COMPUTER NETWORKS

Presentation Material
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Faculty: Dr. Monika Goyal
Semester: V

Computer Networks -19CS3602 Department of Computer Science & Engineering 1

 MODULE 1-Overview of networks
Syllabus
Network Components- Network Physical Structure, Classification of networks
(LAN-MAN-WAN), Protocols and Standards, Data representation and data flow, Layered
Architecture –Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP reference model.
Physical Layer: Introduction to wired and wireless transmission media. Transmission mode
(Serial/Parallel signals, Analog/Digital Signals and Periodic/Aperiodic Signals), Line coding
Schemes.

Computer Networks -19CS3602 Department of Computer Science & Engineering 2

 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Topics discussed in this section:
▪ Network Criteria
▪ Physical Structures
▪ Categories of Networks
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 Five components of data communication
Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular
forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media
include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices.
 Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system

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 Network Criteria

• Performance
• Depends on Network Elements
• Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
• Failure rate of network components
• Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
• Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
• Errors
• Malicious users

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 Network Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
• Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
• Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
• Physical Topology
• Connection of devices
• Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast

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 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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 Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

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 Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

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 Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

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 Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

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 Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

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 Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 Classification of Networks

• Local Area Networks (LANs)

• Short distances
• Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• Long distances
• Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
• Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus

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 Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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 Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

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 Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

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 1-4 PROTOCOLS

A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of

rules that govern data communications. It determines what
is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Syntax
▪ Semantics
▪ Timing

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 Elements of a Protocol

• Syntax
• Structure or format of the data
• Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Semantics
• Interprets the meaning of the bits
• Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
• When data should be sent and what
• Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.

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 Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes

Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning

"by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

1. De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have
been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto
standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.

2. De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body
are de jure standards.
Standards Organizations
• Standards Creation Committees
• 1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISO is a multinational
• body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation committees
• of various governments throughout the world.
• 2. International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards
• Sector (ITU-T). By the early 1970s, a number of countries were defining national
• standards for telecommunications, but there was still little international compatibility.
• 3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Despite its name, the American
• National Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated
• with the U.S. federal government.
• 4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The Institute of
• Electrical and Electronics Engineers is the largest professional engineering society in
• the world.
• 5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic
• Industries Association is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing
concerns.
• Forums: To accommodate the need for working models and agreements
• and to facilitate the standardization process, many special-interest groups have developed
• forums made up of representatives from interested corporations. The forums
• work with universities and users to test, evaluate, and standardize new technologies

• Regulatory Agencies
• All communications technology is subject to regulation by government agencies such
• as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States

• Internet Standards
• An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered
• to by those who work with the Internet. It is a formalized regulation that must be followed.
• There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard
• status. A specification begins as an Internet draft. An Internet draft is a working document
• (a work in progress) with no official status and a 6-month lifetime.
Data representation and Data Flow
• Text
• In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or
• Is). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols
• Numbers
• Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. the number is directly converted to a binary number
to simplify mathematical operations.
• Images
• Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed
• of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the
• pixel depends on the resolution.
• Audio
• Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
• different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete
• Video
• Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
• produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
• images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
 Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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 2-1 LAYERED
TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

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 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

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 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

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 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

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 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

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 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

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 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

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 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

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 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

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 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

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 Figure 2.8 Network layer

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 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

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 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

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 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

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 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

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 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Figure 2.12 Session layer

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 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

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 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

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 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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 Figure 2.14 Application layer

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 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

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 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
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 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

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•Physical Layer
Figure 7.1 Transmission medium and physical layer

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Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media

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7-1 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a medium

from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable

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Figure 7.3 Twisted-pair cable

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Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

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Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

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Figure 7.5 UTP (unshieled twisted pair)connector

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Figure 7.6 UTP performance

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Computer Networks -19CS3602 Department of Computer Science & Engineering 66
Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable

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 Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables

Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government

(RG) ratings. Each RG number denotes a unique set of
physical specifications.

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Figure 7.8 BNC connectors

Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNe),

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.

The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman

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Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable performance

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Computer Networks -19CS3602 Department of Computer Science & Engineering 72
Figure 7.14 Fiber construction

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 Figure 7.10 Fiber optics: Bending of light ray
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light.

ray refracts and moves closer to the light bends the ray reflects (makes a
the surface along the interface turn) and travels again in
the denser substance.

Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance
(of a different density), the ray changes direction.
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Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

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Table 7.3 Fiber types

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Figure 7.15 Fiber-optic cable connectors

The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull
locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to
networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45

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Figure 7.16 Optical fiber performance

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7-2 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.

Topics discussed in this section:

Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

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Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
• ground propagation,
• sky propagation, and
• line-of-sight propagation,
• In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions
from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. Distance depends
on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the greater the distance.

• In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere
(the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to
earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.

• In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight

lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other,
Figure 7.17 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

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Figure 7.18 Propagation methods

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Table 7.4 Bands

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Computer Networks -19CS3602 Department of Computer Science & Engineering 92
TRANSMISSION
MODES
The transmission of binary data across a link can be
accomplished in
either parallel or serial mode.
Parallel Transmission
Here multiple bits are sent with each clock.
Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups
of n
bits each.
Use n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit has its
own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each
clock tick from one device to another.
 Advantage:
▪ Speed : Parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed
by a factor of n over serial transmission.

Disadvantage:
▪ Cost : Parallel transmission requires n communication lines
just to
transmit the data stream.
Serial Transmission
Here 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
One bit follows another, so we need only one communication
channel
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating
devices .
 Advantage:
▪ The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with
only one communication channel.
▪ Serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over
parallel by roughly a factor of n
Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways:
1. Asynchronous
2. Synchronous
3. Isochronous.
Asynchronous
Transmission
In this mode we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or
more stop
bit (1s) at the end of each byte.
is so named Asynchronous transmission because the timing of a
signal is unimportant.

Information is received and translated by agreed upon

patterns.
Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream in to bytes.
Without synchronization, the receiver cannot usetiming to
predict
when the next group will arrive.
To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an
extra bit is added to the beginning of each byte. This bit, usually
a 0, is called the start bit.
In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a
gap of varying duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle
channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.
The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the beginning
and
end of each byte and allow it to synchronize with the data stream.
When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a timer and begins
counting bits as they come in. After n bits, the receiver looks for a
stop bit. As soon as it detects the stop bit, it waits until it detects the
Synchronous
Transmission
Here the bit stream is combined into longer “frames,” which may
contain
multiple bytes.
Each byte, is introduced onto the transmission link without
a gap
between it and the next one.
It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for
decoding purposes.
Here we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or
gaps. It
is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the
received information is completely dependent on the ability of the
receiving device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they come in.
Advantage :
•Speed : With no extra bits or gaps to introduce at the sending end
and remove at the receiving end, and, by extension, with fewer bits
to move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than
asynchronous transmission.
Isochronous Transmission
This mode provides synchronization for the entire stream of bits.
It is used with real time audio and video applications.
In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between
frames are
not acceptable, synchronous transmission fails.
For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30
images per
second; they must be viewed at the same rate.
If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there
should be no delays between frames.

For this type of application, synchronization between

characters is
not enough; the entire stream of bits must be synchronized.
The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive
at a fixed rate.
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 Data and
Signals Physical
Layer-1
Data need to be transmitted and received, but the media have to
change data to signals.

Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog
or digital in form.

Analog data refers to information that is continuous.

For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second
hands gives information in a continuous form; the movements of the
hands are continuous.

Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.

For example, digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will
change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.

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2
 Analog and Digital Signals

Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice,

take on continuous values.

Digital data are the data stored in computer memory in the

form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal

An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over

a period of time. As the wave moves from value A to value
B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of
values along its path.

A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited

number of defined values. Although each value can be any
number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
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3
Figure 3.2: Comparison of analog and digital
signals

Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take continuous
values.
Digital data have discrete states and take discrete
values.
 Periodic and Nonperiodic
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a
measurable time frame, called a period, and repeats
that pattern over subsequent identical periods.

The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.

A non periodic signal changes without exhibiting a

pattern or cycle that repeats over time.

Both analog and digital signals can be

periodic or non
periodic.

In data communication, we commonly use periodic

analog signals and non periodic digital signals.
 Sine
Wave

The sine wave is the most fundamental form of

a periodic analog signal.

Valu
e

•••
Time

A sine wave can be represented by three parameters:

the peak amplitude, the frequency ,and the phase.
Peak
Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value
of its highest intensity, proportional to the energy it
carries

Peak
amplitude

Peak
amplitude

Figure 3.4: Two signals with two different

Period and
Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a
signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s.
Frequency and period are the inverse of each
other.
Phas
e The term phase, or phase shift, describes the position
of the
waveform relative to time 0.
• A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero
amplitude. The amplitude is increasing.

•A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak

amplitude.
The amplitude is decreasing.
• A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero

amplitude. The amplitude is decreasing.

Another way to look at the phase is in terms of shift or

offset. We can say that

• A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.

• A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by ¼ cycle
However, note that the signal does not really exist before time
0.
 Digital
Signals

In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information

can
also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as
zero
voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we
can send
more than 1 bit for each level.
8.Complexi
ty
A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple
one.
For example, a scheme that uses four signal levels is more
difficult to
interpret than one that uses only two levels.

Line Coding Schemes

Unipolar
Scheme
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of
the time
axis
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero)
Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a
non-return-to- zero (NRZ) scheme in which the positive
voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0.
It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at
the
middle of the bit.
Polar
Schemes
In polar schemes, the voltages are on both sides of the time
axis.
For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the
voltage
level for 1 can be
negative.
Non-Return-to-Zero
(NRZ)
In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of voltage
amplitude.
We can have two versions of polar NRZ:
• NRZ-L (NRZ-Level): the level of the voltage determines the
value
of the bit
• NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert):the change or lack of change in the
level of
the voltage determines the value of the
The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender
and receiver clocks are not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has
ended and the next bit is starting. One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme,
which uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
Return-to-Zero
(RZ)
Uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during
the bit.

As shown in the figure the signal goes to 0 in the middle of each

bit. It remains there until the beginning of the next bit.
The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two signal changes to encode a
bit and therefore occupies greater bandwidth.
Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester
The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea
of
NRZ-L are combined into the Manchester scheme.
In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into
two
halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half
and moves to the other level in the second half. The transition
at the
middle of the bit provides synchronization.

Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the

ideas of
RZ and NRZ-I. There is always a transition at the middle of the
bit, but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the
bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1,
Bipolar
Schemes
In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary),
there are
three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the
voltage level for the other element alternates between
positive and negative.
Two variations of bipolar encoding: AMI and pseudoternary
In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes
from
telegraphy and means 1.
So AMI means alternate 1 inversion. A neutral zero voltage
represents binary 0. Binary 1s are represented by alternating
positive and negative voltages.
A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which
the 1 bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded
which the 1 bit is encoded as a zero
voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as
alternating positive and negative voltages.
Summary of line coding schemes