014). Nanomaterials are increasingly more being used for commercial
purposes and in consumer products leading to increased direct and indirect revelation in
humans (Pattan and Kaul, 2014). In the field of medicine, nanoparticles are decisively
injected into the human body. The physicochemical properties of these novel engineered
nanomaterials may cause injury and toxicological effects due to harsh connections of
nanomaterials with biological systems and the environment (Ray et al., 2009; Yan et al.,
2015).

Figure 16.1: Role of nanomaterial on environment

Impacts of nanomaterials on the environment and non-human species is even more

indeterminate. The estimation of eco-toxicity by the conventional toxicological approach
involves exposing organisms usually daphnia, fish and rats to the substance in question and
detecting the dose or concentration at which quantifiable morbidity outcomes. Then scaled up
such test to give a rough prediction of human toxicity. Intended for nanomaterials, no
technique of adapting animal exposure tests to demonstrate the effect of particle dimensions
has been planned, beyond the understandable approach of testing with particles of diverse
sizes and thereby series of tests needed. Only one study seems to have been reported, on the
effect of carbon-60 particles on a species of fish (Oberdörster, 2004), and that study is
inadequate and unacceptable. An alternative approach, still at an explanatory stage, is to
perceive the effect of a pollutant on cells in culture. Such “in vitro” tests do not seem to have
been carried out for nanomaterials, and no decorum has been proposed to scrutinize the effect
of particle dimensions. A further approach, sometimes known as “in silico” testing,
objectives to assess the toxicological potential of chemicals by computer calculation of
Quantitative Structure - Activity Relationships (QSARs). QSARs are central to the US
approach to risk assessment of chemicals, but the tactic does not appear yet to have been
developed for nanomaterials although in principle it might be possible to acclimate QSAR
calculations to allow for particle dimensions. In spite of the general level of unawareness,
there are reasons to expect that nanoparticles could restrict with the action of
microorganisms, including those in soils.

Moreover, with the passage of time, more nanotechnology applications are concentrating in
areas of construction, paint, medicine, food, cosmetics, electronics, optics, textile, energy,
and agriculture. New departments and units have been recognized in universities and research
institutes to explore the field and many governments are financing huge amount of their
budgets for research in nanotechnology. But at the same time, researchers and social
community has elevated their concerns about environmental impact and toxicity of
nanomaterial based products. Currently, studies in area of nanotoxicity are growing and many
researchers are of view that toxicity and destinies of nanomaterial must be studied before
giving too much consideration to their applications. There is a serious absence of information
concerning the human health and environmental allegations of manufactured nanomaterial
particularly NPs. With rapid growth of NPs-based products, there is a pressing need to
identify their potential toxic effects to the human body and wildlife. People working in
nanotechnology-based industries and research centers are more exposed to these
nanoparticles (NPs) throughout their generation, transportation, and final applications in
various products. NPs have achieved great reputation in medicine and diagnostics and
resulted in a new medicine branch known as nanomedicine. As they improve therapeutic
index of drug, recently, more than 20 types of NPs are being used in clinical applications and
numerous other types are under their development stages (Zhang et al., 2008). Use of NPs for
drug delivery and diagnostic applications inside different organs of the human body may
execute serious toxic and harm effects on the body. NPs-based temperature sensors are
extensively used for measurement of temperature changes in biochemical reactions and
thermal fluid-based materials and so on. These sensors are normally composed of NPs like
Cd, Te, and Se which are highly poisonous metals and there is increased opportunity of
inclusion of these particles into solutions and also their release into environment (Matsuda et
al., 2013).

Figure 16.2: Nanoparticle cycle in atmosphere

16.2 APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIAL IN DENTISTRY

There are some commonly explored nanostructures, which can show promising results in
dentistry are as follows:
Nanoparticles: The various compositions of nanoparticles (diameters of between 0.1 nm and
100 nm) depicts the most widespread use of nanoscale units in dentistry. The clinical results
of two years have shown that these are now being used in RBC restorations (Efes BG et al.,
2006; Schirrmeister JF et al., 2006) With the evolution of nanoparticles together for dental
composites, it is being applied with sharp focus to reformulations of interfacial silanes.
Nanohybrid RBCs are presently the most ubiquitous example of such technology.
Nanorods: It works as a useful tool in restorative context. Enamel-prism-like hydroxyapatite
(HA) nanorodshave synthesized by some scientist/researchers and they have exhibited
self-assembly properties (Saunders SA, 2009; Chen H et al., 2005). Nanorods could likely
contribute to a practical artificial estimation of a naturally-occurring structure like enamel as
they are alike to the enamel rods that make up the basic crystalline structure of dental enamel.
Nanospheres: Nanospheres can be cast-off in a similar fashion like the nanorods in stating of
restorative technology. Specifically, nanosphere assembly in combination with the calcium
phosphate deposition and amelogenin nanochain assembly (Saunders SA, 2009; Fan Y et al.,
2007).
Nanotubes: There are Different types of nanotubes that have been examined for dental
applications in a number of fascinating directions. To accelerate the kinetics of HA
formation, Titanium oxide nanotubes have been shown in vitro so as to serve as coatings,
which can accelerate bone growth on the surface of the implants. Recently, modified
single-walled carbon nanotubes have been shown to recover the flexural strength of RBCs
(Saunders SA, 2009; Oh SH et al., 2005).
Nanofibers: The potential of Nanofibers have been explored use in dentistry to generate
ceramics containing HA and fluor-HA. Recently, nanofibrillar silicate crystals have also been
studied in the capacity of reinforcement of dental composites (Kim HW et al., 2006). These
nanofibers established an improvement of the physical properties of the composites when
added in correct proportions and with uniform distribution (Saunders SA, 2009).
Dendrimers and dendritic copolymers: The compounds of Dendrimers are macromolecule
that are made up of a series of branches around an inner core (Quintana A et al., 2002).
Dendrimers and dendritic copolymers have been studied, although less expansively than other
nanostructures, in relation to dental complex applications. Combinations of exact polymers to
optimize effectiveness of restorative applications have been reported (Saunders SA, 2009;
Viljanen EK et al., 2007).
Nanopores: Titanium implants are widely used in dental and orthopedic surgery because of
favorable mechanical and biocompatible properties. By promoting the osseointergration of
implants, various surface treatments have been projected. It has been recently reported that
Titanium surfaces with nanopores 30 nm may endorse early osteoblastic differentiation and
consequently, rapid osseointegration of titanium implants (Lavenus S et al., 2011)
Nanoshells: They can prove to be beneficial in the treatment of patients suffering from oral
cancer. These are miniscule beads coated with gold. By manipulating the thickness of the
layers making up the nanoshells, scientists can design these beads to absorb near-infrared
light, creating an intense heat that is lethal to cancer cells (Kanaparthy R and Kanaparthy A.,
2011).
Other nanostructures, which have potential applications in other health-care fields and can
also prove to be a useful tool in dentistry are follows (Kovvuru SK et al., 2012).
1. Liposomes
2. Quantum Dots
3. Fullerenes
4. Nanowires
5. Nanobelts
6. Nanorings
7. Nanocapsules

Figure 16.3: Role of nanoparticle on human health

16.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

The nanotechnology is the second coming of the Industrial Revolution, or it has been
described as Industrial Revolution II (Stone, V et al., 2010). One of the main obstacles to
achieving this goal will be to control, reduce, and ultimately eliminate environmental and
environmentally-related problems associated with this technology. The success or failure of
this effort may well depend on the ability to address these environmental issues like
environmental concerns associated, expected toxic/hazardous material proper disposal
system, early degradation and less chances of bioaccumulation in living tissues. Regarding
these challenging issues, the environmental health and hazard risks associated with both
nanoparticles and the applications of nanotechnology for commercial and industrial uses are
not fully known (Stone, V et al., 2010; Stander, L. and Theodore, L, 2008). Some early
studies suggest that nanoparticles might serve as environmental poisons that accumulate in
organs. Although these risks may prove to be either minor, avoidable, or both, the engineers
and scientist's duty bound to determine if there are in fact any health, safety, and
environmental impacts associated with nanotechnology (Stander, L. and Theodore, L, 2008).
This information is also of vital importance to those involved and engaged in the legal arena.
Nanoparticles is just not only beneficial to tailor the properties of polymeric composite
materials and environment in air pollution monitoring, but also to help reduce material
ingestion and remediation. For example, the coatings of carbon nanotube and graphene have
been developed to reduce the weathering effects on composites used for wind turbines and
aircraft. The Graphene has been chosen to be an improved nanoscale inclusion to reduce the
degradation of UV exposure and salt. By applying a nanoscale coating of nanotechnology on
existing materials, the material will last longer and hold the initial strength longer in the
incidence of salt and UV exposure. The nanotubes of carbon have been used to increase the
performance of data information system. Though, there are few considerations of potential
risks need to be considered using nanoparticles:

I. The major problem of nanomaterials is the nanoparticle analysis method. As

nanotechnology improves, new and novel nanomaterials are gradually developed.
However, the materials vary by shape and size which are important factors in
determining the toxicity. Lack of information and methods of characterizing
nanomaterials make existing technology extremely difficult to detect the nanoparticles
in air for environmental protection.
II. The information of the chemical structure is a critical factor to determine how toxic a
nanomaterial is, and minor changes of chemical function group could drastically
change its properties as well.
III. Full risk assessment of the safety on human health and environmental impact need to
be evaluated at all stages of nanotechnology. It should include the menace assessment
exposure risk and its probability of exposure, toxicological analysis, transport risk,
persistence risk, transformation risk and ability to recycle.
IV. Life cycle risk assessment is another factor that can be used to predict the
environmental impacts.
 V. In advance of manufacturing a nanotechnology based product, a good experimental
design can reduce the material waste.

16.3.1 Negative Effects on Environment

Understanding of the environmental effects and risks associated with nanotechnology is very
limited and inconsistent. The potential environmental harm through nanotechnology can be
summarized as follows:
 The requirements of the high energy for synthesizing nanoparticles causing high
energy demand
 Dissemination of toxic and persistent nanosubstances originating environmental harm
 Lower recovery and recycling rates
 Environmental implications of other life cycle stages also not clear
 Lack of trained engineers and workers causing further concerns.

The outstanding properties of Graphene and its products can benefit the environment and
economy; unfortunately, graphene based composites may also harm the environment in other
ways:

The toxic property of graphene is unknown, and is difficult to remove graphene from waste.
 Graphene could react with materials and biological systems in environment in a way
that is unexpected.
 The thermal conductivity, and fire retardancy of Graphene has the polymer
nanocomposites is already well researched. Still, scientists warn that it may cause fire
risk if graphene is contaminated with other substances during the process (F. Kim et
al., 2010).

Table 16.1: List of some existing NPs and their health and environmental effects
Nanoparticle Environmental effects Health effects
Carbon Cause indirect effects upon contact Apoptosis; decreased cell
nanotubes with the surface of the environmental viability;
organisms; environmental damage lung toxicity; oxidative stress;
retarded cell growth; skin
irritation etc.
Fullerenes Effects on soil organisms and Retarded cell growth;
enzymes; aquatic ecosystems; binding decreased cell
 of chemicals to fullerenes may viability; oxidative stress and
affect the toxicity of other environmental apoptosis etc.
contaminants
Heterogeneous Toxicity depends on multiple Arrest of cell growth and
nanostructures physicochemical sometimes even cell death;
as well as environmental factors; adverse chromatin condensation;
influence of ecosystem etc. free radical formation
Nanosilver Undergoes several transformations Alterations of the non-specific
when it is released into the environment immune responses; altered
and shows adverse effects cell signaling;
apoptosis; necrosis of cells;
oxidative stress etc.
Nanostructured Persistent and tend to accumulate in Oxidative stress; fibrosis;
flame retardants the environment; toxic to plants, cardiovascular
wildlife etc. effects; cytotoxicity;
carcinogenic etc.
Polymeric Potential hazardous factor for environmental Oxidative stress;
nanoparticles exposure inflammation;
alteration in cellular
morphology and
functioning etc.
Silicon based Potential hazardous factor for environmental Cardiovascular effects;
nanoparticles exposure; adverse influence cytotoxicity;
of ecosystem etc. increase oxidative stress etc.
TiO2 Disrupt an aquatic ecosystem’s carbon Excessive exposure in human
nanoparticles and nitrogen cycles; stress photosynthetic may result in increased
organisms oxidative stress; retarded cell
growth; slight changes in
lungs etc.

16.3.2 Challenges of environmental toxicity

Nanoparticles have been naturally present in the environment since the origin of earth, for
example as the result of combustion processes (forest fires), in volcanic ash, in most natural
waters, or as dust in the air due to weathering and erosion.
Organisms produce various substances in nanoform (for example proteins, DNA) in their
cells or are themselves only several nanometers large, such as viruses. During their evolution,
all living organism have adapted to an environment that contains nanoparticles, some of
which can also be toxic volcanic). This adaptation is a function of exposure, dose and the
speed with which habitats change.
These natural nanoparticles in the environment are now accompanied by those that have been
released unintentionally due to human activities such as household heating, industry, slash-
and-burn clearance, and transport and, most recently, through the industrial application of
various, extremely polymorphic synthetic nanoparticles in unknown amounts. This additional
burden on humans and the environment has taken place over a very short period. To what
degree can organisms deal with such artificial nanoparticles without suffering damage?
Most data on acute toxicity as well as on sub lethal effects are available for freshwater
organisms (e.g. water fleas, fishes). There is no eco toxicological studies are available that
could explain in detail the mechanisms of uptake, distribution, metabolization and excretion
of nanoparticles.

16.3.3 Challenges and Future needs

The routine analytical methods that are available is a key to gain a better understanding of the
mechanisms of nanoparticle formation and reactivity. Further, given the influence of purity
on a wide range of nanoparticle properties, analytical techniques that can detect and quantify
impurities will be important to pursue greener approaches. In addition, chemical analysis of
individual nanoparticles in gases and liquids was impossible for a long time due to their low
mass. The enormous diversity of engineered nanomaterials with different sizes, shapes,
compositions and coatings matches and possibly exceeds that of conventional chemicals.
Advances in information technology and sensor design should lead to the development of
smart sensors that detect nanoparticle concentrations and determine their potential toxicity,
possibly providing early indications of harm. The challenge is to reach international
agreement on a battery of in vitro screening tests for human and environmental toxicity.
Essential to this challenge will be the widespread and global availability of standard
nanoparticle samples to allow comparison and refinement of methods across government,
industry and academic laboratories.
The surfactants used to control and size and shape of the nanomaterials are toxic. Therefore,
there is a need to find alternatives to the use of surfactants, templates, or other substances to
stabilize and control nanoparticle shape during synthesis. New biomimetic approaches
wherein the molecule will be used to control shape are very important, which can show great
promise in biologically derived nanoparticle production. More research is necessary to
develop these methods. There are encouraging results that suggest that the green nanoscience
framework can guide design, production, and application of greener nanomaterials across the
range of compositions, sizes, shapes, and functionality
For the safety of complex multi-component and multi-functional nanomaterials, we need to
develop validated models capable of predicting the release, transport, transformation,
accumulation, and uptake of engineered nanomaterials in the environment. Developing
structure-activity relationships is needed to predict biological impacts, ecological impacts,
and degradation at end-of-life. Each of these models is necessary to design nanoparticles that
will have the desired human health and environmental performance to complement their
physical properties.
Developing Communicating research on nanotechnology risks and benefits outside the
scientific community is challenging, but is essential for dialogues based on sound science
communication activities that enable technical information to be summarized, critiqued and
ultimately synthesized for various interested parties, including decision-makers and
consumers. Finally, a global understanding of nanotechnology-specific risks is essential if
large and small industries are to operate on a level playing field, and developing economies
are not to be denied essential information on designing safe nanotechnologies. If the global
research community can take advantage of these circumstances, then we can surely look
forward to the advent of safe nanotechnologies.

16.4 GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY-CHALLENGES

It was stated earlier that green nanotechnology is primarily focused on the application of the
principles of green chemistry and sustainability. The acceptance and benefits for the highest
levels of society can be achieved if technological development of nanotechnology is attached
with the evaluation of societal, environmental and economic impacts, posing the basis for
complete sustainability evaluation of different NPs with the same functionality (Iavicoli et al.,
2014). In addition to the recent immense progress, there are few challenges specific to green
nanotechnology is that the science, the testing, the regulatory strategy, and even the processes
required for commercial production are all being developed and deployed at the same time.
There are still no clear guiding principles for researchers in preliminary discovery phases of
green nanoscience. It is required to get many green nanomaterials and new commercial
production techniques, which increases the need for basic research, engineering research, and
coordination of the two between the industrial and research communities. The protocols of
Toxicology and analysis need to be developed and constantly updated to imitate advances in
the science. Green nanotechnologies and the regulatory uncertainty persists frequently face
higher regulatory barriers than existing or conventional chemicals (Cinelli et al., 2016). The
demand of the end-market is unclear, particularly since there are only an insufficient number
of commercial grade products that can be compared to conventional materials in terms of
performance. A lot of research was then conducted to evaluate the impacts of NPs on
sustainability, including life cycle assessments, economic and social impact assessments
(Dobon et al., 2011) and broad development of criteria sets for a variety of risks, profits and
sustainability implications.

16.5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Moreover, with the passage of time, more nanotechnology applications are concentrating in
areas of construction, paint, medicine, food, cosmetics, electronics, optics, textile, energy,
and agriculture. New departments and units have been recognized in universities and research
institutes to explore the field and many governments are financing huge amount of their
budgets for research in nanotechnology. But at the same time, researchers and social
community has elevated their concerns about environmental impact and toxicity of
nonmaterial based products. Currently, studies in area of nanotoxicity are growing and many
researchers are of view that toxicity and destinies of nanomaterial must be studied before
giving too much consideration to their applications. There is a serious absence of information
concerning the human health and environmental allegations of manufactured nanomaterial
particularly NPs. With rapid growth of NPs-based products, there is a pressing need to
identify their potential toxic effects to the human body and wildlife. People working in
nanotechnology-based industries and research centers are more exposed to these
nanoparticles (NPs) throughout their generation, transportation, and final applications in
various products. NPs have achieved great reputation in medicine and diagnostics and
resulted in a new medicine branch known as nanomedicine.

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nanorods into an enamel prism-like structure. J Colloid Interface Sci 2005; 288:97-103.
Cinelli M, Coles SR, Sadik O, Karn B, Kirwan K (2016) A framework of criteria for the
sustainability assessment of nanoproducts. J Clean Prod 126:277–287.
Dobon A, Cordero P, Kreft F, Ostergaard SR, Antvorskov H, Robertsson M, Smolander M,
Hortal M (2011) The sustainability of communicative packaging concepts in the food
supply chain. A case study: part 2. Life cycle costing and sustainability assessment. Int
J Life Cycle Assess 16:537.
Efes BG, Dörter C, Gömeç Y, Koray F. Two-year clinical evaluation of ormocer and nanofill
composite with and without a flowable liner. J Adhes Dent 2006; 8:119-26.
F. Kim, J. Luo, R. Cruz-Silva, L. J. Cote, K. Sohn, and J. Huang, "Self-Propagating Domino-
like Reactions in Oxidized Graphite," Advanced Functional Materials, vol. 20, pp.
2867-2873, 2010.
Ferrari M (2005) Cancer nanotechnology: opportunities and challenges. Nat Rev Cancer
5:161–171.
Fan Y, Sun Z, Wang R, Abbott C, Moradian-Oldak J. Enamel inspired nanocomposite
fabrication through amelogenin supramolecular assembly. Biomaterials 2007;28:
3034-42.
Iavicoli I, Leso V, Ricciardi W, Hodson LL, Hoover MD (2014) Opportunities and
challenges of nanotechnology in the green economy. Environ Health 13:78
Kanaparthy R, Kanaparthy A. The changing face of dentistry Nanotechnology. Int J
Nanomedicine, 2011;6:2799-804.
Kim HW, Kim HE. Nanofiber generation of hydroxyapatite and fluor-hydroxyapatite
bioceramics. J Biomed Mater Res B ApplBiomater 2006; 77:323-8.
Kovvuru SK, Mahita VN, Manjunatha BS, Babu BS. Nanotechnology: The emerging science
in dentistry. J Orofac Res 2012; 2:33-6.
Lavenus S, Berreur M, Trichet V, Pilet P, Louarn G, Layrolle P. Adhesion and osteogenic
differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells on titanium nanopores. Eur Cell
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Lewinski N, Colvin V, Drezek R (2008) Cytotoxicity of nanoparticles. Small 4:26–49.
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 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

RAINWATER HARVESTING: AN INTEGRATED WATER

MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE IN THE CONCEPT OF SMART CITIES
Puneet Singh Ratnu

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.
17.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
17.2 Need for Rainwater Harvesting……………………..........................................................................
17.3 Concept of Rainwater Harvesting and it's advantage.....................................................................
17.4 Rooftop rainwater Harvesting in Smart Cities................................................................................
17.5 Water Crisis: A Global Scenario.....................................................................................................
17.6 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................
References…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

ABSTRACT

A most important problem of modern era is 'Water Crisis'. Being an eminent, precious
resource; water is essential part of life; as no one (neither humans nor animals) could live
without water. As the demand of water continues to increase the development of sound
national, regional and community water conservation strategies are becoming of paramount
importance. Human realized the importance of water in his life a long ago; so; to conserve it
at different stages; he developed some distinct hydraulic structures: In which Rainwater
harvesting is a best structure to be built: Water conservation give rise to hopes of sustaining
human race itself.

17.1 INTRODUCTION
 On June 25th, 2015, Indian Prime Minister announced of developing 100 top cities of
the country in smart cities. (Ironically here most challenging situation would be change in
popular thoughts and prejudices i.e. converting popular thinking in smart thinking). Above
this chaos, most importantly; these cities would attract a huge amount of population towards
themselves; which would definitely increase urbanization. Also water is inversely
proportional to population.

1
Water 
Population

Infact, according to above equation water resources are fixed but population increases
geometrically. And this is where water resource conservation enters the scene.

17.2 NEED FOR RAINWATER HARVESTING

With aquifers being depleted in most of the Indian subcontinent that most profoundly
dominate the world's irrigated agriculture, substantial cut-backs in irrigation lie ahead. At the
same time the forecast is that India will be most populous country by 2050 CE, when it's
population will increase to a phenomenal billion (against the present population of 1.2
billion)1 totally surpassing China. India is likely to face a water crisis in near future. Some
parts of TN, K'taka, Rajasthan, A.P., J&K and Haryana are already facing acute shortages of
drinking water. Whether, we can avoid a severe break down of the social system in the face
of such spiraling of population

remains to be seen. If there is a chance for survival, we need to develop more efficient and
reliable methods for conserving waters Rainwater Harvesting is one them.

The concept of Rainwater Harvesting is not a brand new concept, from ages our
ancestors built such hydrolic structures. Infact we need it because how far could we hold out
the situation.

The Israel is the nation with 25cm rainfall per annum but no symptoms of water
shortage are found there, on contrast to which India gets avg. 114 cm but some or other part
of it gets striked with famines and droughts every year according to Falkenmark, a swedish
expert water stress occours when water availability is between 1,000 and 1,600 cubic metre
per person per year.2

17.3 CONCEPT OF RAINWATER HARVESTING AND IT'S ADVANTAGES

 Due to the limitations of multi-purpose river valley projects, Rain water harvesting
became viable alternative both socio-economically and environmentally. In ancient India
along with the sophisticated hydraulic structures, there existed an extra-ordinary tradition of
water-harvesting system. People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types
and developed wide ranging techniques to harvest rainwater.

Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya. It

is interesting because Cherapunjee and Mawsynram situated at a distance of 55 km. from
Shillong receive the highest rainfall in world, yet the state capital Shillong faces acute
shortage of water. Nearly every house in Shillong have a rooftop rainwater harvesting
structure.3

In recent years, rainwater harvesting system has became more important for India. It
is effective for providing water supply and alternative water resource. InfactR.R.W.H.S.
(Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Systems) are one of the most popular technique to conserve
water. It is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse on site, rather than allowing it
to run-off. Rain water can be collected from rivers to roofs and in many areas it is collected
and redirected to a deep pit (well, shaft or a borehole), a reservoir with percolation. It is
alternative water resource for long term shortage. It is one of the simplest and oldest method
for self supply of water for households usually financed by the user. In the contest of the
Bourgeoning water crisis in urban India, the technology of rainwater harvesting hold great
promise in some of the water deficit cities of India. Rainwater harvesting technology is
simple, cost effective and sustainable. An integrated system of Rainwater harvesting can be
designed for smart cities. In smart cities it could have the following uses -

1. They can be built in any area (either of high rainfall or of low / minimum rainfall).

2. Very useful in areas of low rainfall like Shillong.

3. These can be built in any house irrespective of it's size.

4. It provides an independent water supply.

5. Serves as a good alternative during the regional restrictions.

17.4 ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING IN SMART CITIES

Let us take an example of any smart cit-say- Benguluru (K'taka). Recently in a verdict
(over the cauvery row), Supreme Court of India has given the larges share of water to K'taka,
which is a worrisome issue for TN farmers. SC has given this verdict concerning, the
problem of K'taka's most important city- B'luru - This problem arised due to the
irresponsibility of people towards the nature. Government of both states awares to conserve
the water.

 How far can we conserve the resources.

 Upto what extent can we reduce their extraction?
 Can't we develop some alternatives?

At present, B'luru lacks proper drainage system due to which waste-water (untreated) is
drained into adjourning lakes, which pollutes them. Some times fire burst out on the water of
those lakes due to access of methane and phosphorus.

This phenomenon is not confined to apolouge of B'luru only, but this is the drastic
and disastorous situation of every Indian city.

Instead of just depending upon some pre-dominant water resources, we have to focus
on developing some alternatives to avoid a miserable future for our younger generation. In
his creation 'The ancient Maniner and Albatross' (1834), Samuel Colridge says "Water, Water
everywhere, not a single drop to drink". This phrase is becoming truth day-by-day, some
corrective measures should and must be taken in this field.

We must again take the example of B'luru, the city gets a good account of rainfall
annually due to it's location. In a report It was revealed that avg. rooftop area of houses in
B'luru is 100m2. This rooftop area can easily be converted to a sophisticated R.R.W.H.S. and
according to the same report these R.R.W.H.S. an meet the demand of around 600,000 people
living in the city.

The need for alternatives to the water resources increases due to geometrical rises in
population. For instance, TN, K'taka, Kerala and Puducherry needs 1000 tmcft of water
annually but cauvery itself has only 740 tmcft of water in this situation -

1. How can one conserve or sustain it!

2. How can one reduce the resource extraction!
3. Even if it is done, then upto what extent!
4. How far can we hold out the situation!

17.5 WATER CRISIS: A GLOBAL SCENARIO

 Earth's waters are threatened in sarcastic and dramatic way, while the supply of fresh
water is depleting, the level of water in oceans is increasing rapidly. Shrinking polar ice fuels
this ocean surge. A predicted 23- foot surge in sea level would wipe out

New-york and South Florida and force millions of people out from low-lying regions of
Asia.4 Since 1970, the global water supply has declined by about 30 %. In the next 50-100
yrs, when population (at global level) is estimated to rise as much as 11 billion, the strain will
be even greater.5 The United Nation anticipates that by 2025, the hall of the world's
population will lack water far their basic needs.6 When water is available, nevertheless, it
often is unfit for human consumption due to various types of pollution, both chemical and
microbial. Throughout the world, upto 1,500 children die daily due to diseases related to
consumption of unclean water.7This implies globally we have following water problems.

1. Water pollution
2. Global warming
3. Disasters caused by excess/unavailability of water. (like-draught, Tsunami, Floods
etc.)
4. Unsafe water
5. Diseases by pollutant water
6. Wars due to water
7. Rising prices of water

So, we have to develop a water conservation strategy which would help the water to
meet the global demands. Because, India will have larger share of population in world till
2050, that's why we have to focus on conserving water more efficiently than any other nation.
We must remember that these 100 smart cities will reflect the image of India but these do not
alone constitute India. So, we must concentrate on developing hydraulic structures in whole
nation except just in 100 cities.

17.6 CONCLUSION

The concept of smart cities is very new to India; it will take years to adjust itself in
Indian society. In present scenario it's an utopian vision. Smart cities does not only needs
swiftness and smartness in the working but also the efficacy of intellect and precision of
thinking. There should be a fundamentalist approach towards nature and
natural resources especially water. Water is a precious natural resource, abundant and
essential, yet to be conserved. As said earlier

1
Water 
Population

It is demand of time to utilize the money on a productive work, instead of just wasting
it on papers.

Water Management is essential for the country as a whole. As smart cities would
reflect the image of the nation, it is more important to concentrate on them. It needs
awareness among the people, among the common, among the proletarians. As said by Jean
Blondel - "Decisions of our government and decisions of the governments of great powers
would shape our destiny". Our government has decided to follow the path of development,
whole world is joining us in this growth race, It demarcates our good fortune. God is with us.
Countries like Israel, Russia, Japan are investing on the development of our smart cities.
These are the indications of progress. This is a golden or I can say a platinum or sapphire
opportunity for India. This can be roasted in favour of Indian ambitions. If we will follow the
path, predicted water crisis could be prevented and we will lead ourselves and the world to a
better, greater and brighter future.

REFERENCES

1. 5th Report, The Citizen, CSE,1999.

2. NCERT, Geography, Class IX, Chap-3

3. NCERT, Geography, Class IX, Chap-3

4. Nat Geo Publications, Answer Book, Cha-3, Pg216-17.

5. Nat Geo Publications, Answer Book, Cha-3, Pg216-17.

6. Nat Geo Publications, Answer Book, Cha-3, Pg216-17.

7. Nat Geo Publications, Answer Book, Cha-3, Pg216-17.

 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

DIELECTRIC STUDIES OF ALKALINE SOILS

V. K. Gupta

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
18.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
18.2 Experimental procedure and theory ……………………………………………………………………..
18.3 Results and discussion………………………………………………………………………………..........
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT
The increasing alkalinity in agricultural soil is a crucial environmental hazard and causes a
negative effect on the health of fauna and flora. This requires careful monitoring of the status
of soil alkalinity and its dynamics to curb degradation trends and secure sustainable land use
and management. Soil alkalinity is associated with the presence of relatively high proportion
of sodium salts (NaHCO3 and (Na2CO3) in the soil. The values of real and imaginary part of
dielectric constant ε ' and ε} {¿ of these artificially alkaline and moistened soil samples are
determined at a single microwave frequency 9.78 GHz and at a single temperature 35.0 0C
using a wave guide cell method. Alkalinity of Na2CO3 hardly affects the real part of dielectric
constant of alkaline soil and minor impact of alkalinity appears on only for sufficiently moist
soils. Imaginary part of dielectric constant slightly increases with the alkalinity of Na 2CO3
mixed in water.

18.1 INTRODUCTION

In Alwar district most of the salts are brought by irrigation water. Soil alkalinity is the most
crucial agronomic and ecological problems affecting the soil of Alwar, semi-arid regions of
eastern Rajasthan. Soil alkalinity is one of the major reasons for reduction in agricultural
production is due to indiscriminate use of fertilizers and large-scale application of improper
irrigation techniques results in the alkalization of large tracts of arable land. The reason
behind the alkalinity of soil in Alwar is the higher concentration of salts in irrigation water.
The irrigating ground water contains a relatively high proportion of sodium carbonates and
bicarbonates. The dissolved solids consists mainly of inorganic salts such as carbonates,
bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, phosphates and nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, iron etc. and small amounts of organic matter. Further, insufficient precipitations
(< 630 mm) to drain the soluble salts contained in the soil profile and high temperature
during summers (up to 49oC responsible for evapo- transpiration) are primary factors causing
salt accumulation in the soil of this semi-arid area.

Further, large numbers of reasons which are associated with salt accumulation of agricultural
soils. The few important of them are as under: (i) The salts are readily present in the parent
materials of soil. (ii) The salts can be formed during weathering of the parent rocks. (iii) The
salts can be air or water borne. (iv) The saline ground water comes out through capillary
action and evaporates at surface leaving the salts behind. Generally, the salts present in the
soils are white, chemically neutral. According to Kolarkar et al (1980) natural salt affected
soils are due to sodium chloride followed by calcium chloride and sodium sulphate. Salts
mostly include the chlorides, sulphates and sometimes nitrates of calcium, magnesium,
sodium, and potassium. The most harmful element of salts is sodium. Alkaline soils are
characterized by high p (> 9.0) and a poor soil structure and a low infiltration capacity. Soil
alkalinity is associated with the presence of relatively high proportion of sodium bicarbonates
(NaHCO3) or sodium carbonates (Na2CO3) in the soil. Alkaline soils contain high
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). The clay particles of the soils attract and adsorb
cations (positively charged atoms). Desirable (useful) cations in the soil include calcium,
magnesium, potassium and ammonium. These cations readily interchange with one another.
Alkaline soils are high in exchangeable sodium so that it replaces desirable cations. The
amount of exchangeable sodium in soil is reported as the Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR).
This is the ratio of the amount of positive charge contributed to a soil by sodium to that of
contributed by calcium plus magnesium. An SAR value below 13.0 is desirable for
cultivation. Higher values of exchangeable sodium can deteriorate soil structure and restrict
water infiltration. Alkaline soils are hard and cloddy when dry and tend to crust. Water intake
usually is poor, especially in soils high in silt and clay. The proper management of soil root
zone in semi-arid and arid regions is possible only when accurate estimation of spatial and
temporal distribution of soil alkalinity and its dynamics is available. Alkalinity profile studies
required for soil and land management regarding proper utilization. Dielectric measurement
technique is important In-situ measurement techniques. The complex permittivity of wet soil
primarily depends upon SMC (Ulaby et al 1986) in soil in free state because of the large
contrast between dielectric constant of dry soil (3 to 5) and water (81). The amount of free
water present in the soil depends upon various properties of soil like texture, structure,
chemical composition, alkalinity and salinity, humus content, bulk density, porosity etc.
Sreenivas et al (1995) performed a very important microwave response study of the soil
salinity and alkalinity

18.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND THEORY

The soil from superficial horizon of local profile of Alwar region with textural composition
sand=30.2%, silt=59.7% and clay=10.1% has been selected for preparation of artificially
alkalinized and moistened soil samples. Firstly, salt free soil is prepared by leaching of salts
from the soil through repeatedly flushing with conductivity water until the residual
conductivity of soil extract. Salt free soil was oven dried for twenty-four hours at 110 0C and
divided in eight different Groups namely A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H. Desired gravimetric
percentage (0.0%, 2.0%, 4.0%, 6.0%, 8.0%, 10.0%, 12.0%, and 14.0%) of alkaline water
having eight different concentrations of salinity, have been mixed with eight sub-groups of
each Group (A to H) of salt free soil samples. The eight different solutions of alkaline water
with different concentrations in part per million (ppm) of Sodium Charbonate corresponding
to 0 ppm, 5000 ppm, 10000 ppm, 15000 ppm, 20000 ppm, 25000 ppm, 30000 ppm and
35000 ppm soluble in conductivity water are prepared. Total sixty-four prepared samples of
alkaline soil at different levels of alkalinity (0 ppm to 35000 ppm) and moistness (0.0%, to
14.0%) are prepared. The alkaline water properly mixed with salt free soil and these
artificially alkalinized and moistened soil samples are kept in air tight plastic container for
uniform mixing and to avoid any evaporation from soil.

The ε′ and ε″ of the soil samples are measured using shift in minima of the standing wave
pattern inside the slotted section of an X-band rectangular wave guide excited in TE 10 mode.
The experimental set up theory and procedure for the present work is the same as used earlier
by by Yadav and Gandhi (1992). The experimental set up used for the present investigation is
shown in figure18.1.

1. KLYSTRON POWER SUPPLY 9. DIELECTRIC SAMPLE HOLDER

CELL
2. KLYSTRON TUBE 10. MOVABLE PLUNGER
3. ISOLATOR 11. WATER CIRCULATING JACKET
4. FREQUENCY METER 12. PLUNGER MOVING SCREW
GAUGE
5. E-H TUNNER D – S.W.R. DETECTOR
6. VARIABLE ATTENUATOR M – INDICATING METER
7. SLOTTED WAVE GUIDE SECTION
8. E-BEND
 Figure 18.1: X-band experimental set up

The dielectric constant (ε') and dielectric loss (ε‫ )״‬for dry and moist soil samples having
humus contents are determined using the following equation (1) and (2) respectively

( ) ( )[ ( )]
2 2 2
'
λ0 λ0 αd
ε= + 1−
λc λd βd
........................................................................ (1)

} =2left({ λrSub{size8{0} over{λrSub{size8{d} }right)rSup{size8{2} left[{ αrSub{size8{d} over{βrSub{size8{d} }right]}{¿

ε ¿ .............................................................................................. (2)

Where
λ0 , λ c , and λ d are the free space wavelength, cut off wavelength ( λ c =2a) and wave

length in the dielectric medium respectively, for the wave-guide excited in TE 10 mode. α d is

the attenuation introduced per unit length of the material (in napers per meter). β d is the
phase shift introduced per unit length of material in radian per meter. Magnitude of the
complex permittivity of the soil is given by the following equation (3).

ε ¿ =¿ ¿ ............................................................................................ (3)

18.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Experimental values of ε ' of soil mixed with different concentration of alkaline water (0.0%
to 14.0%) having different alkalinity of Na2CO3 (0-35000 ppm) are shown figure-2.
 14.0

12.0
smc=0%
10.0 smc=2.0
%
8.0 smc=4.0
ε' of soil

%
6.0 smc=6.0
%
4.0

2.0

0.0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000

Alkalinity of Water(ppm)

Figure 18.2: Variations of experimental values of ε ' of soil w.r.t alkalinity of Na 2CO3 at
different levels of SMC

Figure 18.2, reveal that alkalinity of Na2CO3 hardly affects the real part of dielectric constant
of alkaline soil. This may be due to the fact that dielectrics properties of alkaline water are
not much different than that of pure water. So that mixing of small amount of Na 2CO3 in part
per million produces no effect on real part of dielectric constant of soil.

Further, Variations of ε ' of alkaline and moistened soil with respect to alkalinity of Na2CO3
mixed with alkaline water are shown in figure-3.

4.5
smc=0%
4.0 smc=2.0%
smc=4.0%
3.5 smc=6.0%
3.0 smc=8.0%
smc=10.0%
ε" of soil

2.5 smc=12.0%
2.0 smc=14.0%

1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000

Alkalinity of Water(ppm)
Figure 18.3: Variations of experimental values of ε} {¿ of soil w.r.t alkalinity of Na2CO3 at
different levels of SMC

Figure 18.3 reflect that a minor impact of alkalinity appears on ε} {¿ only for sufficiently moist

soils. Here, ε} {¿ of soil slightly increases with the alkalinity of Na2CO3 mixed in water. Since

the ε} {¿ of soil solution is directly related to ionic conductivity and for alkaline water the
conductivity slightly increases due to high ionic drag of large size carbonate ions. Hence,
imaginary part of dielectric constant of alkaline soil marginally increases with alkalinity
where ε} {¿ of saline soil significantly increases with respect to salinity of soil.

REFERENCES

Kolarkar A S, Dhir R P and Singh N (1980) Characteristics and morphogenesis of salt-

affected soils in south-eastern arid Rajasthan. Journal of Indian Society of Remote
Sensing 8 (1):31-34

Sreenivas K, Venkataratnam L and Narasimaha Rao P V (1995) Dielectric properties of salt-

affected soils Int. J Remote Sensing 16(4): 641-649.

Ulaby F T, Moore R K and Fung A K (1986) Microwave remote sensing: active and passive,
From Theory to Applications Vol. III, Artech House, Dedham, MA(USA).

Yadav J S and Gandhi J M (1992) Simple microwave technique for measuring the dielectric
parameters of solids and their powders” Indian J Pure Appl Phys 30:427–432

CHAPTER NINTEEN

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN THE FICTION OF RUSKIN BOND

Dr. Savita Goel

 A blessing rests on the house where falls the shadow of a tree
(Bond)

Ruskin Bond, a renowned Indian writer, received Sahitya Academy Award for
English Writing in India for his great literary work "Our Trees Still Grow in Dehra" in 1992
and was awarded Padma Shri in 1999. His childhood and most of his life was spent among
the pristine natural surroundings and right from his childhood his soul was linked up with the
beautiful environment. His passion for nature was fixed in his blood; it was the necessity of
his being like that of mulberry leaf to the silkworm, and through his communication with
nature he loved and breathed. What the great poet William Wordsworth said, is true for him
to:

His daily teachers had been woods and rills.

The silence that is in the starry sky

The sleep that is among the lonely hills

("Preludes")

If Bond had a favorite subject, it was nature and environment. His literary works
explicate his concern for green layer of the earth and the creatures residing on the planet. He
stresses the fact that the relationship of man with the natural environment should be
'Symbiotic' and not exploitative. Man should live in absolute harmony with nature. His fiction
teaches us 'environmental ethics'. He contends that more and more trees should be planted as
trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The trees restore the greenhouse gases
and play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance. Trees are important for water cycle;
they absorb rain and produce water vapour that is released into the atmosphere; alleviate
water pollution; prevent soil erosion and provide protection against natural calamities like
drought, flood and cyclone and conserve wildlife. Ruskin says that trees are the green lungs
of human beings, they contribute to the environment by providing oxygen and improving air
quality. Hence, he makes a strong plea for preservation of environment.

In his stories, he deals with the menace of deforestation, global warming, careless
resource depletion, loss of biodiversity, over-population, pollution and climate change. He
criticizes the fact that man is cutting forests in the name of progress and development to make
land available for housing, urbanization and industrialization, for fuels, wood, timber and
fodder i.e. for his own selfish consumption or rather over-consumption. This leads to
environmental degradation. Bond asserts that man is digging his own grave. In the process of
sustainable development, the precious natural wealth and health of man are getting lost.
Deforestation is one of the major factors leading to climate change; it has an impact on the
global carbon cycle.

Bond in his story "Death of the Trees" says, "The trouble is that there is hardly
anyone who practically believes that trees and shrubs are necessary. They get in the way so
much. Don't they? (in "Our Trees Still Grow in Dehra", 94) This open ended question "don't
they?" is satirical, for without comprehending the drastic results of our materialistic life we
are interfering with the costly gift bestowed to us by God i.e. Nature. Human beings have
become apathetic to the "destruction of trees, explosions that shatter the silence of the
mountains - as thousand years old rocks are dynamited - have frightened away all but the
most intrepid birds and animals" (96). The story "Dust on the Mountains" depicts the
miserable condition of the mountains after years of blasts. There were trees here once, but the
contractors took the deodars for furniture. And the pines were trapped to death for resin and
the oaks were stripped of their leaves to feed cattle. (41) The entire atmosphere is smothered
with dust.

Bond connects the cutting of trees with the loss of peace and tranquillity of the
Maplewood hillside as the new road on hillside has to be built. He fees dejected to see the
hills denuded of trees. In the "Death of the Trees" the protagonist says, "I will miss the young
Deodar... It was just coming into its own, this year, now cut down in its prime like my young
brother on the road in Delhi last month: both victims of the road; the tree killed by PWD, my
brother by a truck..... Twenty oaks have been felled just in a small stretch near the cottage. By
the time this bypass reaches Jabarkhet, about six miles from here, over a thousand oaks will
have been slaughtered, beside many other fine trees - maples, some fifty to sixty yards from
the roadside. With the constant deforestation, the ratio of green house in the atmosphere
increases and adds to global warming. Once the trees are cut, burnt or otherwise removed,
they become carbon sources.

Forests are complex ecosystems that affect almost every species on the planet. When
they are annihilated, a devastating chain of events is set off both locally and around the
world. Trees preserve the flora and fauna. Myriad plants and animals lose their habitats which
in turn leads to the extinction of species. Bond in "Death of the Tree" says that as myriad
trees are cut, the number of birds and other creatures dwindle. In "Death of the Trees" Bond
sarcastically remarks, "Forests birds all of them, they will now be in search of some other
stretch of surviving forests. The only visitors will be the crows, who have learnt to live with
and off, humans". Habitat destruction and species extinction caused by anthropogenic
activities is a matter of great concern for the author. Our destiny is closely connected to
biodiversity, the huge variety of life forms that include other animals, plants and microbes in
the surrounding environment.

In his story "Tiger, Tiger Burning Bright" Bond says that there was a time when
forests near river Ganges was a comfortable habitat of a number of tigers, but gradually they
were shot dead by human beings and now there remained only one tiger in the jungle. With
the extinction of this grand elegant species, he contends, "There was another thing that had
gone with the tiger, another thing that had been lost, a thing that was being lost everywhere -
something called nobility". (52) With the passage of time "when the last tiger goes, so will
the soul of the country". (56) His stories reflect his profound love for all creatures. In "All
Creatures Great and Small", he asserts that we should be more gentle with birds and animals
and should not kill them; we should venerate them and acknowledge their rights. The central
character in the story says, "Everywhere birds and animals are finding it difficult to survive
because we are trying to destroy both them and their forests." Ruskin Bond contends that bio-
diversity is the wealth of earth and it has to be protected. Every form of life on earth is unique
and warrants respect regardless of its worth to human beings. Man is also a part of nature and
biodiversity sustains mankind. Living creatures are interdependent, intricately connected in
birth and death. Homosapiens are just a miniscule of this colossal mosaic, yet they inflict pain
on other species and environment.

In contemporary age man has become very selfish and materialistic. He wastes all his
time and energy in earning and spending money. He has no time to admire the beauty of
nature and experience its serenity. In this process he has lost his peace of mind. In "The Last
Tonga Ride" the tongawala says, "Times are changing, memsahib. Now there are taxies and
motor cars competing with the tongas of Dehra". When she is leaving, he tells her that if "you
stay, you will see me, the trees and the animals die". In the story "The Tunnel" Kishen Singh
Says, "It is safer in the jungles than in the towns. No rascals out here. Only last week when I
went into the town, I had my pocket picked. Leopards do not pick pockets". Kishen expresses
his contempt for urban life in this story. In other stories, he comments that the use of plastic
and fast food packaging is defiling the environment.

In "The Crooked Tree" Bond describes his dislike for the city life and his strong
desire to be in the lap of nature. He is fed up with the din and bustle of city, the polluted air -
the toxic chemicals that make up the smog. He seems distraught by the apathy of the people
of Delhi, the protagonist says, "The blare of horns can be heard, everyone is conditioned to
the noise and pays no attention to it...... In Delhi, there is a feverish desire to be first in line,
the first to get everything..... This is probably because no one ever gets round to dealing with
second corners". (78) He says "I want to breathe the countryside air, and be away from the
crowds and concrete jungles of the city (79)." His story "The Prospect of Flowers" depicts
how the young generation in the transforming scenario want to be pilots or soldiers or
perhaps engineers. However, there is one boy who wants to be an environmentalist and
botanist. Bond feels that there is still a ray of hope for the future.

In his renowned story "The Cherry Tree", tree is compared to a human being. Rakesh
a six-year old boy, the central character of this story lives with his grandfather, a retired forest
ranger in a little cottage outside Mussoorie. One day he sows a cherry seed after consuming
the fruit and is amazed and elated to see the seeds sprout. Gradually the small plant
transforms into a huge tree and Rakesh too grows along with the tree – from adolescence to
manhood. He identifies himself with the tree. After some time, the height of the tree increases
and it flowers and bears fruits. It then becomes a habitat for diverse creatures – night jars,
crickets, cicidas, bees, butterflies and birds who live in it, just as Rakesh and his grandfather
enjoy spending time and chatting in the shade of the tree. At the end of the story Rakesh feels
proud that the seed he had sown has transformed into a huge tree. "I wonder", he whispered,
"Is this what it feels to be God? " He feels that he has, in his own small way, shared in God's
function of creation.

In this story Rakesh takes care of the plant like a guardian or parent, watering it every
day and protecting it from outside perils. "The Cherry Tree" teaches us that seeds and
saplings should not just be planted, they should be nurtured and nursed like a child. As the
grandfather introduces the child Rakesh to the natural world and makes him a part of
safeguarding the environment, similarly a habit of protecting the environment. This story
reminds one of Henry C. Bunner's poem "The Heart of the Tree,"

What does he plant, who plants a tree?

 He plants a friend of man and sky,

He plants the flag of breezes free,

The shaft of protection towering high.

Ruskin Bond seems to convey a very serious message through his writings that if we
want to survive, we should live in harmony with nature and must give back to the earth what
we take from it and we must learn to live within the carrying capacity of the environment. We
should realize that biosphere is both for us and our descendants and that we have not
inherited the earth from our parents, we have only borrowed it from our children.]

References

Bond, Ruskin, 2009, Dust in the Mountains New Delhi : Penguin India.

Bond, Ruskin, 1991, Our Trees Still Group in Dehra. New Delhi : Penguin India.

Bond, Ruskin, 1992, The Adventures of Rusty. New Delhi, Living Media Publication.

Bond, Ruskin, 1994, The Best of Ruskin Bond. New Delhi: Penguin India.

Bond, Ruskin, 1998, The Night Train at Deoli and Other Stories. New Delhi : Mukul
Prakashan.

CHAPTER TWENTY

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS EFFECT ON ENVIRONMENT

Saroj Bala

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
20.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
 20.2 What is climate change?
20.3 Causes of Climate Change
20.4 Effect of climate change on human life
20.5 WHO Assessment on Climate Change
20.6 Solution and How Can We Prevent the Hazards of Climate Change
20.6.1 WHO Efforts in This Matter
20.6.2 Efforts done by our Indian Government
20.7 Conclusion
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

20.1 INTRODUCTION

As is said by William Wordsworth: -

“Nature is the father of human beings.”
Gandhi ji once said: -
“Nature can fulfill the requirements of every man but it can
not fulfill the greediness of any one person.”
The biggest problem in the world today is the change of climate as we are running to make
our life more and more easy so we have no time to see the result of our deeds which are
harmful for our environment. There are therefore at least two contrasting perspectives on
dangerous climate change, what we term `external' and `internal' definitions of risk. External
definitions are usually based on scientific risk analysis, performed by experts, of system
characteristics of the physical or social world. Internal definitions of danger recognize that to
be real, danger has to be either experienced or perceived – it is the individual or collective
experience or perception of insecurity or lack of safety that constitutes the danger.
Through this paper I have tried to present the meaning of climate change, its effects on
human life and environment in future and what will be the solution for this problem.

20.2 WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE

The earth climate, nowadays is changing very rapidly and differently. Besides that the
climate change in our earth are affecting our lives psychologically, physically and
emotionally. What is climate change? Climate change is the seasonal changes for a long
period of time in the world. These climate patterns play an important role in shaping natural
ecosystems, and the human economies and cultures that depend on them. For example, the
changes in climate can affect how people, plants and animal live, such as food production and
health risks. As the earth's climate is dynamic and always changing through a natural cycle,
the world is now worried about the changes that occurring today have been speeding up and
seriously affecting human's lives. All across the world, people are taking action to prevent
climate change. For example, in 2007, scientists from the International Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) predicted that warming oceans and melting glaciers due to global warming
and climate change could cause sea levels to rise 7-23 inches by the year 2100. So, some
islands and some small countries will be flooded by the sea water and even disappeared very
soon. Because of this, we must take action as soon as possible to try to solve this problem or
to prevent the more serious of climate changes occur. I am interested in this topic because the
climate changes in our country or this world are too serious and it is interesting to discuss and
try to fix the problem. However, what are the causes and effects of climate changes that
affecting our lives and environment?

Figure 20.1: Why global warming is arising?

20.3 CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

There are two main causes of climate changes - natural causes and human activities. Natural
causes have influenced the earth's climate such as volcanic eruptions, ocean current, the
earth's orbital changes and solar variations. The eruptions of volcanoes cause a cooling effect
on the earth. When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2),
water vapour, dust, and ash into the atmosphere.

The volcano eruptions will affect the climatic pattern for years although the eruptions occur
in a few days. There are two main causes of climate changes - natural causes and human
activities. Natural causes have influenced the earth's climates such as volcanic eruptions,
ocean current, the earth's orbital changes and solar variations. The eruptions of volcanoes
cause a cooling effect on the earth. When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of
sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust, and ash into the atmosphere. The volcano
eruptions will affect the climatic pattern for years although the eruptions occur in a few days.
The sulphur dioxide gas will reach the upper level of the atmosphere. The tiny particles, dusts
and ashes will block the incoming sun rays and this will leads to cooling at the atmosphere.
This is because the bouncing of sunlight to the space is cooling the atmosphere of the earth.
Furthermore, ocean current is one of the natural cause that affecting climate changes. The
ocean is the major component of the climate system. The oceans cover about 71% of the
earth and absorb about twice as much of the sun's radiation as the atmosphere or the land
surface. Winds push horizontally against the sea surface and drive ocean current patterns.
Besides that, the oceans also play an important role of the concentration of carbon dioxide.
The changes in ocean circulation will affect the climate through the movement of carbon
dioxide into or out of the atmosphere. Moreover, another cause that affects climate changes is
the earth's orbital changes. The earth makes one full orbit around the sun every year. If there
is no tilt we will not experience seasons. Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect the severity
of the seasons. For example, if there is more tilt means we will experience warmer summers
and colder winters and if there is less tilt means we will experience cooler summers and
milder winters.
Another main cause that leads to climate changes is human activities. From the 19th century,
the Industrial Revolution saw the large-scale use of fossil fuels for industrial activities.
Therefore, they created many jobs for the people. And many people moved from rural areas
to cities. Many vegetation areas were cleared to become houses or factories for industries.
Natural resources are being used extensively for construction, industries, transport, and
consumption. All this has contributed to the rises of greenhouse gases such as methane and
nitrous oxide in the atmosphere. Human is generating industries factories and houses, and
running the vehicles that used many fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gases. These
uses of fossil fuel will leads to climate changes. Global climate change is caused by the
fertilizer that used for agricultures. The result of microbial action in the soil, these chemical
will release nitrous oxide. Besides that, the emission of methane and carbon dioxide will also
affect climate changes. In addition, the increasing of agriculture is also caused by the
increasing of human population in the world.

20.4 EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HUMAN LIFE

All the causes are giving a great impact for climate changes in our earth. What are the
consequences of these causes for the climate changes to our world? We can see that there are
three main effects on climate changes in our environment. Firstly, climate change in the
world will affects human health. There are so many past researches showed that climate
change will leads to human health and producing diseases. For example, in the research paper
by Healey et al., 2010 that I have read said that "the climate change is affecting the health of
northern people such as Nunavut, Canada." Besides that, Cecchi et al. (2010) have conducted
the research on the effects of climate change on allergic asthma. Moreover, Mickley, 2007
stated that "high levels of surface ozone and particles have been implicated in many diseases
involving the cardiac and respiratory systems." These researches showed that the climate
changes are seriously affecting the human's health.
Secondly, climate changes will also affect the biodiversity. Biodiversity is very important for
the plants and animals to maintain their habitat and ecosystem. The climate changes have
impacted the loss of biodiversity. For example, the water sources may change, the food chain
may destroy and the medicine sources may change. In addition, the marine ecosystem will be
affected not only by an increase in sea temperature but also ocean acidification, which
increases the vulnerability of fragile ecosystems such as coral reefs.

Figure 20.2: (A) & (B): Impacts of global warming

No doubt, global warming may bring some localized benefits such as fewer winter deaths in
temperate climates and increased food production in certain areas, the overall health effects
of a change in climate are likely to be overwhelmingly negative. Climate change effects
social and environmental determinants of health-clean air, safe drinking water, sufficient food
and secure as shelter. High temperature also raise the levels of ozone and other pollutants in
the air that exacerbate cardiovascular and disease. Rising sea levels and increasing extreme
weather events will destroy homes and other essential services. A lack of safe water can
compromise hygiene and increase the risk of diarrheal disease, which kills over 500000
children aged over 5 years, every year. By the late 21 st century, climate change is likely to
increase the frequency and intensity of draught at regional and global scale.
Apart from these floods are also increasing in various part of the world, even in our India we
seen the events of flood in 2016, 2017 in Kerla, Mumbai, Assam and Rajasthan also. Floods
contaminate freshwater supplies, heighten the risk of water-borne diseases, and create
breeding grounds for disease carrying insects such as mosquitoes. They also cause drawings
and physical injuries, damage homes and disrupt the supply of medical and health services.

Figure 20.3: Location Map and Rivers of Barmer, Rajasthan

Figure 20.4: Flood in Barmer, Rajasthan

Not only this but rising temperature and variable precipitation are likely to decrease the
production of staple foods in many of the poorest regions. This will increase the prevalence
of malnutrition and under nutrition, which currently cause 4.1 death every year.
Furthermore, climate changes also will affect human's mind and behaviour psychologically.
Climate changes will affect human's behaviour such as consumption, energy use and
population growth. Besides that, climate changes also impact psychosocial and mental health
including stress, guilty, anxiety to adapt and cope with the new changing weathers. The
climate changes will cause the increase of social disorder such as post traumatic disorder,
suicide, stress, abuse, violence and anxiety. Therefore, climate changes will be giving a great
impact on the human's psychological lives.

20.5 WHO ASSESSMENT ON CLIMATE CHANGE

On the basis of the various problems of climate change WHO has presented his assessment
that climate change is expected to cause approximately 250000 additional deaths per year
between 2030 and 2050. In the coming years the world will be affected by various diseases
and earthquakes through which a lot of bad effect will be seen on human life.

20.6 SOLUTION AND HOW CAN WE PREVENT THE HAZARDS OF CLIMATE

CHANGE

As we can see how the causes and effects of climate changes that occur in our world and this
topic was concerned by the worldwide. So, what are the solutions and method that we can
prevent climate changes or solve the problems that we are having now? Actually there are
some solutions that our government, community and society can do. Firstly, the government
can help the communities and businesses to reduce deforestation, plant new trees in the forest
and empty land, earn sustainable livelihoods and adapt to changing climatic conditions. Next,
teachers in lecturers in schools and colleges must give the knowledge of how to protect our
earth from the very young age of the children and students. One of the reasons that caused the
climate changes is the emission of carbon dioxide from the vehicles. Therefore, we can
reduce the uses of vehicles and car-pooling in our daily lives. Besides that, at home, we can
switch our light bulbs to energy efficient bulbs and turn off the light when we are not using it
or after using it. The conference at Rvanda in Morokau in 2016 has produced a lot of solution
to improve the environment.

20.6.1 WHO Efforts in This Matter

WHO said that many policies and individual choices have the potential to refuse greenhouse
gas emissions and production major health co-benefits. For example, cleaner energy systems,
and prompting the safe use of public transportation and active movement- such as cycling or
walking as alternatives to using private vehicles- could reduce carbon emissions, and cut the
burden of household air pollution, which causes some 4.3 million deaths per year, and
ambient air pollution, which causes about 3.5 million deaths every year. Besides WHO also
said that each person should contribute in this field and the educated people should aware the
uneducated to prevent the hazards of climate changes.

20.6.2 Efforts done by our Indian Government

Form starting till now our government is taking seriously the matter of climate change and
we can see this in an meeting in Delhi in September, 2017, a campaign stared by our in 2016
Sawachh Bharat mission, distribution of gas cylinder to poor people, reducing the old
vehicles by Delhi government, increasing more plants by the AP government etc. especially
in each and every part of India we can see the government is taking well steps but nothing
can be done without the co operation of the government. In Cop 2017 India has said to reduce
the pollution 5% till the end of 2020.

20.7 CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, we can see there are many effects of climate changes that seriously affecting
our environment, health and biodiversities. If we still have not take any actions to prevent the
climate changes, our mother earth said by wordshworth, will be become sick more seriously.
Furthermore, when the deforestation continuing occurs, there will be having many different
consequences to our environment. Climate changes will also leads to psychological problem
such as post traumatic disorder, stress, anxiety and violence among the communities. So, to
protect our environment and give our next generation to have a better place to stay, we must
always know how to prevent the climate changes such as stop cutting off the trees, save
energy, car-pooling, etc. We the all world have to contribute in reducing pollution only then
we will be able to live in better pollution free environment. Therefore, let us together to
protect and love our beautiful mother earth that given by God and try to keep her healthy as
long as we can. We should follow the saying of
As a writer said:-
If you save to nature, it will you prosperous you,
If you destroy to nature, it will damage you.
 CHAPTER TWENTY ONE

BIODIVERSITY LINKED TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE & RELATED

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ISSUES
Pankaj Kumar1 and Dr. Ameeta Sharma2

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.
21.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
21.2 International policy framework and developments for the protection of
21.3 TK...................................
21.4 Developing Legal Framework for the Protection of TK..................................................................
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................
.
References…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Abstract

It is noted that numerous applications for patent for bio-inventions based on TK have been
granted and commercialized and so hardly sharing with the profit with the stakeholder i.e. the
indigenous society. In recent years, indigenous communities have demanded protection
for their traditional knowledge (TK) of Biodiversity & other related subjects like the IPR
system. If the TK protection facilitated internationally, it would make it possible, for
example, to protect traditional remedies and indigenous IP against misappropriation, and
enable communities to control and benefit collectively from their commercial exploitation.
The nature of IP protections sought in such TK may be either defensive or positive
protection. It is argued by many that use of traditional knowledge ought to be subject to free,
prior and informed consent; and some fear that granting exclusive control over traditional
cultures could stifle innovation, diminish the public domain and be difficult to implement in
practice. In this context, to help patent examiners find relevant prior art, proposals have been
made that genetic resources and traditional knowledge databases could help patent examiners
avoid erroneous patents. Further, such patent applications may disqualify if not comply with
CBD obligations on prior informed consent, mutually agreed terms, fair and equitable

1
Research Scholar, The IIS University
2
Sr. Assistant professor, The IIS University
benefit-sharing, and disclosure of origin. A number of countries have enacted domestic
legislation putting into effect the CBD obligations that access to a country’s genetic resources
should depend on securing that country’s prior informed consent and agreeing to fair and
equitable benefit sharing. Parallel discussions on such issues are also taking place in
international forums like WIPO, WTO etc.
Keywords: Biodiversity, genetic resources, traditional knowledge (TK), Patent, CBD

21.1 INTRODUCTION

It is noted that numerous bio-products have been developed and ongoing developments based
on traditional knowledge having huge bio-prospecting. Numerous applications filed for
patent based on bio-inventions developed on traditional knowledge (TK) filed in many
countries including international filings and in Indian patent offices. Indian patent office tags
such application under “traditional knowledge biotechnology”. So far many such bio-
inventions based on TK have been granted and commercialized too. Unfortunately, no
benefits arise to the concern holder of the TK as no sharing with the profit by the commercial
entity using the TK of the indigenous society. Further, it raises the issue of bio-piracy as the
knowledge of such bio-diversity misappropriated by the commercial entities without getting
the prior-informed consent of the society maintain such knowledge since time immemorial.
In recent years, indigenous communities have demanded protection for their traditional
knowledge (TK) of bio-diversity. The present intellectual property rights (IPR) system does
not entertain the challenges that indigenous peoples and local communities face as to their
TK misappropriated by someone else with or without the IPR therein. However, it seems, the
IPR system (like patent and geographical indication) can be used either to directly protect
traditional knowledge or may include tools preventing bio-piracy or patent on such subject
misappropriating the concern TK of the person like tribal society without their prior informed
consent or sharing the profits out of the commercialization of goods developed using their
TK. So far, no system of TK protection developed internationally or nationally. After the
incident of some cases of bio-piracy of turmeric, neem, basmati etc where patent has been
wrongly granted in-spite of such knowledge being available in public domain, it was
observed that such happened as such TK was not accessible by the patent examiners which
lead to the grant of wrong patent. Further, it is noticed that many times TK is not well
documented and passed orally generation to generation and prone to be misappropriated by
such commercial entities. Therefore, it was felt the need of some sort of electronic database
of such TK which may be accessible by the patent examiner to examine patentability criteria
of the inventions applied for the patent. India took the initiatives and has developed a
Traditional knowledge digital library (TKDL). Many developed countries using this TKDL
and rejected numerous applications filed for patent in their countries on the ground that no
novelty of the invention as being already cited in the TKDL and so considered part of the
public domain. Many granted patents were objected on the ground that no novelty of the
patented invention in view of the information disclosed in the TKDL. The TKDL is well
appreciated at World Intellectual property organization (WIPO) and it is recommended by
WIPO that all such countries must developed such electronic database of their countries TK
which later-on will be merged internationally helping to examine patentability of the
invention applied for the patent.
The connection of biodiversity and traditional knowledge (TK) to intellectual property (IP)
protection is noted a very controversial issues internationally during the past decade.
Traditional knowledge includes knowledge of sustainable ecosystem management and
sustainable agriculture practices which has been empirically tested and refined over
generations. Hundreds of crop varieties and livestock breeds have been developed using
traditional knowledge. Practices based on TK and innovations based on it play an important
role in many aspects of the lives and livelihoods of indigenous people (food and agriculture,
human and animal health, clothing, shelter, architecture, art, culture, handicrafts, natural
resource management, etc.) especially in developing and underdeveloped countries.
Traditional knowledge is like geographical indications that is generally held collectively and
may not be appropriated exclusively individually. Some of the major subjects of biological
TK resources are herbal medicine, cosmetics, personal care items etc. The increased market
demand for such biological TK resources offer new opportunities for generating benefits and
enhanced incomes for indigenous people. However, mostly the commercialization of such
resources is by other commercial entities and so hardly with prior informed consent of such
indigenous people. Such misappropriation like unauthorized commercialization and so
without sharing the benefit is considered bio-piracy. One of the primary reasons for this
misappropriation is that traditional knowledge is available freely from local communities and
these knowledge holders are not aware of the need to protect their intellectual property rights.
The fact that this knowledge is often spread across several families and communities
covering a large geographical area and sometimes even across country borders, makes
protection even more challenging and misappropriation easier and more likely to occur.
Biodiversity and genetic resources are not creations of the human mind and thus cannot be
claim as such under IP system. Inventions based on or developed using genetic resources may
be patentable or protected by other IPR like plant breeders’ rights while inventions based on
or developed using genetic resources associated with traditional knowledge may not be
considered novel and may fail the requirement of IP protection. However, it is noted that
numerous applications for patent for bio-inventions based on TK have been granted and
commercialized and so hardly sharing with the profit with the stakeholder i.e. the indigenous
society.
Traditional knowledge is not so-called because of its antiquity. It is a living body of
knowledge that is developed, sustained and passed on from generation to generation within a
community, often forming part of its cultural or spiritual identity. As such, it is not easily
protected by the current intellectual property system, which typically grants protection for a
limited period to inventions and original works by named individuals or companies. Its living
nature also means that “traditional” knowledge is not easy to define.
(http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_tk_1.pdf)

The rationale for protecting traditional knowledge centers on questions of fundamental justice
and the ability to protect, preserve and control one's cultural heritage. There is also the
concomitant right to receive a fair return on what these communities have developed.

Apart from emerging international norm, which imply both legal and moral imperatives for
protecting TK, there are number of reasons why TK sought to be protected. Some of such
reasons are:
(i) Improvement of Livelihoods of TK holders
(ii) Benefits to National Economy
(iii) Conservation of Environment
(iv) Prevention of Bio-piracy

If the TK protection facilitated internationally, it would make possible to protect indigenous

intellectual property (IP) including traditional remedies against misappropriation, and enable
communities to control and benefit collectively from commercial exploitation of such TK.
The nature of IP protections sought for TK may be either defensive or positive protection. It
is argued by many that use of TK ought to be subject to free, prior and informed consent; and
some fear that granting exclusive control over traditional cultures could stifle innovation,
diminish the public domain and be difficult to implement in practice.
To examine the patent applications, patent examiners find relevant prior art and therefore
proposals have been made that genetic resources and TK databases like Indian electronic
TKDL which could help patent examiners avoid erroneous patents and therefore such TKDL
need to be created by all those countries having biodiversity and related TK.

Further, such patent applications may disqualify if not comply with CBD obligations on prior
informed consent, mutually agreed terms, fair and equitable benefit-sharing, and disclosure of
origin. A number of countries have enacted domestic legislation putting into effect the CBD
obligations that access to a country’s genetic resources should depend on securing that
country’s prior informed consent and agreeing to fair and equitable benefit sharing. Parallel
discussions on such issues are also taking place in international forums like WIPO, WTO etc.

21.2 INTERNATIONAL POLICY FRAMEWORK AND DEVELOPMENTS FOR

THE PROTECTION OF TK

The IPR aspects of use of genetic resources and the traditional knowledge always have been a
part of discussion in several international organizations and in various international policy
frameworks. The issues have been dealt with at the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD), Nagoya Protocol, the International Treaty on Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, WIPO, UNEP,
CBD, UNCTAD, WTO, FAO etc. (
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/52366/12/12_chapter%202.pdf)

These organizations cooperated with each other. The role of WIPO is the major one to protect
the traditional knowledge and benefit sharing aspect. Here are some moves taken by these
international organizations.

1. The Convention on Biological Diversity: The Convention on Biological Diversity

requires country parties to “respect, preserve and maintain the knowledge innovations
and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles”
[Art 8 (j) of CBD]. The provisions in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
1992 to local and indigenous communities in the genetic materials and share, the
 benefit denied out of its use seems to be the first express international commitment.
CBD addresses two critical issues. First regulation of access to genetic resources and
equitable benefit sharing and second ensuring legal protection of traditional
knowledge, particularly in its relation to biodiversity and intellectual property."
Protection of traditional knowledge also includes prior consults of the provider of the
resources.

India ratified the CBD on 18.02.1994. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 under
Ministry of Forests and Environment was enacted to meet the obligations of CBD and
provides mechanism for equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of
traditional biological resources and knowledge. Accordingly, National Biodiversity
Authority has been established to implement and administering the said objectives.

2. The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS): The Nagoya Protocol
is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The
Protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, and entered into force on
12 October 2014. ABS’s aim is the implementation of one of the three objectives of
the CBD, the same being: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the
utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity. India ratified ABS on 12.10.2014.

3. WTO’s TRIPS: It talks about protection of IP but did not talk about any protection of
traditional knowledge though it has mentioned for the protection of plant varieties
through a sui-generis system. The WTO council for TRIPS is currently revising Art
27.3 (b) of the TRIPS Agreement which deals with the patentability of traditional
knowledge.
Regarding the patentability criteria of the inventions based on biodiversity and related
TK, The TRIPS agreement and Doha declaration has provided policy space to the
member countries to exclude certain subject matter from being granted patents. In
India, under Section 3 of the Patents Act, 1970, inventions based on traditional
knowledge, patenting of animals, plants, plant variety and seeds etc. are not allowed.
Further, in order to prevent ‘ever-greening’ (extension of the life of a patent over
products that are about to expire on account of minor and incremental improvements
in the invention) of patents, section 3 (d) of the Act provides that:
 A mere discovery of a new form/ use/ property/ process etc. of a known substance
which does not result in enhanced efficacy is not patentable.
Salts, esters, ethers, polymorphs, etc. of known substance are to be considered to be
the same substance until these differ significantly in properties with regard to
efficacy.
Mere use of a known process, machine or apparatus is not patentable unless such
known process results in a new product or employs at least one new reactant.

4. International Labour Organization: Its convention No. 169 also recognizes and
protects the social, cultural religions and spiritual values and practices of indigenous
and tribal people.

5. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Its involvement in TK protection

began in 1983 with the adoption of international undertaking on plant Genetic
Resources. The matter of Farmer's Rights in context of TK was discussed within FAO
and was formally recognized through a resolution and recently by international treaty
recognizes the contribution made by the farmers and their communities and the efforts
done for the conservation & developments of plants genetic resources.

6. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD): An Expert

Meeting on Systems and National Experiences for Protecting TK innovations and
Practices was held under the guidance of UNCTAD on 30 October to 1 November
2000 where representatives from 80 countries participated. The fifth session held on
19-23 February 2001, it was focused on agreed recommendations on sustainable use
of biological resources, systems and national experiences for the protection of TK,
innovations and practices. Sixth session held on 4-8 February 2002 in Geneva, in
which UNCTAD addressed the issue raised by developing countries that the TRIPS
Agreement needed to protect the TK and biodiversity.

7. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): It

has a goal and objectives to promote science, education and culture which are directly
linked to issues of sustainable use of genetic resources and protection of traditional
knowledge.
8. Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN): It is a geo-political and
economic organization of 10 countries located in South-east Asia, which was formed
on 8 August 1967. The associated nations are Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Member
Nations declared that they have sovereignty over biological and genetic resources
within their territories in accordance with the provisions of CBD. Each member state
shall recognize, respect, preserve and maintain the knowledge, innovations and
practices of indigenous peoples and local communities embodying traditional lifestyle
to their natural resources and shall also ensure the fair and equitable benefits sharing
from utilization of biological as well as genetic resources.

9. WIPO: Since 1978, WIPO initiated discussions on TK and its sui-generis protection.
It began activities designed to explore the IP aspects of the protection of TK. The
main objective of these activities was to identify and explore the IP needs and
expectations of the holders of TK in order to promote the contribution of the IP
system to their social, cultural and economic development. WIPO has constituted an
Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources,
Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC) in 2000, and in 2009 they agreed to
develop an international legal instrument (or instruments) that would give traditional
knowledge, genetic resources and traditional cultural expressions (folklore) effective
protection. Such an instrument could range from a recommendation to WIPO
members to a formal treaty that would bind countries choosing to ratify it. However,
many argue that use of traditional knowledge ought to be subject to free, prior and
informed consent; and some fear that granting exclusive control over traditional
cultures could stifle innovation, diminish the public domain and be difficult to
implement in practice. So far the committee considered use of databases, registries
and other such collections documenting TK and have clarified that such databases
could be used for the preservation, positive protection and defensive protection of TK.
Such databases help patent examiners to examine the patentability of the invention
filed for patent. The purpose of such databases is not mere the disclosure of TK but to
ensure that any TK already disclosed would be taken into account when potentially
relevant patent claims were being assessed. Further a defensive mechanism that was
considered by the IGC that to ensure patent application require to disclose about TK
 and biological material its origin and prior-inform consent regarding its access and
benefit sharing if any that is used in the development of invention applied for patent.

10. Doha Ministerial Conference: At the 4th WTO Ministerial meeting in Doha, in 2001,
discussed an issue that the TRIPs agreement needs to be amended in order to provide
that the members shall require information like biological materials or to traditional
knowledge from the applicant for a patent relating to such invention. Particularly, it
included an obligation to disclose the origin of genetic resources (GRs) and associated
TK and to provide evidence of PIC and fair and equitable benefit sharing.

Till yet, no international regime for the protection of TK has emerged, although some
initiatives happened though is limited to access to GRs and benefit sharing by the FAO's
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and
the CBD's Bonn Guidelines on “access to genetic resources and benefit sharing”. It is desired
that an international mechanism acknowledge the holistic nature of TK and collective rights
of indigenous or local communities overhead to tackle the problem of illegal acquisition of
GRs.
In recent years, indigenous communities wish to restrict their TK of Biodiversity & other
related subjects and sought a protection system like IPR. A recent such incidence published
on 12.02.2018 by APA News that “Ethiopia is considering suing the Dutch company called
Health and Performance Food International, to nullify the patent rights over Teff grain that
the company registered in Italy, England, Germany and Austria. Ethiopia claims that it is the
first to domesticate the Teff grain across its highlands, which was believed to be the origin of
the grain between 4000 BC and 1000 BC.” (https://www.journalducameroun.com/en/ethiopia-
to-sue-dutch-company-over-teff-grain-patent-rights/)

If the TK protection facilitated internationally, it would make it possible, for example, to

protect traditional remedies and indigenous IP against misappropriation, and enable
communities to control and benefit collectively from their commercial exploitation.

21.3 DEVELOPING LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROTECTION OF TK

Traditional knowledge existing in public domain needs to be documented and made available
to patent examiners. Such a database could help establish the existence of prior art preventing
grant of patents wrongly. Intellectual property protections sought in such TK which are either
defensive protection or positive protection.
Defensive protection aims to stop people outside the community from acquiring IPR over
traditional knowledge. India, for example, has compiled a searchable database of traditional
medicine (TKDL) that can be used as evidence of prior art by patent examiners when
assessing patent applications. Some formal documentation like providing a confidential or
trade secret agreement and registries of traditional knowledge support sui generis protection
systems. Such registries like India’s database on traditional medicine (TKDL), play a role in
defensive protection prohibiting wrong grant of patents on such inventions. This strand of the
work aims at preventing patents being granted over genetic resources (and associated
traditional knowledge) which do not fulfill the existing requirements of novelty and
inventiveness. In this context, to help patent examiners find relevant prior art, proposals have
been made that genetic resources and traditional knowledge databases could help patent
examiners avoid erroneous patents and WIPO has improved its own search tools and patent
classification systems. The other, more controversial, strand concerns the possible
disqualification of patent applications that do not comply with CBD obligations on prior
informed consent, mutually agreed terms, fair and equitable benefit-sharing, and disclosure of
origin.
Disclosure requirements: A number of countries have enacted domestic legislation putting
into effect the CBD obligations that access to a country’s genetic resources should depend on
securing that country’s prior informed consent and agreeing to fair and equitable benefit
sharing. WIPO members are considering whether, and to what extent, the intellectual
property system should be used to support and implement these obligations. Many, but not
all, WIPO members want to make it mandatory for patent applications to show the source or
origin of genetic resources, as well as evidence of prior informed consent and a benefit
sharing agreement. Parallel discussions are also taking place in the World Trade
Organization.
WIPO also deals with the intellectual property aspects of mutually agreed terms for fair and
equitable benefit-sharing. It has developed, and regularly updates, an online database of
relevant contractual practices, and has prepared draft guidelines on intellectual property
clauses in access and benefit-sharing agreements.

Positive protection in such matter is the granting of rights that empower such communities to
promote their TK, control its uses and benefit from its commercialization. When community
members innovate within the traditional knowledge framework, they may use the patent
system to protect their innovations. Regarding the patentability of inventions based on TK, as
such TK is considered in public domain and lacking novelty and so it will not fulfill the
requirements of patentability. Further, the Indian Patent Act, 1970 defines invented step in
Sec. 2 (j), as “inventive step” means “a feature of an invention that involves technical
advance as compared to the existing knowledge or having economic significance or both and
that makes the invention not obvious to a person skilled in the art. The applications of such
inventions many times seems either not novel or having obviousness as traditional knowledge
as such has ancient roots and therefore difficult to protect by conventional IPR systems and
till yet existing international IP system does not fully protect traditional knowledge.

21.4 CONCLUSION

Some uses of TK can be protected through the existing IPR system, and a number of
countries have also developed specific legislation. Any specific protection afforded under
national law may not hold for other countries is a reason why many indigenous and local
communities as well as governments are pressing for an international norm. WIPO is working
on the issue yet to succeed to undertake a fresh analysis on the patentability aspects on the
subject inventions applied by the member countries. Working out the details is complex and
there are divergent views on the ways forward, including whether IPR are appropriate for
protecting traditional forms of innovation and creativity. The TK stack-holders particularly
the concerned communities now demand control all uses of their TK and traditional cultural
expressions (TCE), including works inspired by them, even if they are not direct copies.
Copyright law, on the other hand, permits building on the work of others, provided there is
sufficient originality. The text of the legal instrument will have to define where the line is to
be drawn between fair usages not required prior informed consent and unauthorized
appropriation.

Reference:
1. http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_tk_1.pdf (accessed on 29 May
2018)
2. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/52366/12/12_chapter%202.pdf
(accessed on 29 May 2018)
 3. https://www.journalducameroun.com/en/ethiopia-to-sue-dutch-company-over-teff-
grain-patent-rights/(accessed on 29 May 2018)

CHAPTER TWENTY TWO

EFFECTS OF NANO TITANIUM DIOXIDE (FOODSTUFF
COMPONENT): A REVIEW

Vidhi Kumawat and Priyanka Mathur

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………
22.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
.
22.2 Types of Nanoparticles in foods …………………………………………………………………….........
 22.3 Titaanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles ........................................................................................
22.4 Future recommendations.................................................................................................................
22.5 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

Nanotechnology improves the quality, shelf life, safety and healthiness of foodstuffs.
However, there is worry from customers, regulatory agencies, and the foodstuff business
about possible unfavorable belongings linked with the relevance of nanotechnology in
foodstuffs. In particular, there is unease about the nonstop assimilation of engineered
nanoparticles into foodstuffs, such as those used as delivery systems for colors, flavors,
preservatives, nutrients, or those used to transform the optical, rheological, or flow properties
of foodstuffs or their packaging. This review piece of writing summarizes the relevance of
nanoparticles in foodstuffs, emphasizes possible toxicity of different food-grade
nanoparticles, and stresses significant areas where follow a line of investigation is suggested.

Keywords: Nanotechnology, food industry, ENMs

22.1 INTRODUCTION

Chaudhry et al. (2008) affirmed that nanotechnology involves the development,

characterization, and application of materials with length scales in the nanometer range
(typically 1–100 nm). In 2009, Sozer and Kokini studied applications of nanotechnology in
the food sector and described that nanoparticles improve food quality, shelf life, safety, cost,
and nutritional benefits. In some cases, the nanomaterials used in the food industry are not
intended to find their way into the final food product, e.g., those used in packaging, sensors,
and antimicrobial treatments designed for sanitizing food manufacturing plants. In other
cases, nanomaterials are specifically designing to be incorporate into food products, such as
nanoparticles used as delivery systems or to modify optical, rheological, or flow properties.

22.2 TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES IN FOODS

In general, the nanoparticles present in foods categorized according to their composition, as

either organic or inorganic. Pietroiusti et al. (2016) described that many types of
nanoparticles used in foods are mainly composed of inorganic materials, such as silver, iron
oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, or zinc oxide. Organic type of nanoparticle is
primarily composed of organic substances, such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Bellmann et al. (2015), Szakal et al. (2014) and Yada et al. (2014) reviewed that engineered
nanoscale materials (ENMs) may be intentionally added to foods (such as nanoparticle-based
delivery systems), or they may inadvertently find their way into foods (such as nanoparticles
in packaging materials that leach into the food matrix). ENMs are specifically designing to
achieve one or more functional attributes by changing in composition, size, shape, and
interfacial properties. In particular, ENMs used to create delivery systems for nutrients,
nutraceuticals, colors, flavors, and preservatives, or to modify the texture, appearance, or
stability of foods. Table 1 contains different types of nanoscale materials found in foods and
their potential origins.

Buzea et al. (2007) confirmed that the toxicity of ingested nanoparticles depends on their
ability to damage cells or organs within humans. Their results established that cellular or
organ damage could occur in various places within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) after
absorption of the nanoparticles into the body.
22.3 TITAANIUM DIOXIDE (TiO2) NANOPARTICLES

Titanium dioxide particles are used as a functional ingredient in certain foods to provide
characteristic optical properties such as increased lightness and brightness (Weir et al., 2012)
and they optimized to particle size of 100- 300 nanometers (Jovanovic, 2015). Nevertheless,
Warheit et al. (2015) reviewed that there may be a significant proportion of particles with
diameters < 100 nm, which can therefore be considered to be nanoparticles.

Weir et al. (2012) reported that the estimated dietary exposure of humans to TiO 2
nanoparticles has been up to 1.1 and 2.2 mg/kg body weight/day in the UK and US,
respectively. Chewing one piece of chewing gum can result in an intake of 1.5–5.1 mg of
TiO2 nanoparticles (Chen et al., 2013). It is noteworthy that the amount of TiO 2 nanoparticles
consumed was 2 to 4 times higher for children than for adults, which may be because
products heavily consumed by children had some of the highest levels of TiO 2 nanoparticles,
such as candies, gums, desserts, and beverages.

Yang et al. (2014) described that the most common crystalline forms of titanium dioxide
particles in food-grade are anatase and rutile, which are polymorphic forms that have
different crystal packing and physicochemical properties that may depending on the source,
with different levels of phosphorous, aluminum and silica.

Wang et al. (2007) carried out an acute and sub chronic study of the oral toxicity of TiO 2
nanoparticles (25, 80, or 155 nm at 5000 mg/kg body weight oral dose) resulted in their
accumulation in the liver, spleen, kidney, and lung tissues of mice, and it led to hepatic injury,
nephrotoxicity and myocardial damage. In another study, the anatase form of TiO 2 nanoparticles
(5 nm) was intragastrically administered to mice at 62.5, 125 and 250 mg/kg body weight for 30
days. Duan et al. (2010) resulted that at the higher dose, the TiO 2 nanoparticles caused damages
to liver function and immune response. Nogueira et al. (2012) and Bu et al. (2010) resulted that in
the intestine, TiO2 nanoparticles induced inflammatory cytokine production, T-cell proliferation,
hypertrophy, and hyperplasia in the mucosal epithelium. In contrast, the study of Cho et al.
(2013) where TiO2 nanoparticles (mixture of anatase and rutile at 21 nm) were repeatedly
administered (260–1041 mg/kg) to rats did not report any significant toxicity or TiO 2
accumulation in tissues or urine, but reported high concentrations of titanium dioxide in feces,
suggesting that the TiO2 nanoparticles were mostly eliminated. Dorier et al. (2015) reported that
anatase TiO2 nanoparticles were more toxic to cells than rutile nanoparticles because they have
higher photo- catalytic activity.

The observed contradictions between different animal studies on the accumulation and
toxicity of TiO2 nanoparticles may arise for a number of reasons.

1. There are differences in the oral dose, crystal form, particle size, aggregation state,
and surface characteristics of the nanoparticles used.
2. The impact of the food matrix and GIT passage on the properties of the nanoparticles
were ignored.
3. The type of animal model and analytical methods used to determine accumulation
and toxicity may vary.

Wang et al. (2013) studied that the age of the experimental animals used is an important
factor. The same doses (up to 200 mg/kg body weight per day for 30 days) of TiO 2
nanoparticles (anatase at 75 nm) were used to treat both young (3-week-old) and adult (8-
week-old) rats. Heart injuries, liver edema, and non-allergic mast cell activation in stomach
tissues were observed in young animals, but only slight toxic effects were observed in adult
animals. Numerous cell culture studies of Tada-Oikawa et al. (2016), Song et al. (2015),
Brun et al. (2014), Chalew and Schwab (2013), Gerloff et al. (2009) have suggested that
TiO2 nanoparticles may be absorbed by model epithelium cells and produce cytotoxicity
depending on their particle characteristics, such as dose, size, crystal form, and surface
coating.

22.4 FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS

The study of the potential toxic effects of food-grade nanoparticles has increased
considerably in the past few years. Researchers from many disciplines have studied the
potentially toxic effects of various kinds of organic and inorganic food nanoparticles. The
results of these studies have led to considerable insights into the type of food nanoparticles
that may cause adverse health effects, as well as into the possible physicochemical and
physiological mechanisms involved. Nevertheless, there is still a considerable amount of
confusion in this area and many contradictory results, with some studies suggesting that a
particular type of nanoparticle does not produce toxicity, whereas other studies showing that
they are toxic.
22.5 CONCLUSIONS

There is considerable interest in utilizing both organic and inorganic nanoparticles within
foods because of their potential for improving food quality, safety, or nutritional attributes.
However, the small size of nanoparticles means that they may behave differently within the
human body than the larger particles or bulk materials conventionally utilized as food
ingredients. At present, there is a relatively poor understanding of the toxicity of most types
of food-grade nanoparticles, and it is not possible to make a single general recommendation
about the safety of all nanoparticle types. Instead, the safety of nanoparticles should be
judged on a case-by-case basis depending on the nature of the nanoparticles, as well as the
properties of the food matrix they are dispersed within. Nevertheless, more research is needed
to establish the potential magnitude and importance of these effects.

REFERENCES

Abbott- Chalew TE, Schwab KJ (2013) Toxicity of commercially available engineered

nanoparticles to Caco-2 and SW480 human intestinal epithelial cells. Cell Biol
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Tsytsikova L, Canady R, Pereira DIA, Lefebyre DE (2015) Mammalian
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Brun E, Barreau F, Veronesi G, Fayard B, Sorieul S, Chaneac C, Carapito C, Rabilloud T,
Mabondzo A, Herlin- Boime N, Carriere M (2014) Titanium dioxide nanoparticle impact
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CHAPTER TWEENTY THREE

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN RAHUL VARMA’S LAND WHERE

THE TREES TALK

Dr. Savita Goel

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
23.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………............................................
23.2 Realization of importance of land…………………………………………………………………….......
23.3 Play and
 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….................
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

ABSTRACT

There can be no doubt that the standard of living currently enjoyed by Man is considerably
higher than what prevailed before the era of Cosmopolitan and Industrial Revolution. While
technology has bestowed several benefits in opening up new avenues of living and working, it
has also created a series of problems in its wake. Many of them have social, political, economic,
and ecological ramifications.

23.1 INTRODUCTION

Rahul Varma, an expatriate Indian writer living in Canada, in his play, “Land Where the Trees
Talk” has courage to take up the hot and contentious topic of Native land-rights head-on and
deals with it very effectively. Varma says that the 1984 Union carbide in Bhopal was his
inspiration for the play. The parallels are there, he asserts, “it’s a matter of environmental
degradation linked with absence of social justice”. The play is about James Bay II project in
which huge chunks of Indian land, an area bigger than France, has been appropriated by Hydro-
Quebec for hydro-developments which destroyed the eco-system by felling forests and polluting
rivers with Mercury poisoning, a fatal disease breaks down among the natives of James Bay area
after the first phase of the project. The play depicts Rahul Varma’s concern for preservation of
environment and the need to take steps for maintaining ecological balance in the age of
globalization and Industrialization, when large scale projects are being set up rapidly. If
measures are not taken to preserve the environment, its consequences will be drastic and will
result in the annihilation of mankind. The play begins with narrator saying that the explorers
sailed all summer, despite relentless seas. Suddenly, the crew on ship, the captain, Simone,
Patrick and Claude perceive a new land and they halt. A song announces, “This land was your
land and now it's my land” (61). The theme of the play is announced at the outset, the play
depicts how the explorers encroach upon the land of the native people, lure them by promising
lucrative jobs and life-comforts and gradually take away the human rights from them.

23.2 REALIZATION OF IMPORTANCE OF LAND

The natives realize that because of the encroachment of their land by the outsiders, a major
catastrophe is imminent. Myriad natives, including the grandson of the chief have died. So the
chief tells the Captain to go away from the land. The Captain endeavours to explain that because
of the beautiful trade relationship the standard of life has gone up, but the chief argues, “Take it
back please, I don’t want your comforts” (65). She asserts that the Megawatt set up by the
captain and his men given them nothing except illness and disease. As she unveils the blanket
shrouded body of her grandson, she says that her grandson suffered from a strange illness, -
“rashes, spots all over his body, and his skin popping out, any child who came near fell victim to
the same illness. Today my whole family is wiped out” (66). The entire tribe is struck with a
strange illness. Her people do not want industrialization at the cost of their own health.

The explorers while planning and executing massive projects for industrialization pay
scant attention to preserve the ecological balance and safeguard life support systems. In order to
gain quick economic benefits, they plunder nature and turn a blind eye to the harm their projects
cause to the native people. Rahul Varma makes us ponder over a very serious and significant
issue i.e. ‘Can economic development and ecological health co-exist?’ ‘Is the environmental
devastation in the name of economic development imperative?’ ‘Can we afford to let others
wipe out our life support systems for their own selfish benefits?

The Industrialists Tox, Diox and their advisor Robertta state the advantage of
industrialization when they say that before they discovered the land of natives, it was a virgin
territory with just a few trappers and hunters; but now it produces 10,000 megawatt hydro-
power with the installation of the James Bay project, the land has been absolutely transformed.
Now it has 1500 km. road, bar, airport, investors from all over the world. Hotel and tourism
industry is booming and building rents are going up considerably. Robertta asserts that the
natives had a choice “Either starve to death or adopt to monetary modern society and have a
fighting chance” (87). People did not have running water, sewage treatment, electricity, school
or a community centre on this land, Megawatt has provided all these facilities. It has given good
employment opportunities to the natives. When Greenway, the present chief, tells Robertta that
their people are dying because of the Megawatt, she says, “On the way to progress, we have to
suffer some casualties. That’s the price we have got to pay. Progress does mean inconvenience
sometimes” (88).

However, the natives argue economic benefits for whom and at what cost? Who are the
beneficiaries of these so-called development projects? Vested political interests? Urban
population and buyers of consumer’s goods? What are the benefits to the inhabitants of areas
where resources are exploited and ecology degraded? These local inhabitants have no
alternatives to the life support system which are being destroyed in the name of economic
development. Nature is ravaged by the industries, and the number of natives has dwindled
considerably. Karuna the doctor says, “Environmental destruction does not make economic
sense, neither does poisoning” (90).

Megawatt has disturbed the ecological balance. Projects like this involve hazardous,
toxic, inflammable and combustible liquid, many of which vaporise at ambient temperatures to
form explosive chemical ‘clouds’, which move easily carrying devastation over long distances,
away from the location of the industry. Industrial wastes are dumped into the river causing water
pollution. The song mentions this pollution, “Down by the river side… That’s where we like to
dump, da dump” (70). Industrial wastes are often acid, and contain a great variety of chemical
compounds and kill aquatic life. Fertile land is changed into fallow land due to discharge of
industrial effluents on land. Indiscriminate cutting of trees results in floods. The river has been
shaped to harm mankind. Cigarette butts and bear cans are seen all around, heavy machinery
piled along the icy road throughout the winter.

Although it is the land of the natives, but they are not consulted at all because the
politicians know what is the best. The playwright gives a true picture of the selfish industrialists.
When the natives threaten that their land cannot be destroyed because they have got injunctions
from the superior court, Robertta informs them that their lawyer got their injunction overturned
just in four days in court of appeals.

23.3 PLAY AND CONCLUSION

In the play there is confrontation between the industrialists and natives. They say that
proper compensation will be given to the affected. The natives are shocked at this remark and
say “what gives them the right to decide our compensation?” (74). Rahul Varma here points out
the fact that the damage done to the eco-system cannot be compensated in any way. Natives
block the way of industrialists and scream, “You got your mind blocked otherwise you’d realize
the environmental consequences” (74). When the police tries to disperse them by the use of
force, they says, “You can take the land from us, but you cannot take us from the land” (75).

The play also focuses on the issue of unemployment. Although the industrialists boost of
the fact that they provide employment, however, this is not true. Industries employ capital
intensive techniques and these result in large scale unemployment. Lured by the hope of getting
lucrative salaries they stop working on their own land, only to face a great racial discrimination
in the industries. Thomas, a native says, when Lubna, a native applied for a job, “who got it?
Lubna, the Indian, Holly the Irish girl or Marie France the French Canadian, It’s never us. We
are always the last ones. We always get the short end of the stick” (76), Even, if the native
succeed in procuring the jobs, they have to work harder and are paid less than their white
counterparts and are gradually terminated, when they are not needed. Thomas is still very keen
to take up a job in the Megawatt project. He thinks it will help him improve his standard of life.
However, Greenway explains him that young people like Thomas are seduced by their vision of
glamourous life and all they get is despair, neglect, unemployment only because they have got
no say in their own lives. The white men come to the land of the natives because of their own
selfish motives, as Greenway says “every time the white man has come to the Indians, it is to
take something” (78).

Megawatt project has resulted in mass genocide. Natives suffer from Mercury poisoning.
Lubna, is pregnant and there high levels of Mercury in her blood. So she tells Thomas not to
work for Megawatt. When he comes to know that Lubna’ child may be affected, too he is
shocked and says, “It’s the first time, I am going to be a father and my baby may be affected,
too. God…” (92). He feels that all his life he has worked to leave behind the fear – the fear of
his forefathers’ past- the fear of uncertainly and now when he is going to be a father, he will
have to live in fear of the uncertainty of his own child. He cries, “I don’t want a deformed child”
(92). He tells Lubna to get the child. How can we have a child when we know that the child may
be disabled or poisoned? (92) However, Lubna says, that there are more people in graves than
there are alive. Not many of our people are left. Our children must alive…” (95). Lubna refuses
to have an abortion and makes him realize his fault by pointing out that’s what Megawatt gave
him and that’s the price he will have to pay. When the disabled child is born, she will tell the
child that his father’s Megawatt gave him the disability even before his life. The child will
remind the father that he did not do anything to fight against the source of his disability. Lubna
takes a decision to leave Thomas.

When a deformed, disabled, or dead baby is born due to environmental or industrial

damages it’s an infringement of human rights and on justice. Lubna does not feed her child a
mother’s milk rather she feeds him Mercury, which is in her blood, her milk. She feels that she
is not performing her most sacred duty. She, as a mother, is breast-feeding pollution. She, too, is
dying like the mother earth. She has become an “environmental refugee.” The scene where
Lubna is going to the burial ground to bury her child is very pathetic. When Karuna sympathizes
with her she says, “Don’t bother we got used to it long time ago” (97).
 The play, “Land Where the Trees Talk” also focuses on “environmental racism”.
Natives do not have any power in their hands. The entire power rests in the hands of politicians
and rich industrialists so they have to suffer immensely. Greenway says that they serve both as
judge and jury, while smelters keep dumping and reservoirs keep poisoning, you ram through
any project especially when the only direct victims are native. Earth and Tree also appear as
characters in the play. The Chorus announces “This is Earth day brought to you by Dow
Chemicals” (96) and picks up garbage bags containing harmful chemicals like Alkan Exxon,
Inco, Hydro-Quebec and empties bag on tree. This act symbolizes that effluents from the
industries is leading to the annihilation of trees, trees- which preserve the soil and help in
maintaining the ecological balance on the earth.

Earth is called the Mother Earth in the play- a mother who is the life source and provides
sustenance to all human-beings, but she too, is encountering a slow death as she says, “I am
dying, too” (75) which means death of mankind. She appears in the guise of Bag lady pulling
the shopping cart and raves in a loud voice, “I am the Earth, the mother. Today, I am struck by
men of greed and with myopic visions” (75). She says that these men gather in pious garbs and
recruit the innocent and command strike. She calls these people manias, as they manipulate the
flow of the rivers with bulldozers and black holes, drowning tons of rock and soil where since
ancient times beaver has ruled. He says, “Don’t you realize that taking the earth away won’t
leave anything-not even for your own children. So you think rivers can wash away your
industrial sins” (75-76). The Earth seems to convey a very serious message that if want to
survive, we should live in harmony with nature and must give back to the earth what we take
from it and we must learn to live within the carrying capacity of the environment. We should
realize that biosphere is both for us and our descendants and we have not inherited the earth
from our parents we have only borrowed it from our children.

The Natives protest very strongly against the setting up of phase 2 of the Megawatt
project because they have been the direct victims of the 1 st phase. An armed group of native
Indians headed by Greenway barricade themselves inside the building where the new project is
to be set up. They strongly demand that Megawatt must go through scrutiny to determine its
environmental and cultural devastation before phase 2 initiates and proper legislation should be
put into effect so that no industry could ram into environmentally unsafe projects due to lack of
legislation.
 Politicians and industrialists can stoop to any level to achieve their nefarious motives.
When they realize that natives are very strong and this time they will not let them start phase 2
of the project, they plan to blow up the building and blame it on the Indians. Tox, Diox and
Premier Bonaparte have already told the media that the Indians had tones of dynamite. Tox and
Diox themselves plant the dynamite and explosion takes place and Megawatt quarters and
thousands of homes and businesses are crippled by this major explosion. The entire blame for
this incident is put by the Industrialists on Greenaway and other Indians, as Indian always kept
on asserting that they have cultural deserts, racial discrimination and that this was their land
first.

Towards the end of the play, the ugly face of the hypocrites who use technology for
short term gains is laid bare, when Talk a lot, the reporter announces that it was first assumed
that natives were responsible for the major explosion. Now they have confirmed reports of an
eye witness who saw Premier Bonaparte and his aides unloading dynamite from the back of a
hydro Quebec track into Megawatt headquarter and they are being held on the charge of
conspiracy to destroy public property. It is true that technology debases human behaviour and
makes it insensitive to indignities, suffering, and exploitation which are often inflicted upon the
society.

By ramming through James Bay Hydro project, the government of Quebec has denied
the native people the right to their land and its resources. While the hydro project has earned
dollars to the government of Quebec, it has displaced and uprooted the native people, making
them refugees in their own land. Canada and Quebec have a lot to be ashamed of in their
treatment of the native people. And one needs to scrutinize the link between the environmental
disasters and the land rights of the native people. The play probes native land rights in the midst
of environmental awareness- “are we inheriting the earth from our ancestors or stealing it from
our children”. The play, “Land Where the Trees Talk” conveys a message that we should meet
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It is about
finding the balance point for all of it looking at end the system we put in place for each of these.

Reference

Varma, Rahul. “Land Where the Trees Talk” in Land Where the Trees Talk and Other Plays.
New Delhi: Prestige Books, 1998